Identification Of Unknown Organisms And Two Eukaryotes

Identification Of Unknown Organisms And Two Eukaryotes
Identification of Unknown Organisms
Benjamin Nibarger
Professor Hoffman
Monday 11:15 AM
Group Members – Jamie Jerome, Natalie Perez, Ruth Pinzon
September 27, 2014
Introduction
The purpose of this study is to identify four unknown organisms. The unknown organisms have been
assigned randomly to six–research groups by Professor Hoffman. Each research group was provided
two eukaryotes and two prokaryotes. The unknown organisms will fall into the following
classifications: bacteria, algae, fungi, or protozoans. All living organisms are organized into one of
three domains of life, Bacteria, Archaea, and Eukarya.
The Domain Bacteria
Bacteria and Archaea are prokaryotic, which are mostly single–celled incomplex microorganisms.
Both Bacteria and Archaea have a variety of prokaryotes classified in multiple kingdoms (Reece, et
al., Campbell Biology, 2014). There are a number of scientists who believe that Archaea cells may
be the precursor to Eukaryotic cells and that they have more in common with Eukaryotes than
Prokaryotes (Madigan, Martinko, & Dunlap, 2009).
Prokaryotes are ubiquitous, successfully adapting to diverse environments as well as developing
symbiotic relationships with host organisms (Lengeler, Drews, & Schlegel, 1999). Prokaryotes may
have both autotrophic and heterotrophic characteristics. A cyanobacteria is photosynthetic,
commonly called blue–green algae, and may produce toxins (Crayton, 1993). Bacteria are most
commonly associated in the general
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Geckos Research Paper
SOUMYA RANJAN SAHOO 711CH1025 NIT, ROURKELA SYNTHETIC GECKO ADHESIVE
ATTACHMENTS Patent Number: US20120107570 A1 Publication Date: Mar3, 2012 Inventors:
Russell Frederick Ross, Ronald S. Fearing, Brian G. Bush ABSTRACT: The study of the
mechanism of the controlled adhesion of geckos is necessary for the design and fabrication of bio–
inspired dry and reversible adhesive surfaces. The maximum performances in gecko–inspired
devices are depended on Distributing loads between patches. The adhesive material is formed when
a substantially planar substrate is molded to define the setae. In this initial condition, the setae are
positioned in the plane of the substrate. The substrate is checked by physical manipulation (e.g.,
folded, bent, corrugated, ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
To structure the sticky material, a generously planar substrate may be at first formed to characterize
the setae. In this starting setup, the setae are situated significantly in the plane of the substrate. The
substrate is then controlled (e.g., pivoted, collapsed, bowed, folded, and so forth.) so that the setae
get to be stretched out in an ostensibly heading from the plane of arrangement. Besides everything
else, this gives a threedimensional material having improved cement properties. Usefully, the
development procedure can be a relative straightforward and modest two steps methodology
including a first trim venture of a planar substrate emulated by a control procedure to broaden the
manufactured setae from the plane. A mixture of diverse creation methods may be utilized to at first
structure the planar substrate that characterizes setae. Case in point, surface micro–machining of
shaped substrates may be utilized as a part of conjunction with lithographic covers to characterize
the stalk and spatulae of every seta. Gecko–like sticky material can likewise be utilized to join
flapless retentive articles, for example, clean napkins and pantiliners to the underpants. In such
cases,

Length Mass and Density Lab Report
Determination of Length, Mass, and Density
Table of Contents
1 – Introduction ............................................................... Page 3
2 – Theory ..................................................................... Page 3
3 – Experimental Procedure and Results .............................. Page 6
4 – Discussion ................................................................ Page 9
5 – Conclusion ............................................................... Page 9
6 – Bibliography ......................................................... Page 10 1– Introduction
The purpose of this experiment is to learn how use a variety of tools that will aid in the gathering of
data. This data is then used to calculate different measurements including, volume and density. The
experiment will also further understanding of measurement errors using the data collected.
2 – Theory
Along with the use of tools for basic ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
3.1–Vernier Caliper
First the Vernier Caliper (V.Caliper) was used to measure the diameter of a coin. This was done
three times and the measurements as well as the average measurement are recorded in this table
labeled Table 1.
Measurement 1 19.0mm Average
Measurement 2
Measurement 3
Table 1 – Coin diameter measurements using the Vernier Caliper
3.2–Micrometer caliper
Next the Micrometer caliper (M. Caliper) was calibrated and the zero correction was determined to
be +0.020mm. The M. Caliper was then used to find the diameter of a sample of human hair and
coated and uncoated optical fibers. The Zero Correction was added to all measurements and used to
determine average diameters or percent differnces. The results are recorded in Table 2.
Human Hair

Coated Fiber
Uncoated Fiber
Percent Difference
Table 2–measured diameters of human hair, coated and uncoated optical fiber, and percent
differences for all
3.3–Vernier and Micrometer Caliper
In this step both the V. Caliper and M. Caliper were used. The M. Caliper was used to measure the
thickness of a single sheet of paper in a college physics

The Milling Machine And Drilling
In order to use the milling machine to manufacture a 2 in base by ½ in height by ¾ in depth piece,
we needed to be very precise and meticulous whit our dimensions. The process required measuring
the piece in every procedure. From the beginning, when we cut our piece from the steel bar using
the Band Saw machine. In the end when we drilled four different sizes of holes in the piece using
two different techniques; drilling using the milling machine and drilling by hand. Before we started
machining, we were instructed in how to perform measurements using calipers and micrometers, but
we mainly use micrometers during the procedure. Then, after a clear explanation of the procedure,
measurements and machine uses we performed our first cut using the Band Saw by cutting a small
piece from it. The edges of the steel piece weren't smooth so we machine it using the Milling
machine, just one side. In order to get the requirement dimensions we set the machine in Low speed
because it is better for rough cuts, high speed for small cuts.
The initial height was .680 in so two rough cuts were performed one of .100 in and a second of .060
in both around 80 MPH. A third cut was necessary to get the proper height, which was only .020 in;
it was a simple cut so it was necessary a high speed that was around 200. After this, the height was
finally ½ in.
Now, we needed to get the correct width. It was required to be .750 in. The piece was .958 in, so it
was necessary to machine .208. First,

Dog Allergens Essay
Although domestic dogs (Canis familiaris) are among the most abundant of household pets, the
prevalence of clinically relevant allergic diseases caused by dogs is lower than that for cats. Still,
senisitivity to dog allergens can be a major cause of allergic symptoms (and even severe
manifestations such as asthma) in susceptible individuals, and it is thought that up to 20% of the
population in Western countries exhibit some kind of allergy to dogs.
Major dog allergens
Three major dog allergens have been described in the literature – Can f 1 (Canis familiaris allergen
1), Can f 2 (Canis familiaris allergen 2) and serum albumin. They can be found in saliva, urine,
serum and dander of the dogs. Can f 1 is a major dog allergen that accounts for approximately 50%
of patients allergic to dogs and it exhibits dimeric structure. ... Show more content on
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There is also evidence of a dog allergen that can cross–react in 25% of Fel d 1 allergic patients (i.e.
patients allergic to cats).
Dander from all dog breeds is allergenic – including poodle – with notable differences in the number
and quantity of allergens. It has been shown that skin tests conducted in different patients can vary
across various dog breeds, although one study has shown that such variations did not correlate with
the patient's own perception of specific breed allergy.
Hence even though different dog breeds have anecdotally been considered "hypoallergenic" by
patients and dog breeders alike, breed–specific allergens have not been isolated. Several studies
have probed for potential quantitative or qualitative differences in allergen production between
various dog breeds with contradictory results for hair length and protein patterns.
Disease

Cellular Diversity : Study Identify Unknown Organisms
CELLULAR DIVERSITY: STUDY TO IDENTIFY UNKNOWN MICROORGANISMS
INTRODUCTION: There are many reasons to identify unknown microorganisms, but the primary
aim of this work was to differentiate between types of cells, observing cell structures such as cell
wall, nucleus and other unique features of microorganisms, learning different techniques such as
proper handling and use of microscope, knowledge to prepare a smear from broth, gram staining,
measuring microorganisms using ocular micrometer and to learn aseptic (sterile) techniques.
The cell is the smallest basic structural, functional and biological unit of life. As we know variety of
different types of cell, they all differ in their type on the basis of their structure and function thus ...
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In the Eukaryotic plant cell, Cell wall is mainly composed of major carbohydrates such as cellulose,
pectin and hemi–cellulose, which is also known as polyose and some other components in lesser
quantity. Like plant cell algae has a cell wall too, which is composed of either polysaccharides
(cellulose) or glycoproteins or both. True fungi have cell wall composed of chitin, glucans and
proteins.[ http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cell_wall#Algal_cell_walls] In this study I will shed light on
some basic objectives studied through out this journey and then I 'll make a motion towards my
experience with the strange unknown microorganisms. Before I started my research by getting to
know my unknown specimens, all of our classes were given lectures to give us sufficient
information on some of the objectives important to this study. Some of the primary objectives I have
already covered in the above mentioned paragraph and some are coming next.
Ace of the aims of this lab research was to spot different types of eukaryotic cells.
There are numerous different types of eukaryotic cells known, though our focus was mainly on
recognizing four following types.
Yeast: Yeast are unicellular or single–celled microorganisms. These are member of fungi kingdom.
Yeasts are basically decomposers. As far as their ecological role is concern It would not be correct to
say that yeasts are completely heterotrophic because

Characteristics Of Animal Cells
"our body is made of trillions of cells" (Gottschling). Cells are important because "it helps
understand how organisms, including humans function" (Gottschling). Most people have the
knowledge that every cell that are in life have difference function. Yet, they don't know what they
are. This essay is going to focus on listing and explaining the differences between animal, plant, and
bacteria cells. Animal cells are "eukaryotic cells, or cells with a membrane–bound nucleus (Bailey).
This cell contains three cells out seven features. The features that animal cells contains are cell
nucleus, mitochondria and ribosomes. Cell nucleus "controls cell activity and contains the genetic
material" (Plant, Animal and Bacterial Cells). Mitochondria "provide the cells' energy requirement"
(Plant, Animal and Bacterial Cells). Lastly, the ribosome is "present in plant and animal cells are the
larger type of ribosomes but are the smallest and most numerous of the eukaryotic cell organelles
(Plant, Animal and Bacterial Cells). Animal cells doesn't contain a cell wall, plasmids, chloroplasts
and permanent vacuole" (Plant, Animal and Bacterial Cells). The size of this cells "range from 10 to
30 micrometers in length (Bailey). The Animal cells tends to "come in various sizes and tend to have
round or irregular shapes (Bailey). Lastly, the way that animal cell gets energy is by "the form of the
complex carbohydrate glycogen" (Bailey). Plant cells are eukaryotic cells, which have a true nucleus

Testing the Strength of Plant Fibers Essay
Title: Testing the strength of plant fibers
Objectives: To develop knowledge and understanding of the strength of plant fiber in a plant stem.
To develop problem solving and experimental skills, for example, information is accurately
processed, using calculations where appropriate, experimental procedures are planned, designed and
evaluated properly, the use of microscopes, producing valid results and recording results. To develop
techniques of measuring the size of plant fibers under microscope using stage micrometer and
eyepiece graticule.
Introduction:
Pumpkin plant
Pumpkin is of the genus Cucurbita and family Cucurbitaceae . Pumpkins are grown all around the
world for a variety of reasons ranging from agricultural purposes ... Show more content on
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Internal structure of a stem Source: http://www.daviddarling.info/encyclopedia/P/plant_stem.html
Mature sclerenchyma cells are dead and have thickened secondary cell walls impregnated with
lignin. It is elastic. The cell cavity or lumen is very small or may disappear completely. There are
two types of sclerenchyma cells. They are sclereids and fibres. Sclereid cells are irregular in shape,
thick, hard, and lignified. Sclereids are commonly found in fruit and seeds. Fibres have tapering
ends, thick walls and rather small lumen. Secondary cell wall impregnated with lignin are also
present. Simple pits are also present. It is abundant in vascular tissue of angiosperm such as
flowering plants. Sclerenchyma is important in supporting tissues in plants. Sclereids account for the
hardness in seeds of the plant. Fibre plays a role in transporting water in the plants.
Xylem is located in the middle section of the of a plant stem. It can be found close with other
transport tissues in plants such as phloem –which transports sugars and amino acids in the plant. In
non–woody plants, xylem forms bundle with phloem in order words the vascular bundles. Xylem is
thickened with deposits of lignin that provides mechanical support in plants. Protoxylem(primary
xylem) can be grown into metaxylem(secondary xylem) by secondary growth in the actively
dividing vascular cambium. It is found in vascular plants which is responsible

Disadvantages Of Optical Fiber
Introduction Ideas and information travel in different ways. In our daily lives, we may not realize it
but the cables around us have great importance in order to receive and send messages. Most
importantly, a fiber–optic cable carries information between two places using entirely light based or
in other words, optical technology. I will address how the optical fibers work, the variety of uses,
and lastly, the advantages and disadvantages of this technology.
The Mechanics and Physicality of Optical Fibers
Firstly, an optical fiber is flexible and transparent fiber which is made of drawing glass or plastic.
Optical fibers have a diameter that is slightly thicker than that of a human hair. Most optical fibers
used in communication have the diameter of 0.25 mm to 0.5 mm including outer coating. Optical
Fibre communication takes place between 0.8 micrometers to 1.7 micrometers of a wavelength of
the electromagnetic ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
A few disadvantages are that is difficult to splice, expensive to install, highly susceptible and it can't
be curved. Optical fibers lose light due to scattering which makes it difficult to splice. The physical
arc of this cable is also very limited which means that is can break or get damaged easily. The
optical fibers are more expensive to install, and they have to be installed by the specialists. They are
not as robust as the wires. Special test equipment is often required for the optical fiber. In addition,
according to specialists, "The fiber optic cable is a small and compact cable, and it is highly
susceptible to becoming cut or damaged during installation or construction activities. The fiber optic
cables can provide tremendous data transmission capabilities. So, when the fiber optic cabling is
chosen as the transmission medium, it is necessary to address restoration, backup, and

Particulate Matter Essay
ABSTRACT:
Particulate matter removal from the industrial flue gas sources is one of the biggest challenges of the
modern industrialized period. Particulate matter is a mixture of both solid and liquid that is
suspended in air and is normally emitted into the air by the direct source of emission [1]. Particulate
matter is of various sizes but PM10 and PM2.5 are commonly used to explain the PM concentration
in the air and is normally required to be reported as an air pollution control standard. Particulate
matters (PM) causes various health–related problems if their level is not controlled in the air. In a
joint report, prepared jointly by European Centre for Environment and Health and WHO [1], PM
matter especially smaller PM2.5 causes serious health risks and as a result, it is noticed that the life
expectancy in 25 European countries has decreased about 8.6 months. There are variety of
equipment used to control the particulate matter in the emission sources such as settling chambers,
wet scrubber, electrostatic precipitator, filters and cyclone separators. Cyclone separators are most
widely used to remove the particulate matter from the pollution source because of their low capital
and operating cost, and simplicity in operation, however, their low efficiency is one of the major
challenges.
This paper will review and cover the major research that is taking place to increase the overall
capture efficiency of the cyclone separator without compromising the pressure drop and the life of
the cyclone separator. The efficiency of the cyclone separator can be increased by mainly by
increasing the velocity, changing the geometry or applying some external force such as electrical or
magnetic force. The major focus of research in the history was on the modification of geometry and
shape of the cyclone separator, however, changing the geometry has its own limitations, that are
mainly pressure drop (energy cost) and life of a cyclone [15].Modern researchers have changed the
approach of increasing the efficiency by adding electrical and magnetic forces that will increase the
efficiency without affecting the basic design of the cyclone separator and this is the main area of
interest of this paper. Moreover, the paper

Flooring In Mlh-120 Summary
The renovation of the flooring in MLH–120 was to update classrooms and labs to current standards
because current classrooms and labs simply don't meet the new requirements of the ADA
(Americans with Disabilities Act). Data was collected through different means of measurement of
the classroom, tables, bolts and nuts. Tools that were used in the data collection was a micrometer,
vernier calipers, meter stick, and a fiberglass tape measure. Measurements were conducted three
times by team members, which reduced the margin for error in data collection. These tools were
used to evaluate and to give concrete data and measurements of the classroom, tables, bolts and
nuts. First measurements were taken from two hex bolts and its corresponding hex

Comparing The Zeeman Effect Of Different Wavelengths Of Light
Comparing the Zeeman Effect of Different Wavelengths of Light
Group 32: Matthew Howard, Harriet King, Daniel Moore
Abstract
The experiment's purpose was to observe the Zeeman effect on light through two different colour
filters (a yellow filter and a green filter) to see if there a significant change in the fringe pattern
between the two colours when the magnetic field is at different values.
The Zeeman effect is when light from a gaseous light source travels through an external applied
magnetic field, and spectral lines split into symmetrically distributed components around the
position of the zero field (also known as the "parent" line). This was investigated by creating a
magnetic field and observing the fringes produced by the light source through a lens and colour
filter. The distance between two fringes was measured at different values of magnetic field strength.
In general, the fringes grew closer together as the field strength increased, and then the satellites
crossed at a certain point and the fringes began to move away from each other again.
After this, the Landé g–factor was calculated. This allows the split spectral lines to be written in
terms of the z–component of the total angular momentum. The Landé g–factor was calculated to be
____
After this, the wavelengths corresponding to all possible transition lines were calculated for three
values of the magnetic field strength – 0 T, 0.5 T, and 1 T. This was done for both the yellow light
and the green light, and

What Does PM Affect Public Health?
Among all the air pollutants in ambient air, PM affects more people than any other pollutant. The
effects of PM on the public health occur at experienced levels of exposure currently by most urban
and rural inhabitants in both developed and developing countries. (Bhola Gurjar, 2010) The major
toxic elements of PM included sulfates, nitrates; ammonia, sodium chloride, and carbon, mineral
organic and inorganic substances are inhaled toxic air with every breath. Chronic exposure of these
particles can increase the chances for the public to develop the following medical issues:
–Cardiovascular disease
–Respiratory disease
–Lung cancer
Indoor exposure of these toxic fumes caused by the combustion of solid fuels from open fires or
kitchen stoves

Description Of A Study Area
CHAPTER THREE 3. MATERIALS AND METHODS 3.1. Description of the study area 3.1.1.
Location Adama Zuria district (Adama and surrounding district) is one of the districts in East shewa
zone of the Oromia Regional State of Ethiopia. The Administrative center of the district is Adama,
which is located southeast of Addis Ababa approximately about 90 km, capital city of Ethiopia
having a latitude and longitude of 8° 14′ 0″−8° 43′ 0″N and 39° 6′ 0″−39° 25′ 0″ E, respectively.
And lies at an altitude ranges from 1415 to 2505 m above sea level and covering a total area of
901.5 km2. It is located within Great Ethiopian Rift Valley and one of 278 districts (Woredas) in
Oromia National Regional State Ethiopia. Shapes and location of the area is shown on Figure1.
Figure 1: Location Map of the Study Area 3.1.2. Topography Topography is the study of the shape
and feature of the surface of the earth and other related phenomena/it is an integral part of the land
surface. It includes such as landforms, elevation, latitude, longitude, topographic maps and etc. So,
Adama Zuria District has broad flat area. However, in its northwest part there is relatively rugged
topography. It is bordered on the south by the Arsi Zone, on the Southwest by koka reservoir which
separates it from Dugda Bora, on the west by Lome on the north by the Amhara Region, and on the
East by Boset; the Awash River, the only important

Bacterial Diversity Lab
Introduction
In effort to show that I know the topic of the lab that I missed, I must write a 1200–word paper on
bacterial diversity. To write a paper on bacterial diversity I must define what bacterial diversity is,
according to the lab manual "prokaryotic, unicellular organisms are represented by two biological
kingdoms: archaebacterial and eubacteria. Their cells are typically quite small, and lack complex,
membrane bound organelles. The few non membrane bound organelles that prokaryotic cells do
have are different in size and /or structure than those of eukaryotic cells" (2017) in addition to the
lab manual classification of bacterial cells comes down to the bacterial cells colonies. According to
our text book (essentials of the living ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Some of the more common colors for bacterial pigmentation would be yellow, brown, red, and
white. Bacteria that have a yellow pigmentation would be micrococcus luteus. Along with yellow
pigmentation, staphylococcus aureus has a brown color to its colonies. Serratia marcescens has a red
colony pigmentation. Colonies that have a white pigmentation are also known to be non–pigmented
like that of the staphylococcus epidermidis colonies.
Bacterial Surface Bacterial colonies are frequently shiny and smooth in appearance, E.coli would be
one example of a bacteria with a shiny and smooth appearance. Another example of a bacterial
surface would be that of dull appearance that shown in bacillus subtilis.
Bacterial Shape and

Measuring The Volume And Mass Of A Cylinder, A Sphere And...
Objective This experiment will involve measuring the volume and mass of a cylinder, a sphere and a
wooden block. Based on the mass and volumes of these objects, the density of these objects can be
calculated. The equation for the density of an object is density =mass/volume. In the density
equation there is a direct proportional relationship between the mass of an object and its volume. For
instance, if an object has its mass decreased, its volume will also decrease.
The experiment used a Vernier caliper to measure the height and the diameter of a cylinder. A
Vernier caliper was also used to measure the diameter of the sphere. A meter stick was used to
measure the length, width, and height of the wooden block. The precision of an instrument such as a
Vernier caliper or a meter stick determines how many significant figures the data is presented in.
The mass of the objects being tested will be measured using an electronic balance. The equations
used in this experiment to determine the volumes were the volume of the cylinder: πr2h; volume of
the block: (length)*(width)*(height); and the volume of the sphere: (4π/3) (r3). The volumes of
these objects will be divided by their respective masses to determine the density of each object.
The final part of the experiment will involve using a micrometer caliper to estimate how many pages
are present in the physics lab manual. Accuracy in this experiment will be seen when the calculated
density of the various objects in

Lab Report On : Dowel Measurement, Probability, And,...
Department of Civil Engineering
Auburn University
Laboratory Report
On
Dowel Measurement,
Probability, and
Usability of a Specimen
Submitted to
Joseph Broderick
Submitted by
Aaron M. Roy
Group Members
David Allain
Augustin Arguello
Hayden Yendle
September 2, 2016
Abstract The lab uses the measurements of a wooden dowel in length and diameter to collect data in
order to interpret data in report form. The data is used to produce statistical data and how to
correctly present it. A ruler and micrometer were used to measure the dimensions. Spreadsheets are
then constructed in order to generate standard deviation, mean, median, mode, frequency, as well as
variation of length, diameter, volume, and cross sectional area of the ... Show more content on
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Theoretically from the recorded data the calculated mean, median, and mode will be the most
accurate representation of the real world value. The difference between the highest recorded value
and lowest recorded value is the range in the set of data. Standard deviation (s) is a quantity
calculated to indicate an extend of deviation for a group of data as a whole (Marshall). This is
calculated using: s=√((∑_(i=1)^n▒〖(x–¯x)〗^2 )/(n–1)) (Equation 2)
The coefficient of variation (CV) represents a percentage of standard deviation to the mean and can
be calculated by dividing the standard deviation calculated using Equation 2 by the expected value.

The equation can be calculated by:
CV= s/¯x*100 (Equation 3)
The mean area (A) can be calculated by using the following Equation 4, where d is average diameter
of the measured dowel. The volume of the dowel is then calculated by multiplying the area by the
length.
A=(πd^2)/4 (Equation 4)
V=A*L (Equation 5)
The standard deviation of the mean area 〖(S〗_A) and standard deviation of the volume (S_v) are
determined using the following equations

The Effect Of Nitrogen On The Growth Of A Sapling Essay
Introduction
Nitrogen is an essential nutrient for plant growth, being a key component in the process of
photosynthesis and is a part of the chlorophyll molecule. Nitrogen acts to increase the amount of the
green chlorophyll in plant leaves which allows them to absorb the optimum amount of sunlight by
increasing the surface area of leaves to hold the chlorophyll and optimum amounts of nitrogen in a
plant allow it to produce enough foliage in order for it to successfully photosynthesise efficiently,
therefore producing the right energy it needs to function.
I am interested to see how the levels of nitrogen in the young saplings, measured from the leaves of
randomly chosen plants, affects the rate at which they grow around the radius of their trunks and
whether there is a significant relationship between the two. I would expect that certain levels of
nitrogen are the most optimal for the growth of a sapling where enough is present to allow the most
efficient production of photosynthesis in its leaves as the energy produced in this process would
allow growth throughout the rest of the plant. At very low levels I could expect growth rates of
saplings to be very slow or not at all and as the nitrogen levels in a sapling's leaves increases for the
growth rate to increase to a certain extent. There would however be likely a point where an increase
in nitrogen levels does not mean a higher growth rate as too much can be detrimental to other
components in a sapling's health,

The Microbial Pathogen Salmonella
Sickness and disease has always been a concern within our society but in recent years treatment and
prevention has become more difficult. Resources are being spent on trying to develop vaccinations
and antibiotics for wildly diverse and common infections, and none more than the prevalence of the
microbial pathogen Salmonella. Our understanding of this pathogen has only reached infancy stage,
leaving a high demand for further understanding of the organism, pathways of infection, and its
potential effect on our society. The bacteria Salmonella is rod–shaped, Gram–negative staining and
has flagella exposed on all sides. An average cell has a diameter of 0.7–1.5 micrometers, and a
length of 2–5 micrometers. These bacteria are facultative anaerobes, ... Show more content on
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Freezing the food may kill some of the bacteria and inhibit growth. (F. W. Schofield, 1945) Treating
with heat has become the basic form of treating Salmonella, but in some foods cells can become
heat resistance, such as the case with peanut butter. Antibodies and vaccines have been developed
that protect children from bacterial infection caused by Salmonella. The largest preventive measure
taken thus far has been the collaborative approach in food safety handling and processing, applying
preventive measures in food safety in all stages of the food supply chain. Further strategies for
reducing the spread of Salmonella include educating the consumers, foodservice establishments, and
food workers on public

The Bacteria's Environment And Its Unusual Ability May...
Alcanivorax borkumensis is a bacteria that found in aquatic areas of the world. It is an unusual
bacteria because it has the ability to break down oil found in the oceans. In the following pages, I
will discuss the size and shape of the bacteria. Also, I will discuss how the bacteria's environment
and its unusual ability may help mankind in controlling pollution of the world's oceans.
First, we will discuss the basic makeup of the bacteria. A. borkumensis is a rod shaped bacteria with
no flagella that was discovered in 1998. It is aerobic and halophilic, meaning it gains energy from
oxygen and tends to thrive in salty environments, such as seas and oceans. Also, A. borkumensis is
considered an alkane degrader, as it can eat alkanes, and use this as a source of energy (Alcanivorax,
n.d.). A single A. borkumensis is 2.0 to 3.0 micrometers in length; unless they survived solely on an
n–alkane diet, where they were found to only be 1.0 to 1.5 micrometers in length. The bacteria is
roughly 0.4 to 0.7 micrometers in diameter (Buss, 2010).
Now that we know how the bacteria survives, we will discuss the basic components of its
environment. It was first discovered in sediments found in the North Sea, where there is an
abundance of oil and gas wells. A. borkumensis is found naturally in seawater. While A.
borkumensis has been found in non–polluted water, it is most commonly found in oceans that
contain petroleum oil. This oil can be found naturally or from oil spills. It is found in

Armed Forces Health Surveillance Center And The Department...
Based on these concerns, the Armed Forces Health Surveillance Center (AFHSC) and the
Department of Defense (DoD) Center for Deployment Health Research, conducted epidemiologic
studies to determine whether adverse health conditions of US service members assigned to locations
with burn pits could be attributed to the burn pit emissions. The study looked at respiratory
symptoms and diseases, chronic multi–symptom illness (CMI), cardiovascular diseases, lupus, sleep
apnea, rheumatoid arthritis, and birth outcomes of infants of parents who deployed. Although, the
result of the study was that all health outcomes of personnel that deployed to areas with a burn pit
were about the same or lower compared to personnel that never deployed (Armed Forces ... Show
more content on Helpwriting.net ...
P. Engelbrecht et al., 2009). Geological dust exists naturally in the environment and is difficult to
control on a large scale in arid conditions such as Afghanistan where dust storms are typical.
However, watering, laying gravel or asphalt, and limiting movement can be used to limit the amount
of airborne geological dust that enters the breathing zone. Burn pits are doctrinally used early in
U.S. military deployments when waste management systems such as recycling, land–filling, and
incinerations is not an option to dispose of the majority of solid waste (mixed waste) (Institute of
Medicine, 2011). Disposing of mixed waste (metal, plastic, rubber, electronics, batteries, fuel etc.)
through the use of burn pits creates a plume of smoke that may include lead, zinc, and cadmium as
airborne particulates and cause potential health effects if inhaled (Johann P Engelbrecht, McDonald,
Gillies, & Gertler, 2008). Health conditions related to the inhalation of air with elevated PM has
been correlated to events where temperature inversions occurred. Meteorological conditions in
Afghanistan where inversions are most likely occur from fall to spring (Johann P Engelbrecht et al.,

Nerve Cell
My cell that I am writing this report is onon is the nerve cell. Nerve cells areMy cell is found inside
of animals in the skin of the being. Nerve cellsMy cell is are different from other cells in the fact
that the layout of the cell is very asymmetrical. They also are very diverse and so my report in this
one will be a generic nerve cell. In this cell there is several different specialized organellescells that
serve a few different jobs. These organellescells are endosomes,Neurofilaments, axon, and nerve
endings. The endosomes carries to the lysosomes. The next is (does not need capitalization)
Peroxisomes. They oxidize certain material inside of the cell. After that it is the (does not need
capitalization) Neurofilaments. They fix up the structure of the cells and keep it together. The
function of (do not use personal pronouns) my cell is to tell the body about pain or what the being is
touching with (do not use personal pronouns) his cells. (do not use personal pronouns) My cell
works with other cells because it tells the body when it is in ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
It is very (eliminate word for something else) weirdly shaped and is thus very recognizable. The
next is that fact that there is a lot of different types of nerve cells and not just one. Also due to this
they can be found throughoutappear all around the body, from the spinal cord to the scalp. The
nucleus in the cell can be as small as 3 micrometers to 18 micrometers. Another weird fact is that it
has a lipid bilayer, which is a very good insulator apparently. Related to insulation and electricity is
the fact that the cell produces less than 1/10 of a volt because of interactions between organelles and
other molecules in the cell. AnotherNext fact is that no nerve cells lack a soma, but some of them
lack an axon or a dendrite, which is a section of the cell that specialises in a certain aspect if it is

Thickness In Millimeters Lab Report
9.) Calculations h = height or thickness
D = M/V
V = M/D
L*W*H = M/D
Trial 1:
This calculation solves for the height (h), or thickness, of the aluminum foil.
(29.97 cm * 30.50 cm * h cm) = (3.82 g/2.70 cm2)
(914.085 cm2 * h cm) = (3.82 g/2.70 cm2) h cm = 0.00155 cm
The following calculations express the height (h)/thickness in millimeters and micrometers.
(0.00155 cm * (10 mm/1 cm)) = 0.0155 mm
(0.00155 cm * (10,000 μm/1 cm)) = 15.5 μm
Trial 2:
This calculation solves for the height (h), or thickness, of the aluminum foil.
(9.60 cm * 6.10 cm * h cm) = (0.23 g/2.70 cm2)
(58.56 cm2 * h cm) = (0.23 g/2.70 cm2) h cm = 0.0015 cm
The following calculations express the height (h)/thickness in millimeters and micrometers.
(0.0015 cm * (10 mm/1 ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Three different pieces of aluminum foil were used for three different trials in order to determine the
thickness. Data was then collected by using an electric balance for mass and a standard ruler for
length and width. The formulas used were area = length * width, volume = length * width * height,
and density = mass / volume. Thickness (height) was found simply by dividing mass by density,
width, and length. The average of our three trials was not only calculated, but also found via the
graph and slope.. A graph of area vs. mass was made with data points from our three trials. Using
linear fit, the graph showed that the slope, which was then divided by the density. This calculation
isolated the height in centimeters. The slope of the graph was 0.004181 g/cm2. This value shows the
relationship between the area of the aluminum foil and its mass. The values plotted in this graph
were used to calculate the thickness of the aluminum foil via an alternative method. Additionally,
the graph had a correlation value of 1.00. This means that area and mass have a strong, direct
relationship. According to pure calculations based upon the data alone, the thickness of the
aluminum foil was 0.0016 cm. This is identical to the value of thickness provided by the aluminum
foil company, Reynold's. According to calculations using the slope,

Bacteria and Fungi Research Paper
What are bacteria?
Bacteria are very different from viruses. First of all, bacteria are much larger in size. The largest
virus is only as big as the very smallest bacterium (singular for bacteria). But bacteria are still
microscopic and cannot be seen with the naked eye. They are so small that the sizes of bacteria are
measured in micrometers (10,000 micrometers = 1 centimeter). By comparison, the head of a pin is
about 1000 micrometers wide. Though more complex than a virus, the structure of a bacterium is
still relatively simple.
Structure:Most bacteria have an outer, rigid cell wall. This provides shape and support. Lining the
inside of the cell wall is a plasma membrane. This is like the membrane found around all living cells
that ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The combination of these two characteristics gives the final rating of the bacteria's virulence (ability
to cause disease). A species does not necessarily need to have both high invasiveness and high
toxigenicity to be rated highly virulent. One or the other can be high enough to cause the bacterium
to be very virulent. For example, the bacterium Streptococcus pneumoniae (causes pnuemonia) does
not produce a toxin, but it is so highly invasive that it causes the lungs to fill up with fluid from the
immune response. In contrast, the bacteria Clostridium tetani (causes tetanus) is not very invasive,
but it produces a potent toxin that causes damage at a very small concentration.
How does the body fight off a bacterial infection? Again, the body mounts an immune response to
the foreign invader, producing antibodies for immediate help and future protection. Since this
process takes about a week, antibiotics are usually employed in the meantime. Antibiotic drugs are
usually only successful in treating bacterial infections, not viral, or fungal infections. Professionals
are becoming concerned that the overuse of antibiotics when they are not needed may lead to the
mutation of normal bacteria into antibiotic–resistant bacteria. Bacteria are very resilient and have
already

40x Magnification Lab
Conclusion
The purpose of this lab was to introduce students on how to properly use a compound binocular
microscope to observe organisms. Additionally, learning how to find the size of the field of view and
organisms was part of the purpose of this lab. There were two lab observations made, one finding
the diameter of the field of view for each magnification and observing three organisms underneath
the microscope. Upon entering the lab for the clear ruler observations, it was hypothesized that if the
ruler was able to be clearly seen and measurements taken on the 40x magnification then it would be
able to be seen and estimated for all magnifications. That was proven incorrect. The higher
magnifications made the field of view so small on the ruler that an accurate measurement could not
be taken. The ruler was measured under 40x, 100x, and 400x magnification. First, the ruler was
measured under 40x magnification and had a diameter across the field of view of about 4.5
millimeters. The fit number was converted to 4,500 micrometers. When the magnification increased
to 100x magnification, the field of view decreased to 1.8 millimeters in diameter. ... Show more
content on Helpwriting.net ...
Clostridium Tetani is an anaerobic bacteria from the species Clostridium. Clostridium Tetani is
found in soil or in animals and can result in Tetanus, a rare but painful muscular disease that can
lead to respiratory failure and death. The toxin causes tetanus when introduced into damaged or
dead tissue. Approximately 50–75% of patients with generalized tetanus have lockjaw, the inability
to open the mouth. As the disease progresses, patients have generalized muscle rigidity with spasms
in response to stimuli such as touch or noise while suffering with severe pain. The spasms can cause
fractures, tendon ruptures, and respiratory failure. Clostridium Tetani averages between 3–7
micrometers in length, while in this lab it was estimated about ___micrometers

RC Circuits Lab Report
Experiment 5: RC Circuits
Abstract
The purpose of this lab is to learn and understand RC Circuits. An RC circuit is composed of at least
one resistor and at least one capacitor. A capacitor is composed of two plates with either air or an
insulator also known as a dielectric between the plates. We do not want the plates to be touching,
because then we would only have a conductor. The insulator between the plates is also known as the
dialectic, which affect how the capacitor will store charge. In an RC circuit, voltage will flow from
the battery to the capacitor and through the resistor. When the capacitor is charging, the voltage
across the battery is decreasing until the capacitor is fully charged. When the ... Show more content
on Helpwriting.net ...
We used the average half time to calculate the time constant to be 5525 microseconds. Then we use
the average time constant to calculate the capacitance to be 0.55 microfarads. The percent difference
is also 9.5%, which implied that finding the capacitance through this method is valid.
For the second part of the experiment, we created a capacitor by using two sheet of aluminum foil
with the same area and a wax paper. We inserted the wax paper, which is the dialectic, between the
aluminum foils to create a capacitor. Then we connected the capacitor to the RC circuit. In this part,
we need to find the half time, the time constant, and capacitance in order to calculate for the
thickness of the wax paper, or distance between the plates. In order to solve for the distance, we
used the formula C=, which k is the dialectic constant, is the permittivity of free space, A is the area,
and d is the distance between the plates. We rearranged the formula do solve for distance, so we
used the formula, d=We measured the length and width of the plate, so the area is the multiplication
of the length and width of the area plate. After the calculations, we obtain 580 micrometers for the
thickness of the paper while the theoretical thickness is 35 micrometers. The percent difference
between the theoretical and calculated thickness of the wax paper is 180%, which is significant to
indicate that this method does not validate the

Investigating Hooke 's Law And The Euler Bernoulli Bending...
In this lab, deflection and strain are measured in an attempt to confirm Hooke's law and the Euler–
Bernoulli bending beam theory. In addition, the measured data allows us to calculate the modulus of
elasticity (Young's Modulus) or E of the cantilever beam. Through the course of the experiment our
observations revealed that the addition of weights deformed the beam in response to the applied
stress. This deformation can be modeled using the Euler–Bernoulli beam bending theory. Our
experimentation and calculations revealed that our data did indeed prove the theories mentioned in
this lab. Furthermore, our values for the modulus of elasticity or E came within the range of
established values found online.
Engineering involves a wide array of problems that must be overcome. A great deal of time is spent
researching materials and their properties. Materials compromise all aspects of our society, from
buildings to roads to even the equipment that was used in this lab. Problems arise in regards to how
strong or flexible the material is, with the official terms being stress, strain, and elasticity. Improper
use of such materials results in tragedies such as the Tacoma Narrows Bridge in Washington that
failed to due resonance and stress beyond its elastic limit [1].
This lab teaches us the importance of stress, strain, and elasticity. Their relationships are explored
through the deformation of a cantilever beam. Stress is introduced as weights and the beams
experiences strain.

Electromagnetics Ruined Britain
In order to properly talk about radar, or Radio Detection and Ranging as it was once called, we must
first look at the history of radio waves and how eating carrots saved Britain. During the late years of
the 19th century, many advances were being made in the field of electromagnetism. James Maxwell,
among his many discoveries, stated that electromagnetic waves produced through oscillating
charges could propagate through space at the speed of light. Heinrich Hertz managed to prove this
hypothesis in 1887 in his famous radio experiment. Shortly after arriving in Karlsruhe, Hertz found
some large induction coils that could produce a pulsed high voltage and a pair of spark micrometers
with brass knobs forming an adjustable spark gap, which he hoped could be used to transmit
electromagnetic waves as predicted by Maxwell. With a battery and an interrupter attached to the
primary coil, he could obtain a pulsed high voltage across a secondary coil. He then invented a
high–frequency oscillating antenna by forming a dipole with two metal ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
However, a new technology was developed which provided enough warning time to deploy a
counterattack, the RADAR. Thanks to this the allies were able to know not only the direction of an
aircraft, but also the raid count, altitude and speed. With this the allies were able to win the Battle of
Britain (2). Immediately following this victory, the allies began research into developing electric
warfare to counteract technological advances by the Germans. After gathering enough intelligence
on the German antiaircraft radar and their communication, the allies began using chaffs, and
airborne jammers in order to suppress German air defenses (2). Like it's always the case with
warfare technology, ways were devised for counteracting the enemy's radar. These techniques can be
divided into electronic, mechanical, and

Fiber Optic Communication Systems And Introduction

Fiber Optic Communication Systems and Introduction to SONET/SDH (December 2014) Pravalika
Nagulapally, (012600326)
Abstract– This paper explains about the Evolution of fiber optic networks in Communications. It
describes in detail about the Optics communication model and also detailed MATLAB work on
calculating the parameters that are required to setup a optical link. It also emphasizes on different
bands employed in Communication systems. The section three of the paper describes briefly
regarding Synchronous Optical Networking (SONET) and Synchronous Digital Hierarchy (SDH).
The SONET networks topology and their hierarchy is also described in this paper. The data rates of
Sonet/Sdh and the optical market highlights are described at ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
Fiber optic communications systems are light wave systems that employ optical fibers for
information transmission.
Fig. BL vs Year
A commonly used figure of merit for communication systems is the bit rate distance product. (BL),
where B is the bit rate and L is the repeater spacing. Figure shows that the BL product has increased
with technical advances.
II. OPTICAL COMMUNICATION SYSTEM Modern fiber–optic communication systems generally
include an optical transmitter to convert an electrical signal into an optical signal to send into the
optical fiber, a cable containing bundles of multiple optical fibers that is routed through underground
conduits and buildings, multiple kinds of amplifiers, and an optical receiver to recover the signal as
an electrical signal. The information transmitted is typically digital information generated by
computers, telephone systems, and cable television companies.
Figure shows a generic block diagram of an optical communication system. It consists of a
transmitter, a communication channel and a receiver. Optical communication systems can be
classified into two broad categories.
Fig:Optical Communication System
Guided: Guided lightwave systems: The optical emitted by the light source remains confined.
Unguided: The optical beam emitted spreads out in space.
A.Transmitters:

The most commonly used optical transmitters are semiconductor devices such as light–emitting
diodes (LEDs) and laser diodes. The difference

Blozis Case Study
Case Report: Blozis Company Module Two: Procurement and Supply Management Session Two –
Procurement Process Name: Karen Little Member ID: 10040308 Date Submitted: February 3, 2011
Table Of Contents Part 1 – Executive Summary Pages 3–4 Part 2 – Immediate Issue with Impact
Analysis Pages 5–6 Part 3 – Environmental and Root Cause Analysis Pages 6–8 Part 4 –
Alternatives and/or Options Pages 8 Part 5 – Recommendation and Implementation Page 9–11 Part
6 – Monitor and Control Pages 11–12 Part 1 – Executive Summary My decision, as the supply
manager of the Blozis company, is to implement new processes and procedures in the supply
department. One of the changes to be made in the processes ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
The writing of purchase requisitions and orders should be limited to the engineering and production
personnel. The current inventory and purchasing process within the Blozis Company is allowing for
inventory to go missing, payments for materials and items received to be missed, as well as the
receiving of invoices for payments to suppliers that are not supported by purchase orders. The
current processes or lack of processes are not allowing for the proper tracking and accounting of
inventory; the control of cost as purchasing discounts are being missed and invoicing is being
received and paid for without proper documentation that the items were in fact ordered and received.
This lax in documentation and recording of items is also impacting on the ability of each department
to remain within budget. The company, as well, can no longer function without proper processes that
are diligently followed in regards to signatures on purchase requisitions. Again this allows for
greater control over costs, purchasing accountability and adherence to budget restrictions. As a
whole the company needs to completely overhaul their current processes and procedures in their
supply department in order to address the issues as detailed above. Part 3 – Environmental and Root
Cause Analysis Under the current processes in the supply department the expeditor is spending too
much time handling technical orders. While his involvement in technical orders to a degree does

Essay Lab Study Guides Study for Lab Test 1
Study Guide to Help with
Laboratory Exam 1
Microbiology 1214
A partial study guide only. Not intended to replace the review sheets or the "Know the following"
sections on your labs.
These slides are not presented in any particular order.
Name this
Procedure
Identify the two types of bacteria present by shape and gram stain.
In a gram stain what is the primary stain?
The mordant? The counterstain?
How does this differ from a simple stain?
Identify the shape and gram stain of the bacteria present in this gram stain.
Identify the shape and gram stain of the bacteria pictured. Think on this one!
Name the gram stain and shape of the bacteria pictured.
Name the genus of the organism pictured.
Note the size when determining the ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
This plate was made from a swab obtained from the bottom of a shoe.
Can you differentiate between bacteria and fungi?
How do we tell the two apart?
This technique is performed after my smear has dried. What is the name of this technique?
Give two reasons why it is performed?
If I am doing a gram stain and leave out the mordant, what color will all of my bacteria end up
being?

Identify this stain procedure.
What are we looking for with this stain?
The presence of a capsule increases the __________ of the bacterium.
What composes a capsule?
What staining procedure is this?
What are the green structures?
What type flagella is pictured?
Why do we use oil on the oil immersion objective?
Because it has the same _______________
_______________
as glass.
What is the proper method of storing a petri dish in an incubator. Give two reasons why it is
important to store by this method.?
By the way:
Name some acid dyes, some basic dyes.
An acid dye stains the _____ while a basic dye stains the _____.
Given a staining procedure be able to tell me whether a dye used in it is acidic or basic. Name a
gram negative bacteria studied in lab. Name a gram positive bacteria studied in lab. Bacteria or
Fungus?
Identify the hemolysis indicated by the arrow.
Identify the hemolysis at the arrows.
Identify the shape of the bacteria pictured at the arrows. (It isn't bacillus!)
Assuming we are on oil, what is the size of one coccus of the

Hair Investigation
Discussion:
The purpose for this investigation was to measure the diameter of the human hair using the
knowledge of physics of diffraction and interference and the way light waves travel through a
medium. The measurements made in this experiment were done using a ruler, a measuring tape and
the wavelength of the laser beam used. The measuring tape was used to measure the distance from
the hair to the wall. The ruler was used to measure the distance from the centre of the bright band to
the center of the first dark spot which is called the order of minimas. The increasing number of
minima corresponds to the centre of the second dark spot which are arranged numerically in order,
such as, minima 1, minima 2 and so on.
The graphs showed that there was a little scatter but mostly the points fall on or fall near the line of
best fit. This ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Diameter of 0.12mm wire = (6.5*10–7* 1.46)0.8164*10–2= 1.162*10–4m
∴ 1.162*10–4m converted to micrometres is 116.2 micrometres. For comparing it with the
manufacturer's value (0.12mm), this value can be also be converted to millimetres which is 0.1162
and if rounded up, this value becomes 0.12mm.
These answers can portray the high measure of precision in these results. The calculations above
show that the diameter of the human hair is 93.4 micrometers which is accurate according to Glenn
Elert, it is between the range of 17 to 181 micrometers (The Physics Factbook, 2011). There are
varying factors for the strand of hair such as different people have different hair structures and
different genes which causes the diameter of the hair to differ from that of other people. Another
factor is the age of the person as children are more likely to have sensitive and finer hair, whereas,
adults have more thicker and stronger hair as well as the closer to the root of the hair, the thicker the
hair will

Phantom Limb Pain
Furthermore phantom limb pain is simply a sensation of pain. A patient experiences the pain in an
affected extremity that no longer exists (McCance & Huether). Although nerve fibers have the
capability to regenerate this is a time consuming process that does not always yield a fully
functional nerve (Subedi & Grossberg, 2011).
Nociceptors are free nerve endings in the afferent peripheral nervous system (PNS) that selectively
respond to different stimuli. The differences are related to the stimulus which they respond to and
the properties of the nerve fibers associated with them. There are three types A, B and C groups
based on their diameter. There are numerous types of nerve fibers that have nociceptors. These are
the free endings at the

Sensing And Instrumentation Case Study
Sensing and Instrumentation Case Study
Properties, Processing and Applications of Capacitance Sensors:
A Case Study of Capacitance Micrometry
Stephen Grant – 01267044
2014
Abstract
This is a case study that looks in detail at the properties, process and application of capacitance
micrometers. The fundamentals and designs of capacitance micrometers are analyzed in detail in
order to assess their viable use within industry. Suitable comparisons with alternatives to
capacitance micrometry measuring techniques are made while looking at the benefits and drawbacks
of each with respect to different applications. This case study proves that capacitance sensing is an
robust technology to use due both its variety of uses that can be used in a wide range of extreme
industrial environments and applications.
Introduction
Many applications within industry require accurate detection and measurement of sub
micron/nanometer displacements. For example, in order for accurate control systems to be
implemented, it is therefor vital that an accurate sensor be used within that control system.
Throughout the years, many different sensors have been developed and used in order to detect
movement within many different engineering applications. Alternate sensing technologies to
Capacitance Micrometry bring with them some design and cost issues with them; for example issues
including size, cost and accuracy. Sensors that make use of Capacitance measurement and detection
are

Micrometers
The five isolated nuclei measured had lengths of 2.5µm, 5µm, 3µm, 5µm, and 4µm, and therefore
an average length of 3.9 micrometers. This data reflects an almost accurate measurement because
according to Essential Cell Biology eukaryotic nuclei have an average length of about 5
micrometers (p.16). The total number of nuclei isolated was 3,125,000. This number was calculated
by multiplying the amount of nuclei found per mL by five because 5mL was the size of the sample
taken. The amount of nuclei per mL was found by multiplying the average number of nuclei found
on the hemocytometer by the dilution factor and the volume of the hemocytometer grid. These
values respectively are 6.25, 10, and 104, yielding 625,000 nuclei per milliliter. The dilution ...
8.62 x 10–6pg of nucleic acid were detected per nucleus in this sample, which is a small amount in
comparison to the 1.8 pg found in the 1976 experiment. The spectrophotometer does not accurately
estimate the amount of DNA per nucleus because it does not differentiate between chromatin, DNA,
and RNA in its measurements. The reading therefore does not provide a true answer for the pure
contents of DNA within a cell. Reasons why this experimental findings of DNA per nucleus differs
from Bennett's could be because of human error. Since the pellet of nucleic acids was especially
miniscule during the latter steps of the experiment, it is possible part of the pellet could have been
accidentally poured out with the supernatant. The buffers and other chemicals used in Bennett's
experiment were also unknown by the scientist; therefore it is possible Bennett used different
chemicals which were not as degrading to the DNA as the ones provided in this laboratory. Overall,
the low yield of DNA per nucleus in this experiment compared to the DNA per nucleus determined
by Bennett's procedure could be because of a lack of precision and accuracy in the use and
transference of

Microorganisms Lab Report
Introduction
Life on this planet began with microorganisms. Through millions of years microorganisms have
found ways to successfully adapt and survive. These adaptations have created a wide biodiversity,
allowing them to basically populate in all places. Why are these microbes so important? Because
they shape the history of our world. Some microbes can be deathly to humans while some others are
favorable, for example, bacteria that lives in the gut of both humans and animals and helps during
the process of digestion (Alfred Brown & Heidi Smith, 2006). Understanding these interactions help
scientists to find ways to protect humans from potential deathly pathogens. In order to observe
microbes, microscope proficiency and microorganisms' identification are crucial skills in a
microbiology lab. During this laboratory session, samples of environmental and human organisms
were inoculated into two different rich media and incubated to their according temperature. After
this, appropriate use and calibration of the microscope was performed. Lastly, morphology and size
of different species of bacteria, algae, fungi and protozoan were recorded.
Materials and Methods
Nutrient Broth and Nutrient Agar were used to inoculate bacteria taken from different surfaces.
Nutrient agar plate was inoculated with a sample taken from skin surface. A sterile cotton swab was
first immersed on sterile water, then, rubbed against the skin with swirling motion and transferred to
an agar plate by rubbing

What Is Staphylococcus Epidermis?
Woonyen Wong Professor Bender Biology 23 october 20 ,2016 Introduction Staphylococcus
epidermis is one of the commonly known species in the Staphylococcus genus. It can be found in
the normal flora of human skin or on the mucous membrane of warm–blooded mammals. It
colonized mainly at the nostrils, armpits, head, and human epithelia. Staphylococcus epidermis is a
salt–loving microbe. This species can live in a harsh condition, they can live in an environment that
has 10 to 15 percent of salt (Bergey's Manual of Determinative Bacteriology, page 488). A
significant whole genome adapted biofilm is shown by Staphylococcus epidermis, which can cause
biofilm to growth on a plastic device that is implanted into the body. Staphylococcus epidermis only
can be treated with antibiotics vancomycin or rifampin, because it has developed resistance to a lot
of common antibiotics. Staphylococcus epidermis's colonies are circular with 0.5 micrometers to 1.5
micrometers in diameter, convex with a smooth and slightly granular surface.( Bergey's Manual of
Determinative Bacteriology, page 487). Usually, they were white or yellow in color, occasionally
orange and rarely purple (Bergey's Manual of Determinative Bacteriology, page 487).
Staphylococcus epidermis is a ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Biochemical activities of Staphylococcus epidermis was determined by nitrate test, urea test, citrate
test, Voges–Proskauer test, and hydrogen sulfide test. References Staphylococcus epidermis. (n.d.).
Retrieved October 11, 2016, from http://web.uconn.edu/mcbstaff/graf/Student presentations/S
epidermidis/sepidermidis.html. Staphylococcus epidermis. (n.d.). Retrieved October 11, 2016, from
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Staphylococcus_epidermidis. Bergey, D. H., & Holt, J. G. (1994).
Bergey's manual of determinative bacteriology. Baltimore: Williams & Wilkins. Retrieved October
6,

Pseudomonas Aeruginsa Lab
Identifying Unknown Bacteria 9177–Pseudomonas Aeruginosa
The identification of the unknown began with a gram–negative result during the gram stain testing;
gram–negative results are pink in color, because the structure of the cell does not hold Gram's
crystal violet stain as well as gram–positive bacteria does. Gram–positive bacteria are purple in
color, compared to the pink in the gram–negative cells because of the safranin. The unknown,
Pseudomonas aeruginosa, was a gram–negative aerobe, which was the first piece of evidence used
to narrow down to the identification of the unknown. The morphology of the unknown was short
rods organized in pairs, and they were about 1 micrometer wide and 3 micrometers long. It also
showed true motility, which ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
fluorescens, P. aeruginosa has lab results that separate them. P. aeruginosa and P. fluorescens both
can break down citrate, a selective test that, when positive, results in growth in the broth. In
addition, neither of them did not have any hydrolysis of starch, meaning that neither of them had
amylase present. Both also result in positive oxidase tests, meaning that both have a presence of
cytochrome c oxidase activity; this indicates that both have electron transport chains and both can
perform aerobic respiration. Neither P. aeruginosa nor P. fluorescens produce urease, meaning that
neither of them breaks down urea into ammonia and carbon dioxide. Both also have negative
Vogues Proskauer tests, meaning that no acetoin is present. Though neither of the two produces acid
or gas at 24 hours, P. fluorescens can produce acid from glucose at 48 hours. Both of the bacteria are
penicillin resistant and streptomycin sensitive, but in addition, P. fluorescens is tetracycline
sensitive, while the unknown was intermediate for tetracycline. P. aeruginosa differs from P.
fluorescens because nitrates in P. aeruginosa are reduced to nitrites; P. aeruginosa also has gas
production in the nitrate broth tube indicating that the nitrites were reduced to nitrogen gas. P.
fluorescens does not have hydrolysis of casein, whereas P. aeruginosa hydrolyses casein. Caseinase
is a proteinase that hydrolyzes the peptide bonds of casein resulting in a halo surrounding the
bacteria, where the milk agar loses its milky–white color immediately surrounding the bacteria in
bacteria containing

Lyme Disease Research Paper
Infectious disease information table – ASHLEY THAPA
Name of infectious disease
Lyme disease
First discovered or described (name of person and date)
First discovered or described (name of person and date)
Lyme disease is an infection caused by a bacteria known as Borrelia. In the early 1970s, a group of
children and adults were suffering from some puzzling health issues. Though they were unsure of
the cause. Finally, in mid–1970, researchers found out it was the Lyme disease but still was unsure
of what caused it. In 1981 scientist, Willy Burgdorfer found a connection between the deer tick and
the Lyme disease. He discovered that spirochete was causing Lyme. Later on, 1982, the medical
community honored Dr. Burgdorfer's discovery and named the spirochete Borrelia burgdorferi. In ...
The pathogenic bacterium Borrelia burgdorferi is the spirochete that causes Lyme disease.
The exact mechanisms for its pathology are still trying to be understood. Although according to the
Center for Disease Control, Lyme disease caused by B. burgdorferi has become the most common
bacterial disease in the world.
Bacterium Borrelia Burgdorferi is a highly specialized, motile, two–membrane, spiral–shaped
bacterium that lives primarily as an extracellular pathogen. The bacteria is 0.2 to 0.3 micrometers
wide, though the cell length may exceed 15 to 20 micrometers.
Mode(s) of transmission
The Lyme disease bacterium, Borrelia burgdorferi, is spread through the bite of infected ticks. Ticks
can attach to any part of the human body but are often found in hard–to–see areas (eg. the groin,
armpits, and scalp). The tick has to be attached for 36 to 48+ hours before the Lyme disease
bacterium can be transmitted. Most humans are infected through the bites of immature ticks called
nymphs. Nymphs are tiny and difficult to see, and spring and summer is the time they

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