How to teach grammar

Reviews

How to Teach Grammar 1 It’s all right in general to teach grammar. We
S. Thornbury have noticed once again that adults learning
foreign languages through unstructured
Longman 1999,182pp., £14.05 exposure don’t get all their grammar right. And
isbn 0582 339324 recent experiments have established that
instruction does make a di¤erence to accuracy
Grammar for English Language Teachers
(Long 1983; Doughty 1991).
M. Parrott
2 There’s less agreement about how to teach it.
Cambridge University Press 2000, 514pp., £12.95 Giving explicit rules, which used to be a Bad
isbn 0 521 77972 Thing (it involved ‘teaching about language’
rather than ‘teaching language’) is now probably
Grammar swings in and out of favour, impelled at OK if it relates to a point that comes up in the
one end of its cycle by the observation that context of communicative activity. This leads to
grammar lessons aren’t very e¤ective (so perhaps ‘consciousness-raising’ and ‘noticing’, which in
we’d better stop giving them), and at the other by turn lead to ‘restructuring of the learner’s
the realization that not teaching grammar isn’t very internal grammar’, and these are all Good
e¤ective either (so perhaps we’d better start doing Things. Some people think it may even be all
it again). Within this overall to-and-fro movement, right to give uncontextualized, separate
rules and exercises describe their own epicycles: explanations of key points of grammar.
sometimes practice is all right, but rules aren’t; Separated-o¤ grammar teaching used to be a
sometimes explanations are OK, but exercises are seriously Bad Thing, but it can be argued that
sidelined; sometimes both are respectable; this, too, may promote subsequent noticing,
sometimes neither. (While all this is going on, of which leads to restructuring, etc; so perhaps it’s
course, less theoretically-minded teachers the a Good Thing after all.
world over continue to teach rules and do grammar
3 As far as grammar exercises are concerned, the
exercises as usual, in the not unreasonable belief
jury is still out. Researchers are currently having
that this will at least improve some of the English of
some trouble ﬁtting practice into their
some of their students, some of the time.)
theoretical models of how languages are learnt.
Where are we now, on the theoretical swings and We mustn’t say that it establishes habits,
roundabouts? A brief glance round the fairground because that’s what the behaviourists said, and
(see for instance the papers in Doughty and the behaviourists were Wrong. But it’s not all
Williams (1998)) suggests the following state of that clear what practice does instead in today’s
a¤airs: cognitive world. On balance, the view seems to
be that a bit of grammar practice is probably all
right if it is done tastefully in appropriate

Reviews ELT Journal Volume 55/2 April 2001 © Oxford University Press 203

reviews welcome

communicative contexts—for instance, when situations’ designed to cue examples of a particular
embedded in tasks. On the other hand, structure; and, at the most cognitive extreme, the
everybody still agrees that mechanical structure analysis by students of minimal sentence-pairs and
drilling—what the behaviourists used to do—is concordance data.) These sample lessons are one
a Very Bad Thing Indeed. (Look out for the of the great strengths of the book, and almost all of
rehabilitation of structure drills some time them would clearly work very well in the classroom.
during the next five years. You read it here first!) (One or two are less convincing, though: the jigsaw
exercise on applying rules for the use of articles (p.
Scott Thornbury’s excellent book, How to Teach 42) seems much too diªcult, and the lesson on the
Grammar, to some extent reflects the priorities of language of coercion (p. 130) mixes structures with
current theory: he devotes 62 pages to ways of full and bare infinitives in a way that could lead to
getting students to understand grammar, against serious confusion.) The sample lessons are
only 22 pages on getting them to practise it. accompanied in each case by a discussion of the
However, Thornbury is no theory-of-the-day addict: pros and cons of the approach illustrated, with an
he provides a wide-ranging survey of a number of evaluation of the lesson in terms of its economy,
di¤erent approaches and theoretical stances, with ease, and eªciency (what Thornbury calls the ‘E-
the admirable aim of introducing his readers factor’), and of its appropriacy for various kinds of
(trainee teachers and others who want to improve class and teaching situation (the ‘A-factor’).
their professional understanding) to the most Expositions of teaching principles are lucid,
useful ideas around, while leaving them to make straightforward, and to the point. There are clear
their own choices (with some tactful guidance) and useful summaries at the end of each chapter,
from what is available. and interesting and well-focused follow-up work is
The book begins with two introductory chapters, provided in a ‘taskfile’ at the back of the book. This
which set out in simple terms what grammar is, is first-class teacher-training material.
and why we should teach it (or ‘reasons for why The next three chapters, which are structured in the
grammar should be taught’, as the Longman blurb- same way, and equally e¤ective, give clear and
writer rather charmingly puts it). Topics covered practical accounts of ‘How to deal with grammar
include: the relationship between grammar, errors’, ‘How to integrate grammar’ (with an
meaning, and function; di¤erences between interesting exploration of ways in which a task-
spoken and written grammar; questions relating to based syllabus can be married up with a traditional
the use and design of grammar syllabuses; the grammar syllabus), and ‘How to test grammar’.
nature of grammar rules; arguments for and The final chapter is devoted to a short but telling
against grammar teaching (seven for, six against); discussion of ‘How not to teach grammar’,
arguments for and against teaching by giving incorporating a splendid example of an excessively
explicit rules; and a brief survey of the principal teacher-fronted lesson which left this reviewer
grammar-teaching methods that have come and feeling distinctly uncomfortable. There is an
gone over the years, including a mention of current admirably short and practical reading-list.
views on consciousness-raising and ‘focus on
form’. This material is generally extremely clear and Thornbury is at his best when speaking as a
well-organized, and provides a very good basic practical teacher trainer; the more theoretical parts
introduction to the important theoretical issues of his discussion are occasionally less well realized.
discussed. Not all grammarians would be comfortable, for
instance, with his thumbnail definition of syntax (p.
The body of the book is devoted to four chapters on 2), which seems to equate it with word order; or
grammar-teaching proper: three on ways with his somewhat blurred account of the
(deductive, inductive, and text-based) of presenting distinction between ‘rules of form’ and ‘rules of
the grammatical facts, and one on how to practise use’ (p. 12). While evaluating translation (p. 41) he
grammar. In each case, a preliminary survey of the fails to distinguish the use of the mother tongue in
relevant theory is followed by several ingeniously- grammar explanations from its use in the cues or
designed sample lessons illustrating di¤erent responses of practice activities, although these are
techniques and approaches. (For instance, the very di¤erent issues. And there is a certain amount
chapter on ‘How to teach grammar from examples’ of conceptual confusion in the discussion of
includes illustrations of: inductive work exploiting accuracy, fluency, ‘focus on meaning’,
direct method and total physical response automatization, chunk-learning, and related
techniques; realia-based activities; ‘generative matters (pp. 92–4).

204 Reviews ELT Journal Volume 55/2 April 2001 © Oxford University Press

reviews welcome

There are one or two unfortunate inaccuracies in book) or reactive (dealing with problems as they
Thornbury’s potted history of grammar teaching in come up). It would have been helpful, though, if
Chapter 2. Less knowledgeable readers may gain space could have been found for a more extended
the false impression from his discussion of the discussion of syllabus-design issues. The question
Natural Order Hypothesis that it is a recent of which structures matter most, and why, and for
theoretical development to which most SLA what kinds of learner, gets only a brief paragraph
scholars still subscribe. And it is a pity that (p. 115); and the book has little or nothing to say
Thornbury should uncritically repeat the current about how far a grammar syllabus needs to take
myth that, until the advent of computerized into account the nature of the learner’s mother
corpora, grammarians’ descriptive rules were tongue. (This is an important issue for teachers
based on ‘hunches and intuitions’ (p. 11). This is, of working with British-published ‘global’ course
course, totally untrue: the standard grammars of books, since they may find that e¤ective proactive
the first half of the twentieth century were largely grammar teaching means adapting and
derived from observations of usage, and they supplementing the coursebook quite considerably
referred in many cases to quite substantial written to meet the specific linguistic needs of their
corpora. Spoken corpora. too, were used well students.)
before the computer age—Fries’s The Structure of
English (1952) was based entirely on an analysis of These are, however, minor blemishes in a book
tape-recorded telephone conversations. which in general succeeds admirably in achieving
its aims. There are already a number of good
Thornbury’s care not to impose his own views on treatments of grammar teaching available, ranging
the reader is generally to be applauded. However, from theoretical works such as Rutherford (1987),
the book would perhaps benefit from a more critical Doughty and Williams (1998), Odlin (1994),
presentation of the less soundly-based theoretical Bygate, Tonkyn and Williams (1994) or Batstone
ideas introduced. For instance, he refers (pp. 16, (1994), to more practical guides like Harmer (1987)
85) to a very strong version of the fashionable or Celce-Murcia and Hilles (1988). But How to
‘noticing’ hypothesis (that the conscious noticing Teach Grammar is unique in the way it combines
of grammatical features is a prerequisite for their breadth and pedagogic depth, dovetailing a well-
acquisition) without making it clear that this is an mediated and refreshingly eclectic account of
extreme and decidedly eccentric notion—a fact that relevant theory with a rich and detailed
might not be obvious to trainee teachers with little presentation of good classroom practice. It can be
experience of thinking about language acquisition. very warmly recommended to all those involved in
Again, he presents without comment (p. 94) the English language teaching at any level.
widespread view that students will automatically
improve their grammar while performing Martin Parrott’s Grammar for English Language
communicative tasks. If they make mistakes, the Teachers is entirely concerned with the ‘what’ of
story goes, this will lead to communicative grammar teaching. Its twofold purpose is to help
breakdown, ‘negotiation of meaning’, a realization teachers to develop their knowledge and
of the need for a more accurate command of the understanding of English grammar, and to provide
structure in question, and consequent a source of reference for lesson-planning and
restructuring of the learner’s internal grammar. But grammatical trouble-shooting (p. 1).
it would have been helpful to point out that this
The four parts of the book deal with: the grammar
optimistic scenario has been widely criticized on
of most word classes; some aspects of verbal
the grounds that things don’t actually happen like
grammar; ‘sentence constituents and word order’;
that most of the time, since learners (especially in
and complex sentences. Altogether there are 29
monolingual classes) often turn out to be
short chapters on specific topics—for example,
irritatingly good at communicating successfully
‘nouns’, ‘infinitive and -ing forms of verbs’, ‘ellipsis
with non-target grammar.
and substitution’, and ‘relative clauses’. Each
While Thornbury’s general concern is with the chapter constitutes a pedagogic unit: an
‘how’ of grammar teaching, he also touches from introductory note on ‘key considerations’ is
time to time on the ‘what’. There is a rather followed by a definition of the relevant grammatical
inconclusive discussion in Chapter 1 about whether feature (for example, ‘What are nouns?’); this is
grammar syllabuses are needed, and about then followed by sections which outline and
whether teaching should be proactive (simply exemplify the grammatical facts; the chapter ends
going through the grammar that is there in the with a note on ‘typical diªculties for learners’, and


reviews welcome

a group of ‘consolidation exercises’. At the end of in All the plums were bad), but not in their ‘floating
the book there are some ‘extension exercises’, and quantifier’ use (The plums were all bad). Enough
several appendices for further reference. shows up as a quantifier (enough chairs), but not in
its equally common function as an adverb of degree
The book is e¤ectively, therefore, a pedagogically-
(cold enough). Whatever, whoever, etc. are missing.
wrapped grammar. It has a number of strengths.
And several other points normally mentioned in
The sections on typical learners’ diªculties are very
students’ grammars are either missing or sketchily
useful (if focused mainly on the problems of
treated.
speakers of European languages). And these
sections include an unusual and valuable feature: Parrott is somewhat dismissive of the grammar in
notes on comprehension diªculties (for instance, coursebooks, explaining (p. 1) that his purpose is to
problems caused by failure to perceive weak forms give a ‘broader perspective of grammar than that
of modals, or the fact that passive participles like presented to students in course materials’, and to
designed or attacked can be misinterpreted as active encourage readers to recognize the limitations of
past tenses when embedded in complex the ‘rules of thumb’ these o¤er. Up to a point, this
sentences). Occasionally this information seems to is an admirable stance: there is no use giving
be based on hunch rather than objective data: I students guidelines that fail 30–40% of the time,
wonder, for instance, what evidence Parrott has for and some common pedagogic simplifications (like
saying (p. 63) that ‘when learners don’t know or the rules often given for some and any) are certainly
don’t notice quantifiers, this rarely leads to too far away from the truth to be useful. However,
significant misunderstanding’, or (p. 14) ‘Problems in attempting to replace ‘rules of thumb’ with
with the grammar of nouns … rarely impedes (sic) descriptions of the deeper semantic reality that
understanding’. (There are quite a lot of typos.) The underlies them, Parrott sometimes ends up with
consolidation exercises are useful, and include alternatives that are too vague or general to be
many well-chosen texts which are not only e¤ective really helpful. While it may be true, for instance,
as grammatical illustrations, but also interesting in that modal verbs are used ‘to make an assessment,
their own right (thus helping readers to see that judgement or interpretation of what we are
grammar actually has something to do with real speaking or writing about, or to express our
communication). Some exercises are based on attitude to this’ (p. 119), this neither fully
apposite pieces of authentic students’ writing. characterizes the modals, nor distinguishes them
(Somebody should tell CUP’s designers, though, clearly from verbs like think, suppose, or deny.
that a wavy outline and 4mm of shadow are not Similarly, the statements that perfective aspect
enough to produce a credible facsimile e¤ect.) refers to ‘events viewed retrospectively’ (p. 107), or
that subordination involves ‘two clauses of unequal
Most of the standard grammatical topics are
importance’ (p. 335) will convey little of predictive
covered, often very well. There is an excellent
value to a reader who does not already understand
section on reported speech, which comes much
the point that is being explained. While objecting
closer to reality than the stereotyped account found
(with some justification) to coursebooks that use
in most learners’ grammars. The section on
the notion of ‘present relevance’ as a catch-(OALD
conditionals gives a good description of current
CE)all description for the present perfect, Parrott
written and spoken usage, including a note on the
tells us (p. 187) that the key factor is really that of an
common ‘If I’d have …’ structure, which is generally
‘unfinished time period’; but this is simply another
ignored in published grammars. There is a good
misleading rule of thumb. Some formulations are
chapter on multiword verbs and ‘multiword verbal
plain wrong, like the claim (p. 71) that we generally
expressions’. Discourse grammar and the grammar
use most, fewest, and least in expressions with have;
of speech get the space they deserve, with useful
or the statement (p. 127) (with which many readers
accounts of discourse markers, ellipsis,
might disagree) that ‘there is little di¤erence
substitution, fronting, clefting, dummy subjects,
between could and might’. Try + gerund is
and other information-structuring devices.
distinguished from try + infinitive on the basis that
There are, however, some strange omissions. try … ing is used for ‘suggestions’ (p. 144). So-
Despite the attention given to ellipsis, there is called ‘type 2’ conditionals are wrongly said (p. 234)
nothing at all on question-tags or related subject + to be all counterfactual. Phrases in apposition are
auxiliary sentence types. The article section has described on p. 378 as ‘phrases we use to re-state
gaps, as do the treatments of be and have (got). All something we have said immediately before’; this is
and both are described in their determiner use (as not at all the case.


reviews welcome

In books intended for readers who in some cases On the other hand, grammatical information needs
may not be very grammar-literate, terminology is to be divided into bite-sized chunks for easy
probably best defined either in advance or when assimilation, and a discursive approach can
first encountered, as is done consistently, for sometimes work against this. I found myself
example, in Yule’s rather higher-level Explaining wondering how well the average reader would
English Grammar (1998). Grammar for English succeed in taking in and retaining the content of
Language Teachers does not adopt this approach. In some of the more detailed and diªcult chapters
the chapter on nouns, for instance, the term noun (like that on non-finite clauses). In this connection,
itself is carefully explained, but Parrott then makes Parrott has not been well served by his publisher’s
the dangerous assumption that all readers will design. While the main divisions of chapters are
know what is meant by subject, object, and clearly signalled by prominent numbered headings,
complement. The term non-finite is used on p. 32 the three other levels of subheading are not clearly
and frequently thereafter, but is not defined until p. enough distinguished from each other, and the
361, well after readers have had to come to terms important second-level subheadings which should
with sentences like ‘These -ing forms constitute or punctuate the material visually are so lightweight
partly constitute non-finite participle clauses’ (p. as to virtually disappear into the text.
142). Similar problems arise with much of the
As a grammar course, Grammar for English
terminology.
Language Teachers perhaps su¤ers from trying to do
The organization of the book is generally clear, with too much. Anyone who succeeds in working right
a careful progression from simpler to more through its 500-odd pages of often dense and
complex; most aspects of verbal grammar are detailed exposition will end up knowing a good deal
helpfully hived o¤ into a separate section. of grammar, but the task does seem somewhat
Reference is facilitated by a good concise index daunting. Shorter books such as Yule (1998) or
(‘Short cut to what you’re looking for’). There are Bolitho and Tomlinson (1995), which sensitize
some anomalies, however. Determiners are not teachers to key concepts of English grammar but
treated as a category (although Parrott often uses leave them to fill out their knowledge from the
the term), and are oddly split up: articles and many excellent reference books already on the
quantifiers get their own chapters, but my, your, etc. market, may well work better. As a reference guide,
(which he calls ‘possessive adjectives’) show up in on the other hand, Parrott’s book has the drawback
the chapter on ellipsis, and demonstratives are that it is less easy to use than ordinary grammars
virtually ignored. Pronouns get treated briefly in (which benefit from a less discursive approach and
two rather heterogeneous chapters dealing mainly more helpful design); and there are problems of
with other matters. Teaching the di¤erence organization, coverage, and accuracy. Overall,
between ‘defining’ and ‘non-defining’ expressions despite a number of attractive features, I feel that
separately from the grammar of relatives is a very the book unfortunately does not completely achieve
good idea; but this is done after the chapter on its aims.
relatives, which is seriously incomplete as a result.
The account of causative structures like She has her References
blood pressure taken or He got his leg broken is good Batstone, R. 1994. Grammar. Oxford: Oxford
(not least because of Parrott’s concern to give
University Press.
proper attention to auxiliary get), but it is confusing
Bolitho, R., and B. Tomlinson 1995. Discover English
to find these lumped together with passives.
(2nd edn.). Oxford: Heinemann.
Since this is sequential teaching material, Parrott Bygate, M., A. Tonkyn, and E. Williams (eds.). 1994.
can adopt a more discursive approach than that Grammar and the Language Teacher. London:
found in ordinary grammars. This can be extremely Prentice Hall.
e¤ective: Celce-Murcia, M., and S. Hilles. 1988. Techniques
For example, imagine we meet by chance in the and Resources in Teaching Grammar. New York:
street. I’m upset and I blurt out I’ve just seen an Oxford University Press.
accident. I choose an (and not the) because this Doughty, C. 1991. ‘Second language instruction
event is something you don’t know about. It tells does make a di¤erence’. Studies in Second Language
you that I don’t expect you to look around you or Acquisition 13/4: 431–69.
to root around in your memory to identify which Doughty, C., and J. Williams. 1998. Focus on Form in
accident I’m referring to. It’s unfamiliar to you. Classroom Second Language Acquisition. Cambridge:
(p. 47) Cambridge University Press.


reviews welcome

Fries, C. C. 1952. The Structure of English. New York: analysis, lexicology, and sociolinguistics, while
Harcourt Brace. advancing CL in general (45–6).
Harmer, J. 1987. Teaching and Learning Grammar. At slightly over 40 million words of British and
Harlow: Longman. American text, the source corpus for LGSWE is
Long. M. H. 1983. ‘Does second language among the largest in use. Unlike many other
instruction make a di¤erence? A review of computer text collections, it benefits from an
research’. TESOL Quarterly 17/3: 359–82. attempt at balance among registers/genres. The
Odlin, T. (ed.). 1994. Perspectives on Pedagogical authors code as their focused ‘core registers’
Grammar. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. conversation, fiction, news, and ‘academic prose’,
Rutherford, W. E. 1987. Second Language Grammar: plus two supplementary registers; this permits a
Learning and Teaching. Harlow: Longman. comparative discussion of individual structures.
Yule, G. 1998. Explaining English Grammar. Oxford; Conversational data, subcoded by age and gender,
Oxford University Press. are claimed as the most naturalistic yet compiled;
however, aside from the British/American split,
The reviewer dialect variety does not (and perhaps cannot)
Michael Swan taught English in Britain and abroad receive much more than passing mention. The
for many years. He is now a full-time writer, resulting work fills a gap among ‘long’ works on
specializing in course and reference materials. His English grammar.
publications include Practical English Usage This is not to say that no large existing reference
(OUP ),The New Cambridge English Course (CUP , grammar makes use of naturalistic data. Quirk et
with Catherine Walter) and How English Works al. (1985), the work most closely comparable to
(OUP , with Catherine Walter). LGSWE in size, relies heavily on relative frequency
counts from several well-known, if smaller corpora
(1985: 33). But the bulk of Quirk et al.’s example
Longman Grammar of Spoken and Written English sentences appear constructed rather than
D. Biber, S. Johansson, G. Leech, S. Conrad, collected, and reference to statistics is done
and E. Finegan informally, mainly in passing, and in cases where
frequencies are very low or very high. In contrast,
Longman 1999, 1,204pp., (£72.45) LGSWE foregrounds the corpus itself, in evident
isbn: 0 582 237254 hopes of laying impressionistic reporting to rest.
The result is a grammar much di¤erent in tone,
The Longman Grammar of Spoken and Written emphasis, and content.
English (LGSWE ) is the product of a recent trend
An extended comparative example will help to show
among functionally-oriented grammarians, which
LGWSE’ s innovations. It is now well known
is to base discussion of structures not on invented
(perhaps especially to language teachers) that
data, but instead on surveys of actual examples
traditional treatments of passive voice fall short of
drawn from large computerized corpora of oral and
the mark, to the extent that they discuss mechanics
written texts, often with close attention to registers
but neglect an extended look at passives in use.
and genres. This approach to data gathering and
Both LGSWE and Quirk et al. give balanced and
analysis, now known generally as corpus linguistics
extended attention to the passive, introducing it as
(CL ), is the subject of recent book-length guides,
a basic word-order variation, and later devoting at
such as Kennedy (1998). While a corpus linguist’s
least an entire section to active vs. passive, while
insistence on large amounts of naturalistic data
spreading additional comments throughout the
may seem to reflect an overall philosophy of
rest of the work, where the passive arises in
science, it need only reflect an interest in the kind of
connection with other grammatical points.
generalizations that can be drawn most reliably
from an examination of frequency patterns—in Beyond this, the two works diverge sharply in their
particular, generalizations that associate structures coverage. From Quirk et al.’s main section we learn
with discourse contexts. Those working in ESL/EFL , (I985:159¤ ) about the mechanics of the
whether as materials writers or as teachers, may passivization of objects, with paradigms (The team
find information about language use as useful as is beaten/is being beaten/has been beaten…). We
paradigms and formation rules. The authors of learn various constraints on passivization,
LGSWE suggest that their work will not only fill this including those predicates (a) which cannot easily
need but also related needs in conversation passivize (e.g. where the direct object is clausal), or


reviews welcome

(b) which always occur in passive (e.g. be reputed correlate with the given–new pattern of information
to), or (c) which seldom include overt agent by- packaging. Established information tends to occur
phrases (e.g. where agents are unknown or within subjects, prior to the new information
understood). We learn that the usual assumption reserved for predicates; the occasional choice of
of semantic equivalence between actives and passive may be a structural means of preserving
passives may run aground where quantifiers and that pattern. This makes sense in light of other
modals are used (see below). Elsewhere Quirk et al. corpus facts: strings of adjacent short passives are
detail the constraints on passivizing within every common, while adjacent long passives are rare.
identified complement type (e.g. We want the book Ultimately, then, though short and long passives do
to be written by an expert but not *We asked the tend to share registers, their immediate discourse
cake to be baked by an expert), and on contexts di¤er markedly.
prepositional stranding as a result of the passive
These capsule comparisons should suªce to
(e.g. The grass was stepped on vs. ? The table was
illustrate the di¤erence in focus between the more
dined on). Chapter 7 (pp. 413f ) o¤ers tests for
traditional Quirk et al. and LGSWE . While the
distinguishing subtly distinct adjectival -ed forms
former gives us a wealth of structure- and
from true verbal participles (cf. the ambiguity in
interpretation-related facts, the latter centres more
The house is painted). Chapter 7 (pp.1264f.) treats
on functions, often including tabular statistics with
passive options and nonoptions in reduced relative
breakdowns on specific registers. While Quirk et al.
clauses.
tell us what can and cannot occur, LGSWE tells us
In contrast to this, LGSWE ’s presentation strategy what does occur, and how often. Which approach is
follows a fairly regular pattern: (a) to introduce a preferable may depend partly on which facts a
structure with a capsule survey of clausal reader finds more useful. For example, LGSWE ’s
environments, (b) to disclose corpus findings, passive data ought to show ESL/EFL materials
especially frequency data, and (c) to interpret those writers that any blanket pedagogical advice against
findings. In the main section on passives (Chapter the use of passive in writing is ill-founded, or needs
11), a primary focus is to identify discourse-related careful qualification; given the proper
distinctions between ‘long’ and ‘short’ passives— register/genre, short passives should evidently be
i.e. between those with and those without attached encouraged.
by-phrases (or their equivalent). The corpus data
On the other hand, the LGWSE approach creates a
reveal that short passives are more common across
major problem of content. In the tireless e¤ort to
registers, and that among subtypes, a register split
utilize naturalistic data, many basic, previously
exists between short passives with dynamic main
established facts based on constructed data are
verbs (e.g. The tests were marked, vs. the stative
simply omitted from mention. This omission
The movie was seen): the dynamic variety is found
means that a newcomer to grammar study who
most commonly in academic prose, and least so in
uses LGWSE as a basic reference has no access to
fiction and conversation. How to interpret these
numerous bread-and-butter observations, mostly
facts? LGWSE argues in detail that ‘academic
uncontested, found in much shorter works: the
discourse is concerned with generalizations, rather
authors seem to entirely rule out the use of
than with the specific individual who carries out an
intuitional data rather than exploit its strengths,
action’ (p. 938). Short, dynamic passives are also
where they exist. How, for example, could a corpus
commonly found in news reporting, very likely
tell us that while actives and passives are usually
because in such registers the identity of agents is
interpreted as synonymous, hearers/readers are
either not at issue, or does not need to be stated (p.
likely to assign di¤erent interpretations to
939).
sentences where quantifiers are present, e.g.
As for long passives, a corpus count shows that Everybody in the room has read two novels by
they, too, are most common in academic prose and Hemingway vs. Two novels by Hemingway have been
news reporting. But their use seems di¤erently read by everybody in the room? The fact that such
motivated. A wordcount shows that agent by- observations are far more accessible through NS
phrases tend to be longer than subjects; all else intuition and/or informal polling makes them no
being equal, we would be more likely to find The less valid as observations. Are they to be excluded
window was broken by a boy wearing a red cap than on principle because they derive from other than
simply The window was broken by a boy. This corpus sources in the relevant sense? If so, this is
suggests that stylistic end-weight plays a role in unfortunate, but it suggests a logical next step for
choosing passive over active. Length may also CL , namely to validate these observations on CL


reviews welcome

terms by compiling large corpora of NS Non-Native Educators in English Language
acceptability judgments (e.g. ‘Across all strata of Teaching
the sample, 95.4% of respondents agreed that in G. Braine (ed.).
the passive version of the above sentence, the
people referred to have probably all read the same Lawrence Erlbaum Associates 1999, 233pp.,
two Hemingway novels’). Though soundly US$24.50
conceived, this kind of data would be time- isbn 0 8058 3205 x
consuming and expensive to compile and would
probably more often than not constitute overkill. How often do we judge a book by its appearance? If
It is impossible in a short review to give a complete you see the title Non-Native Educators in English
capsule summary of all topics covered in LGSWE ’s Language Teaching and think that the book is only
1,200 pages. The long introductory chapter about non-native educators, and intended solely for
contains a rationale for the approach; the them, read it, and you will be amazed by its
remaining 13 chapters move fairly predictably from richness and the insights it o¤ers for not only non-
words to phrases to clauses, from the structurally native but also native-speaker professionals.
less complex to the more complex, from essential Edited by George Braine, Non-Native Educators in
elements to stylistic options. The final chapter is a English Language Teaching is a unique contribution
real innovation: called ‘The Grammar of to the ELT literature, bringing together the
Conversation’, it incorporates corpus findings on collective voices of 15 NNS educators from di¤erent
such phenomena as the use of discourse markers geographical origins and language backgrounds on
(well, right!) repeats, repairs, dysfluencies, and critical issues related to the place of non-native
elliptical statements in natural conversation. It also professionals in ELT/TESOL , and other pertinent
raises the larger question of whether conversation issues of the TESOL profession. The articulation of
has identifiable ‘basic units’. Much of the experiences and the sharing of insights by the NNS
inspiration and terminology for this chapter comes educators challenge the preponderant
from conversation analysis. Serving as an excellent assumptions about the NS ideal (see Brutt-Griºer
overview of issues at the crossroads of interaction and Samimy 1999; Davies 1991; Kachru 1997;
and structure, this chapter will surely be one of the Phillipson 1992), enhance our critical awareness of
most heavily referenced parts of the book in years the multidimensionality of TESOL , and go a long
to come. way towards empowering NNS professionals in
TESOL.
References
Non-Native Educators in English Language Teaching
Kennedy, G. 1998. An Introduction to Corpus is authored by 15 foreign-born professionals who,
Linguistics. London: Longman. with one exception, have moved to North America
Quirk, R., S. Greenbaum, G. Leech, and J. Svartvik. to advance their education and careers. The book of
1985. A Comprehensive Grammar of the English 13 chapters is divided into three parts, progressing
Language. London: Longman. from the mainly personal narratives in Part 1 (‘Who
We Are’) to the broader consideration of
The reviewer ‘Sociopolitical Concerns’ in Part 2, and of TESOL
Howard Williams is a lecturer in the Applied teacher education in Part 3 (‘Implications for
Linguistics Program at Teachers College, Columbia Teacher Education’). The book thus addresses a
University. His interest is in general linguistics, variety of issues of interest to teachers, teacher
especially as it relates to language pedagogy. He educators, administrators, researchers, graduate
has most recently worked with Marianne Celce- students, and all those who aspire to enter the
Murcia and Diane Larsen-Freeman on the second TESOL profession.
edition of The Grammar Book (Heinle and Heinle The book is prefaced by Braine’s description of the
1999). background and interest that sparked the origin of
the book—namely, a dearth of interest in non-
native academics and teachers in TESOL .
Therefore, as pointed out in the Preface, the book
fills a ‘notable vacuum in the English language
teaching (ELT ) literature’ (p.ix). The Preface is
followed by the Introduction, where Braine


reviews welcome

discusses some of the central issues of the book, native’, co-authored by Claire Kramsch and Eva
such as the native speaker fallacy, discrimination in Lam, concludes Part 1 by reiterating the idea that
employment, and the ramifications of the the written language has a tremendous impact on
increasing number of trained, eligible, and the development of a NNS ’s social and cultural
competent NNS educators in TESOL . The identity, and that it can be used to express the
Introduction successfully establishes the need for a unique experience of NNS educators.
voice by NNS professionals, and hence the
Part 2, ‘Sociopolitical Concerns’, contains three
significance and unique contribution of the book.
chapters, which examine a number of sociopolitical
Part 1, ‘Who We Are’, contains five chapters of concerns for NNS educators. Chapter 6,
personal narratives. Chapter 1, ‘Voices from the ‘Interrogating the native speaker fallacy: Non-
periphery: Non-native teachers and issues of linguistic roots, non-pedagogical results’, by
credibility’, by Jacinta Thomas, provides an apt Suresh Canagarajah, examines the native speaker
introduction to Part 1 by discussing some of the fallacy critically from linguistic and economic
major challenges faced by NNS teachers, who are perspectives. The author decries the absurdity of
not only ‘strangers in academia’ but also ‘strangers the profession, which trains NNS for ELT but
on the periphery’ (p.5). These challenges occur in disqualifies them at the same time by denying them
di¤erent contexts—in hiring practices, within employment. He argues that NNS teachers’
TESOL organizations, from NNS students, and multilingual competence can foster more e¤ective
during graduate studies—and they all threaten the language teaching. Chapter 7, ‘Minority women
credibility of NNS teachers. Chapter 2, ‘From the teachers of ESL : Negotiating White English’, by
Periphery to the Center: One teacher’s journey’, by Nuzhat Amin, a female immigrant from a minority
George Braine, is a touching personal account of group, addresses issues of racism and gender in
his professional journey from the Periphery as a conjunction with the native-speaker construct.
village school teacher in Sri Lanka, to the Centre, as Amin maintains that the ideal NS as White has
a graduate student and university teacher in the tremendous impact on ESL programs, as well as on
United States, and back to the Periphery, as a students’ perceptions of the ideal ESL teacher, and
teacher in a university in Asia. Towards the end of that has had a disempowering e¤ect on women
the chapter, Braine highlights the challenges faced minority ESL teachers in particular. She suggests
by NNS scholars in peripheral countries when they dropping the concept of ‘native speaker’ in order to
try to publish in international refereed journals (see diminish the marginalization of NNS educators.
Flowerdew 2000). Chapter 3, ‘Learning to write Chapter 8, ‘English only or English plus? The
academic prose in a second language: A literacy language(s) of EFL organizations’, by Masaki Oda,
autobiography’, by Ulla Connor, touches on a discusses the issue of individual language rights
related issue of how a NNS educator gradually and the unequal role between NS and NNS in
gained acceptance in the academia of the Centre as TESOL aªliates in EFL contexts, with specific
an established writer. The chapter ends with some reference to language issues of JALT . The author
useful advice for NNS writers to help them improve denounces the power imbalance that exists
their academic writing. Chapter 4, ‘Writing from the between NS and NNS in ELT organizations and
vantage point of an outsider/insider’, by Xiao-ming aªliates in non-English speaking countries.
Li, continues with the focus on academic writing, as
Part 3, ‘Implications for Teacher Education’,
in Chapter 3. It is the autobiographical account of a
contains five chapters, which all deal with the
Chinese scholar’s initiation into the academic
implications of the growing number of NNS for
community in the USA under the tutelage of a
TESOL teacher education. Chapter 9, ‘To be a
professor mentor, during which time the author
native or non-native speaker: Perceptions of non-
discovered her own voice in writing, came to terms
native students in a graduate TESOL program’, co-
with her cultural and linguistic identity, and
authored by Keiko Samimy and Janina Brutt-Griºer,
established her professional credibility. It is
reports the findings of a study about NNS students’
encouraging to note that other NNS professionals
self-perceptions of their linguistic and pedagogical
from the Periphery, like Li, can bring with them a
competence, and their beliefs regarding the NS-
large and rich repertoire of pedagogical, linguistic,
NNS dichotomy. The students, who were enrolled
and cultural knowledge that could help expand the
in a graduate seminar, all reported favourably on
horizons of educators in the Centre and contribute
the opportunity to share their experiences with
to the diversity of the TESOL profession. Chapter 5
other NNS professionals, and felt empowered
‘Textual identities: The importance of being non-
personally and professionally. Chapter 10,


reviews welcome

‘Preparing non-native professionals in TESOL : education, based on recent investigations
Implications for teacher education programs’, by concerning NNS students and/or practitioners, as
Lia Kamhi-Stein, argues that it is necessary for well as the authors’ own experience. A common
TESOL programs to incorporate NNS issues to theme that runs through Part 3 is that TESOL
cater to the needs of NNS trainees. The author also programs must cater to the specific needs of NNS ,
suggests that NNS teacher educators can have a and prepare them to become both confident and
positive influence on NNS trainees by being their competent teachers of English.
role models. Chapter 11, ‘From their own
As stated above, Non-native Educators in English
perspectives: The impact of non-native ESL
Language Teaching is relevant for both NS and NNS
professionals on their students’, by Jun Liu,
professionals, novice and experienced educators in
examines the self-perceptions of NNS teachers and
ELT , students and teacher educators, researchers
their impact on NNS students. Instead of using the
and administrators, and those concerned with the
NS-NNS dichotomy, which suggests a deficit on the
role of NNS in English language teaching. I feel that
part of NNS , Liu argues for the use of the NS-NNS
the book might have a greater appeal to readers
continuum, which gauges NNS teachers’ ability in
outside of North America if there were more
terms of their teaching competence and
contributions from NNS educators working in
professionalism, rather than their race and accent.
English-speaking countries other than North
Chapter 12, ‘Language training: A neglected area in
America, and/or from NNS educators who received
teacher education’ by Peter Medgyes, takes a
their higher education from countries other than
di¤erent stance regarding the NS-NNS distinction.
North America. Although most of the chapters in
Unlike Jun Liu, Medgyes argues for the need to
the book are contextualized in North America, it
maintain the NS-NNS dichotomy, and for NNS to
would be naive to think that this region has the sole
be near-NS s in order to be ‘ambassadors’ of the
claim to being the ‘Centre’ of English language
language. Chapter 13, ‘Training non-native
teaching. Although ESL is thriving in colleges and
students: Challenges for TESOL teacher education
universities in North America, we should not forget
in the West’, by Dilin Liu, concludes Part 3 by
countries like Australia and Britain, where English
echoing the significant message that TESOL
language teaching is also growing in significance.
programs must cater to the specific needs of NNS .
Using the Periphery–Center analogy adopted by the
As a NNS myself, I find Non-Native Educators in
writers, the book itself has successfully brought the
English Language Teaching inspiring, enlightening,
NNS educators from the ‘Periphery’ to the
and edifying. In Part 1, the readers are riveted with
‘Center’of our attention, enhancing our critical
the personal, often touching and poignant personal
awareness of issues relating to the role of NNS , and
narratives of the writers, which not only strike a
their contributions to the field. Although the book
chord but also inspire confidence, especially in
has ‘non-native’ in its title, it is surely not the
novice NNS educators. The professional
intention of the writers to separate NNS from their
autobiography of the NNS writers is not merely a
NS counterparts. Instead, the book brings home
collection of personal histories; instead, the
the message that we should focus on what binds
construction of social identity through the self-
the NNS and NS together. This book should
representations of the NNS writers enables the
therefore be read not only by NNS teachers,
NNS readers to explore their own social identity as
educators, and students, but by all TESOL
TESOL professionals. The experiences described in
professionals—including NS educators who
the personal narratives are an important step
together make up the pluralism, multiculturalism,
towards empowering the NNS readers. In Part 2,
and internationalism of the TESOL profession.
the readers are invited to partake in a critical
examination of various sociopolitical issues, such
References
as employment, racism, and sexism, and have their
perspectives broadened. Central to Part 2 is the Brutt-Griºer, J., and K.K. Samimy. 1999. ‘Revisiting
message that in order to diminish the the colonial in the postcolonial: Critical praxis for
marginalization of NNS professionals, it is nonnative-English-speaking teachers in a TESOL
incumbent on us to denounce existing program’. TESOL Quarterly 33/3: 413–31.
discriminatory and unfair professional, Davies, A. 1991. The Native Speaker in Applied
pedagogical, and employment practices. In Part 3, Linguistics. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press.
the readers consider the implications of the Flowerdew, J. 2000. ‘Discourse community,
growing number of NNS for TESOL teacher legitimate peripheral participation, and the


reviews welcome

nonnative-English-speaking scholar’. TESOL The reviewer
Quarterly 34/1: 127–50. Icy Lee teaches ESL at Simon Fraser University in
Kachru, B.B. 1997. ‘English as an Asian language’ in British Columbia, Canada. She was previously an
M.L.S. Bautista (ed.). English is an Asian Language: assistant professor at the Hong Kong Polytechnic
The Philippine Context. Manila, Philippines: University. She has published in ELT Journal,
Macquarie Library. System, RELC Journal, TESL Canada Journal, and the
Phillipson, R. 1992. Linguistic Imperialism. Oxford: Hong Kong Journal of Applied Linguistics. She is a
Oxford University Press. member of the Review Board of TESL Canada
Journal, and winner of the 1999 TESOL Award for
Excellence in the Development of Pedagogical
Materials.


reviews welcome

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