The document discusses HIV/AIDS through 8 case studies and provides information on pathophysiology and treatment. It describes the 6 stages of HIV infection: 1) Seroconversion illness, 2) Asymptomatic infection, 3) Persistent generalized lymphadenopathy, 4) Symptomatic infection/AIDS-related complex, 5) AIDS, and 6) Nonprogressors. It also outlines classes of antiretroviral medications used to treat HIV, including reverse transcriptase inhibitors, protease inhibitors, entry inhibitors, and integrase inhibitors. Diagnosis of HIV is through antibody or antigen testing of blood or saliva.
HIV AIDS Lecture Presented by me in my Community Dentistry Class, BIBI ASIFA DENTAL COLLEGE, SHAHEED MOHTARMA BENAZIR BHUTTO MEDICAL UNIVERSITY LARKANA, SINDH, PAKISTAN.
HIV AIDS Lecture Presented by me in my Community Dentistry Class, BIBI ASIFA DENTAL COLLEGE, SHAHEED MOHTARMA BENAZIR BHUTTO MEDICAL UNIVERSITY LARKANA, SINDH, PAKISTAN.
HIV (Human Immunodeficiency Virus) infects cells of the immune system and destroys or impairs their function.
Infection progressive deterioration of the immune system breaking down the body's ability to fight out infections & diseases by opportunistic bacteria, viruses and fungi.
AIDS (Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome) refers to the most advanced stages of HIV infection and a collection of signs and symptoms caused by more than 20 opportunistic infections or related cancers.
This is an informative, illustrated presentation about the causes, symptoms, treatment and prevention of HIV AIDS. Gives relevant data, facts and statistics about the disease updated to the most recent 2010 data.
Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) is a lentivirus that causes acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS),a condition in humans in which progressive failure of the immune system allows life-threatening opportunistic infections and cancers to thrive.
HIV (Human Immunodeficiency Virus) infects cells of the immune system and destroys or impairs their function.
Infection progressive deterioration of the immune system breaking down the body's ability to fight out infections & diseases by opportunistic bacteria, viruses and fungi.
AIDS (Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome) refers to the most advanced stages of HIV infection and a collection of signs and symptoms caused by more than 20 opportunistic infections or related cancers.
This is an informative, illustrated presentation about the causes, symptoms, treatment and prevention of HIV AIDS. Gives relevant data, facts and statistics about the disease updated to the most recent 2010 data.
Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) is a lentivirus that causes acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS),a condition in humans in which progressive failure of the immune system allows life-threatening opportunistic infections and cancers to thrive.
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Acquired immune deficiency syndrome or acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) is a disease of the human immune system caused by the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). This condition progressively reduces the effectiveness of the immune system and leaves individuals susceptible to opportunistic infections and tumours. HIV is transmitted through direct contact of a mucous membrane or the bloodstream with a bodily fluid containing HIV, such as blood, semen, vaginal fluid, preseminal fluid, and breast milk. This transmission can involve anal, vaginal or oral sex, blood transfusion, contaminated hypodermic needles, exchange between mother and baby during pregnancy, childbirth, breast feeding or other exposure to one of the above bodily fluids.
Genetic research indicates that HIV originated in west-central Africa during the late nineteenth or early twentieth century. AIDS was first recognized by the U.S. Centres for Disease Control and Prevention in 1981 and its cause, HIV, identified in the early 1980s. Although treatments for AIDS and HIV can slow the course of the disease, there is no known cure or vaccine. Antiretroviral treatment reduces both the mortality and the morbidity of HIV infection, but these drugs are expensive and routine access to antiretroviral medication is not available in all countries. Due to the difficulty in treating HIV infection, preventing infection is a key aim in controlling the AIDS pandemic, with health organizations promoting safe sex and needle-exchange programmes in attempts to slow the spread of the virus.
In the beginning, the U.S. Centres for Disease Control (CDC) did not have an official name for the disease, often referring to it by way of the diseases that were associated with it, for example, lymphadenopathy, the disease after which the discoverers of HIV originally named the virus. The earliest known positive identification of the HIV-1 virus comes from the Congo in 1959 and 1960 though genetic studies indicate that it passed into the human population from chimpanzees around fifty years earlier.
The HIV virus descends from the related simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV), which infects apes and monkeys in Africa. There is evidence that humans who participate in bush meat activities, commonly acquire SIV. To explain why HIV became epidemic, there are several theories, each invoking specific driving factors that may have promoted SIV, rapid transmission of SIV through unsterile injections, colonial abuses and unsafe smallpox vaccinations or prostitution and the concomitant high frequency of genital ulcer diseases (such as syphilis) in nascent colonial cities.
East Right Brain & West Left Brain Cross-Culture Differences and ComplementsJack Carney
Jack’s Cross (X) - Brain & Cultural Model:
Analogy-metaphor of Human Brain & its functional- structural, lateralization-dominance features; applied to X-Cultural Differences West & East. These differences as evolution of Human Species – its adventure – the X-fertilization of cultural opposites.
HIV infection
Mode of transmission, pathogenesis, clinical manifestations, laboratory diagnosis, treatment, prevention, prognosis, scope of AIDS vaccine.
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PSC Knit Impact Glove
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reduced cost of ownership of
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Better Biz Dev – Music Startup Academy Denver - October 8, 2015Shawn Yeager
My talk on the keys to doing better business development delivered to the Music Business Association's Music Startup Academy in Denver on October 8, 2015
Feature I wrote on Las Vegas for the July 2008 issue of Travel Digest. I travelled to this destination as part of attending a travel industry conference which I also reported on.
Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome is severe HIV infection.
There were 940,000 deaths from AIDS in 2017.
Lancet estimated that global incidence of HIV infection peaked in 1997 at 3.3 million/year.
To create awareness from trial and error method of medical science to proper effective treatment at right time , right dosage and with reduced side effects. To create healthy world.
This slide contains information regarding HIV, ARV. This can be helpful for proficiency level and bachelor level nursing students. Your feedback is highly appreciated. Thank you!
1
Final Course Project Outline
Final Course Project Outline: The Role of Pharmaceutical Industry in
the Era of Climate Change
Ruinan Yang
King Graduate School, Monroe College
MG630: Organizational Behavior and Leadership in the 21st Century
Dr. Judith Riggs
November 20, 2021
2
Final Course Project Outline
I. Introduction
a. Environmental, Social and Governance (ESG)
b. Climate change and sustainable development
II. Case Study on Pharmaceutical Companies with Notable ESG
Scores
a. What is ESG score?
b. Case study: Boehringer Ingelheim, a German pharmaceutical company
III. Critical Analysis of The Role of Pharmaceutical Industry on Climate Change
IV. Conclusion: My Role as a Leader
V. Reference
HIV AND AIDS
TITLE
Prepared by:
Teacher :
OUTLINE:
Introduction
Pathogenesis
Risk factors
Clinical Manifestation
Diagnosis
History taking
Physical examination
Laboratory studies
VI. Infection control Policies
VII. Nursing Diagnosis And Intervention
VIII. Summary
OBJECTIVES:
At the end of this lecture, students will be able to:
1. Know and understand what is HIV AND AIDS.
2. Understand the process how disease develop.
3. Practice how to deal and take care a patient according to infection control sets of guidelines.
4. Identify Nursing diagnosis and make interventions that help promote patient care and comfort.
INTRODUCTION
The human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) targets the immune system and weakens people's defense against many infections and some types of cancer that people with healthy immune systems can fight off. As the virus destroys and impairs the function of immune cells, infected individuals gradually become immunodeficient. Immune function is typically measured by CD4 cell count.
The most advanced stage of HIV infection is acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS), which can take many years to develop if not treated, depending on the individual. AIDS is defined by the development of certain cancers, infections or other severe long-term clinical manifestations.
Since HIV was first identified almost 30 years ago, remarkable progress has been made in improving the quality and duration of life for people living with HIV disease.
HIV or human immunodeficiency virus and acquired immunodeficiency syndrome is a chronic condition that requires daily medication.
HIV- 1 is a retrovirus isolated and recognized as the etiologic agent of AIDS.
HIV-2 is a retrovirus identified in 1986 in AIDS patients in West
HIV
AIDS
is defined by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) as any person with HIV infection and a CD4 lymphocyte count below 200 cells/mcL (or a CD4 count below 14%) or having an AIDS-indicator condition
The primary route of transmission of the HIV virus is by entering the mucosal surface (predominantly sexual contact).
Following mucosal entry, the virus binds to peripheral circulating T cells and macrophages (e.g., dendritic cells) that express the CD4 and CCR5 receptors.
As the dis ...
Learning Objectives
Define the recurrent infections and differentiate the patient with a primary immunodeficiency (PID) from the "normal person“.
Recognize infectious signs and symptoms, and opportunistic infections of primary immunodeficiency that warrant screening and referral to a specialist.
Understand noninfectious signs and symptoms that should raise concern for primary immunodeficiency.
Determine appropriate testing for patients for whom immunodeficiency is suspected.
Discuss the management of patients with primary immunodeficiency.
Appreciate secondary causes of immunodeficiency
Prix Galien International 2024 Forum ProgramLevi Shapiro
June 20, 2024, Prix Galien International and Jerusalem Ethics Forum in ROME. Detailed agenda including panels:
- ADVANCES IN CARDIOLOGY: A NEW PARADIGM IS COMING
- WOMEN’S HEALTH: FERTILITY PRESERVATION
- WHAT’S NEW IN THE TREATMENT OF INFECTIOUS,
ONCOLOGICAL AND INFLAMMATORY SKIN DISEASES?
- ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE AND ETHICS
- GENE THERAPY
- BEYOND BORDERS: GLOBAL INITIATIVES FOR DEMOCRATIZING LIFE SCIENCE TECHNOLOGIES AND PROMOTING ACCESS TO HEALTHCARE
- ETHICAL CHALLENGES IN LIFE SCIENCES
- Prix Galien International Awards Ceremony
ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE IN HEALTHCARE.pdfAnujkumaranit
Artificial intelligence (AI) refers to the simulation of human intelligence processes by machines, especially computer systems. It encompasses tasks such as learning, reasoning, problem-solving, perception, and language understanding. AI technologies are revolutionizing various fields, from healthcare to finance, by enabling machines to perform tasks that typically require human intelligence.
micro teaching on communication m.sc nursing.pdfAnurag Sharma
Microteaching is a unique model of practice teaching. It is a viable instrument for the. desired change in the teaching behavior or the behavior potential which, in specified types of real. classroom situations, tends to facilitate the achievement of specified types of objectives.
Report Back from SGO 2024: What’s the Latest in Cervical Cancer?bkling
Are you curious about what’s new in cervical cancer research or unsure what the findings mean? Join Dr. Emily Ko, a gynecologic oncologist at Penn Medicine, to learn about the latest updates from the Society of Gynecologic Oncology (SGO) 2024 Annual Meeting on Women’s Cancer. Dr. Ko will discuss what the research presented at the conference means for you and answer your questions about the new developments.
Title: Sense of Taste
Presenter: Dr. Faiza, Assistant Professor of Physiology
Qualifications:
MBBS (Best Graduate, AIMC Lahore)
FCPS Physiology
ICMT, CHPE, DHPE (STMU)
MPH (GC University, Faisalabad)
MBA (Virtual University of Pakistan)
Learning Objectives:
Describe the structure and function of taste buds.
Describe the relationship between the taste threshold and taste index of common substances.
Explain the chemical basis and signal transduction of taste perception for each type of primary taste sensation.
Recognize different abnormalities of taste perception and their causes.
Key Topics:
Significance of Taste Sensation:
Differentiation between pleasant and harmful food
Influence on behavior
Selection of food based on metabolic needs
Receptors of Taste:
Taste buds on the tongue
Influence of sense of smell, texture of food, and pain stimulation (e.g., by pepper)
Primary and Secondary Taste Sensations:
Primary taste sensations: Sweet, Sour, Salty, Bitter, Umami
Chemical basis and signal transduction mechanisms for each taste
Taste Threshold and Index:
Taste threshold values for Sweet (sucrose), Salty (NaCl), Sour (HCl), and Bitter (Quinine)
Taste index relationship: Inversely proportional to taste threshold
Taste Blindness:
Inability to taste certain substances, particularly thiourea compounds
Example: Phenylthiocarbamide
Structure and Function of Taste Buds:
Composition: Epithelial cells, Sustentacular/Supporting cells, Taste cells, Basal cells
Features: Taste pores, Taste hairs/microvilli, and Taste nerve fibers
Location of Taste Buds:
Found in papillae of the tongue (Fungiform, Circumvallate, Foliate)
Also present on the palate, tonsillar pillars, epiglottis, and proximal esophagus
Mechanism of Taste Stimulation:
Interaction of taste substances with receptors on microvilli
Signal transduction pathways for Umami, Sweet, Bitter, Sour, and Salty tastes
Taste Sensitivity and Adaptation:
Decrease in sensitivity with age
Rapid adaptation of taste sensation
Role of Saliva in Taste:
Dissolution of tastants to reach receptors
Washing away the stimulus
Taste Preferences and Aversions:
Mechanisms behind taste preference and aversion
Influence of receptors and neural pathways
Impact of Sensory Nerve Damage:
Degeneration of taste buds if the sensory nerve fiber is cut
Abnormalities of Taste Detection:
Conditions: Ageusia, Hypogeusia, Dysgeusia (parageusia)
Causes: Nerve damage, neurological disorders, infections, poor oral hygiene, adverse drug effects, deficiencies, aging, tobacco use, altered neurotransmitter levels
Neurotransmitters and Taste Threshold:
Effects of serotonin (5-HT) and norepinephrine (NE) on taste sensitivity
Supertasters:
25% of the population with heightened sensitivity to taste, especially bitterness
Increased number of fungiform papillae
Couples presenting to the infertility clinic- Do they really have infertility...Sujoy Dasgupta
Dr Sujoy Dasgupta presented the study on "Couples presenting to the infertility clinic- Do they really have infertility? – The unexplored stories of non-consummation" in the 13th Congress of the Asia Pacific Initiative on Reproduction (ASPIRE 2024) at Manila on 24 May, 2024.
These simplified slides by Dr. Sidra Arshad present an overview of the non-respiratory functions of the respiratory tract.
Learning objectives:
1. Enlist the non-respiratory functions of the respiratory tract
2. Briefly explain how these functions are carried out
3. Discuss the significance of dead space
4. Differentiate between minute ventilation and alveolar ventilation
5. Describe the cough and sneeze reflexes
Study Resources:
1. Chapter 39, Guyton and Hall Textbook of Medical Physiology, 14th edition
2. Chapter 34, Ganong’s Review of Medical Physiology, 26th edition
3. Chapter 17, Human Physiology by Lauralee Sherwood, 9th edition
4. Non-respiratory functions of the lungs https://academic.oup.com/bjaed/article/13/3/98/278874
Flu Vaccine Alert in Bangalore Karnatakaaddon Scans
As flu season approaches, health officials in Bangalore, Karnataka, are urging residents to get their flu vaccinations. The seasonal flu, while common, can lead to severe health complications, particularly for vulnerable populations such as young children, the elderly, and those with underlying health conditions.
Dr. Vidisha Kumari, a leading epidemiologist in Bangalore, emphasizes the importance of getting vaccinated. "The flu vaccine is our best defense against the influenza virus. It not only protects individuals but also helps prevent the spread of the virus in our communities," he says.
This year, the flu season is expected to coincide with a potential increase in other respiratory illnesses. The Karnataka Health Department has launched an awareness campaign highlighting the significance of flu vaccinations. They have set up multiple vaccination centers across Bangalore, making it convenient for residents to receive their shots.
To encourage widespread vaccination, the government is also collaborating with local schools, workplaces, and community centers to facilitate vaccination drives. Special attention is being given to ensuring that the vaccine is accessible to all, including marginalized communities who may have limited access to healthcare.
Residents are reminded that the flu vaccine is safe and effective. Common side effects are mild and may include soreness at the injection site, mild fever, or muscle aches. These side effects are generally short-lived and far less severe than the flu itself.
Healthcare providers are also stressing the importance of continuing COVID-19 precautions. Wearing masks, practicing good hand hygiene, and maintaining social distancing are still crucial, especially in crowded places.
Protect yourself and your loved ones by getting vaccinated. Together, we can help keep Bangalore healthy and safe this flu season. For more information on vaccination centers and schedules, residents can visit the Karnataka Health Department’s official website or follow their social media pages.
Stay informed, stay safe, and get your flu shot today!
Title: Sense of Smell
Presenter: Dr. Faiza, Assistant Professor of Physiology
Qualifications:
MBBS (Best Graduate, AIMC Lahore)
FCPS Physiology
ICMT, CHPE, DHPE (STMU)
MPH (GC University, Faisalabad)
MBA (Virtual University of Pakistan)
Learning Objectives:
Describe the primary categories of smells and the concept of odor blindness.
Explain the structure and location of the olfactory membrane and mucosa, including the types and roles of cells involved in olfaction.
Describe the pathway and mechanisms of olfactory signal transmission from the olfactory receptors to the brain.
Illustrate the biochemical cascade triggered by odorant binding to olfactory receptors, including the role of G-proteins and second messengers in generating an action potential.
Identify different types of olfactory disorders such as anosmia, hyposmia, hyperosmia, and dysosmia, including their potential causes.
Key Topics:
Olfactory Genes:
3% of the human genome accounts for olfactory genes.
400 genes for odorant receptors.
Olfactory Membrane:
Located in the superior part of the nasal cavity.
Medially: Folds downward along the superior septum.
Laterally: Folds over the superior turbinate and upper surface of the middle turbinate.
Total surface area: 5-10 square centimeters.
Olfactory Mucosa:
Olfactory Cells: Bipolar nerve cells derived from the CNS (100 million), with 4-25 olfactory cilia per cell.
Sustentacular Cells: Produce mucus and maintain ionic and molecular environment.
Basal Cells: Replace worn-out olfactory cells with an average lifespan of 1-2 months.
Bowman’s Gland: Secretes mucus.
Stimulation of Olfactory Cells:
Odorant dissolves in mucus and attaches to receptors on olfactory cilia.
Involves a cascade effect through G-proteins and second messengers, leading to depolarization and action potential generation in the olfactory nerve.
Quality of a Good Odorant:
Small (3-20 Carbon atoms), volatile, water-soluble, and lipid-soluble.
Facilitated by odorant-binding proteins in mucus.
Membrane Potential and Action Potential:
Resting membrane potential: -55mV.
Action potential frequency in the olfactory nerve increases with odorant strength.
Adaptation Towards the Sense of Smell:
Rapid adaptation within the first second, with further slow adaptation.
Psychological adaptation greater than receptor adaptation, involving feedback inhibition from the central nervous system.
Primary Sensations of Smell:
Camphoraceous, Musky, Floral, Pepperminty, Ethereal, Pungent, Putrid.
Odor Detection Threshold:
Examples: Hydrogen sulfide (0.0005 ppm), Methyl-mercaptan (0.002 ppm).
Some toxic substances are odorless at lethal concentrations.
Characteristics of Smell:
Odor blindness for single substances due to lack of appropriate receptor protein.
Behavioral and emotional influences of smell.
Transmission of Olfactory Signals:
From olfactory cells to glomeruli in the olfactory bulb, involving lateral inhibition.
Primitive, less old, and new olfactory systems with different path
Lung Cancer: Artificial Intelligence, Synergetics, Complex System Analysis, S...Oleg Kshivets
RESULTS: Overall life span (LS) was 2252.1±1742.5 days and cumulative 5-year survival (5YS) reached 73.2%, 10 years – 64.8%, 20 years – 42.5%. 513 LCP lived more than 5 years (LS=3124.6±1525.6 days), 148 LCP – more than 10 years (LS=5054.4±1504.1 days).199 LCP died because of LC (LS=562.7±374.5 days). 5YS of LCP after bi/lobectomies was significantly superior in comparison with LCP after pneumonectomies (78.1% vs.63.7%, P=0.00001 by log-rank test). AT significantly improved 5YS (66.3% vs. 34.8%) (P=0.00000 by log-rank test) only for LCP with N1-2. Cox modeling displayed that 5YS of LCP significantly depended on: phase transition (PT) early-invasive LC in terms of synergetics, PT N0—N12, cell ratio factors (ratio between cancer cells- CC and blood cells subpopulations), G1-3, histology, glucose, AT, blood cell circuit, prothrombin index, heparin tolerance, recalcification time (P=0.000-0.038). Neural networks, genetic algorithm selection and bootstrap simulation revealed relationships between 5YS and PT early-invasive LC (rank=1), PT N0—N12 (rank=2), thrombocytes/CC (3), erythrocytes/CC (4), eosinophils/CC (5), healthy cells/CC (6), lymphocytes/CC (7), segmented neutrophils/CC (8), stick neutrophils/CC (9), monocytes/CC (10); leucocytes/CC (11). Correct prediction of 5YS was 100% by neural networks computing (area under ROC curve=1.0; error=0.0).
CONCLUSIONS: 5YS of LCP after radical procedures significantly depended on: 1) PT early-invasive cancer; 2) PT N0--N12; 3) cell ratio factors; 4) blood cell circuit; 5) biochemical factors; 6) hemostasis system; 7) AT; 8) LC characteristics; 9) LC cell dynamics; 10) surgery type: lobectomy/pneumonectomy; 11) anthropometric data. Optimal diagnosis and treatment strategies for LC are: 1) screening and early detection of LC; 2) availability of experienced thoracic surgeons because of complexity of radical procedures; 3) aggressive en block surgery and adequate lymph node dissection for completeness; 4) precise prediction; 5) adjuvant chemoimmunoradiotherapy for LCP with unfavorable prognosis.
Tom Selleck Health: A Comprehensive Look at the Iconic Actor’s Wellness Journeygreendigital
Tom Selleck, an enduring figure in Hollywood. has captivated audiences for decades with his rugged charm, iconic moustache. and memorable roles in television and film. From his breakout role as Thomas Magnum in Magnum P.I. to his current portrayal of Frank Reagan in Blue Bloods. Selleck's career has spanned over 50 years. But beyond his professional achievements. fans have often been curious about Tom Selleck Health. especially as he has aged in the public eye.
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Introduction
Many have been interested in Tom Selleck health. not only because of his enduring presence on screen but also because of the challenges. and lifestyle choices he has faced and made over the years. This article delves into the various aspects of Tom Selleck health. exploring his fitness regimen, diet, mental health. and the challenges he has encountered as he ages. We'll look at how he maintains his well-being. the health issues he has faced, and his approach to ageing .
Early Life and Career
Childhood and Athletic Beginnings
Tom Selleck was born on January 29, 1945, in Detroit, Michigan, and grew up in Sherman Oaks, California. From an early age, he was involved in sports, particularly basketball. which played a significant role in his physical development. His athletic pursuits continued into college. where he attended the University of Southern California (USC) on a basketball scholarship. This early involvement in sports laid a strong foundation for his physical health and disciplined lifestyle.
Transition to Acting
Selleck's transition from an athlete to an actor came with its physical demands. His first significant role in "Magnum P.I." required him to perform various stunts and maintain a fit appearance. This role, which he played from 1980 to 1988. necessitated a rigorous fitness routine to meet the show's demands. setting the stage for his long-term commitment to health and wellness.
Fitness Regimen
Workout Routine
Tom Selleck health and fitness regimen has evolved. adapting to his changing roles and age. During his "Magnum, P.I." days. Selleck's workouts were intense and focused on building and maintaining muscle mass. His routine included weightlifting, cardiovascular exercises. and specific training for the stunts he performed on the show.
Selleck adjusted his fitness routine as he aged to suit his body's needs. Today, his workouts focus on maintaining flexibility, strength, and cardiovascular health. He incorporates low-impact exercises such as swimming, walking, and light weightlifting. This balanced approach helps him stay fit without putting undue strain on his joints and muscles.
Importance of Flexibility and Mobility
In recent years, Selleck has emphasized the importance of flexibility and mobility in his fitness regimen. Understanding the natural decline in muscle mass and joint flexibility with age. he includes stretching and yoga in his routine. These practices help prevent injuries, improve posture, and maintain mobilit
The prostate is an exocrine gland of the male mammalian reproductive system
It is a walnut-sized gland that forms part of the male reproductive system and is located in front of the rectum and just below the urinary bladder
Function is to store and secrete a clear, slightly alkaline fluid that constitutes 10-30% of the volume of the seminal fluid that along with the spermatozoa, constitutes semen
A healthy human prostate measures (4cm-vertical, by 3cm-horizontal, 2cm ant-post ).
It surrounds the urethra just below the urinary bladder. It has anterior, median, posterior and two lateral lobes
It’s work is regulated by androgens which are responsible for male sex characteristics
Generalised disease of the prostate due to hormonal derangement which leads to non malignant enlargement of the gland (increase in the number of epithelial cells and stromal tissue)to cause compression of the urethra leading to symptoms (LUTS
4. Study Design
Case-control study
• Involves grouping people that are in a health-related state or
event as cases and controls and researching their past to see what
made them these cases
• The outcome is always recognized before the exposure
• Retrospective in nature
5. Case-Control Study
Strengths
• Effective for rare diseases
• Inexpensive
• Requires little time
Weaknesses
• Limited to examining one
outcome
• Prone to bias
• Does not offer relative risk or
incidence
6. Case Study #1
MR. T.R.-CHRONIC
ASYMPTOMATIC
HIV INFECTION
37-year-old African-American Male
Imprisoned for 18 years
Visited clinic as apart of the
aftercare set up by the HIV Liaison
Nurse in the prison
Most prisoners are infected in prison
while injecting drugs or having
unsafe sex
The way Mr. T.R. contracted the
disease is unknown
7. Case Study #2
MS. J.B. – ADVANCED HIV
DISEASE
28-year-old Caucasian female
Paramedics found her unconscious
lying in a pool of blood and sweat on
a stained mattress in the living room
Had injection marks on her hands,
neck, and feet
About 79% of women become infected
with HIV through unprotected sex
with men and 19% by injecting drugs
Ms. J.B. died while at the hospital
after suffering cardiac arrest
8. Case Study #3
46-year-old African-American
male
Visits private physician’s office
for routine tests and
monitoring every 3 months
Infected 15 years ago through
unsafe sex with other males
STDs, including hepatitis B and
gonorrhea
Began antiretroviral
medications 7 years ago
MR. C.S. – CHRONIC
ASYMPTOMATIC HIV
INFECTION
9. Case Study #4
MS. N.R. - PRIMARY
ACUTE INFECTION
29-year-old Hispanic female
Admitted through Emergency
Department after fainting in her
home
RPR test indicated syphilis. Patient
admitted to recent, unprotected
sex with new male partner.
HIV tests found to be positive.
10. Case Study #5
MR. A.B. – SEVERE IMMUNE
COMPROMISE
37-year-old Caucasian male
Admitted with fever and
respiration problems
First diagnosed with HIV 12
years ago. Started
antiretroviral treatment 5
years ago
Co-infected with hepatitis C
Diagnosed with PCP and
adenocarcinoma.
Scheduled for radiation
therapy and chemotherapy
11. Case Study #6
20-year-old Caucasian female;
junior in college
Visits Student Health Center
for persistent morning
vomiting
Admits getting drunk and
having unprotected sex
Positive pregnancy test and
positive HIV test
Decides to delay antiretroviral
medications until 2nd trimester
MS. D.D. – CHRONIC ASYMPTOMIC
HIV INFECTION COMPLICATED BY
PREGNANCY
12. Case Study #7
MR. O.S. – SEVERE IMMUNE
COMPROMISE
42-year-old African-American male
Diagnosed with HIV 10 years ago,
receives healthcare from outpatient
clinic
Says he did not verify if partners were
infected
Unable to work since 1997; receives
Social Security disability benefits due
to mental health problems.
Currently lives in a nursing facility
catering to mental health conditions.
13. Case Study #8
MRS. M.T.M. – CHRONIC
ASYMPTOMATIC HIV INFECTION
67-year-old Caucasian; 2
children
Diagnosed with HIV 5 years ago
after donating blood.
Husband died of stroke
Had unprotected intercourse
with boyfriend; boyfriend died
of heart attack
Admitted for mastectomy to
treat breast cancer;
uncomplicated surgery
14. Results
Case Study #1
MR. T.R. – Chronic Asymtomatic HIV
Infection
• No treatment was required because he is
asymtomatic
• Had negative test result for Hepatitis B
surface antigen and positive for Hepatitis B
core antibody which indicated that he was
infected in the past and has recovered.
• Failed to return to his next clinic
appointment and the emergency number he
gave the clinic was disconnected
Case Study #2
MS. J.B. – Advanced HIV Disease
• Had very low CD4+ lyphocyte count, which
showed that Ms. J.B. is in third stage of HIV
infection
• Not able to give a list of her past behaviors
• Most likely got the disease from having
unprotected sex with HIV infected men or
sharing needles
• Suffered a cardiac arrest on the way to the
radiology department
• Five hours later she died after several attemps
to resuscitate her failed
15. Results
Case Study # 3
MR. C.S. – Chronic Asymptomatic HIV
Infection
• Mr. C.S. had an elevated fasting total
cholesterol so he was prescribed atorvastatin
(Lipitor)
• During his next visit he complained about
moderate to severe pain and burning in both
legs
• He was told to discontinue using atorvastatin
because of this and was given some
antiretrovirals to combine
• This allows Mr. C.S. to take all his
antiretroviral medications once daily
Case Study # 4
MS. N.R. – Primary Acute Infection
• Started treatment early in the course of
infection
• Started having terrifying dreams almost every
night which was a side effect of one of the
medications
• Scheduled for a follow up visit when her HIV
resistance test results come in
16. Results
Case Study # 5
MR. A.B. – Severe Immune Compromise
• In the last stage of the HIV disease which
makes him more susceptible to infections
• His lung cancer continured to spread and is
down to 132 pounds.
• He refused additional cancer treatments
• Entered a home hospice program and moved
into his parents house
• Two months later Mr. A.B. died in the
Emergency Department after his mother
called 911 when she was unable to wake him
up
Case Study # 6
MS. D.D. – Chronic Asymptomic HIV Infection
Complicated by Pregnancy
• Decided not to terminate her pregnancy
• Started taking antiretroviral medications
during her second trimester
• Went into labor at 38 weeks and received
zidovudine
• The baby continued to receive zidovudine for
6 weeks and repeated testing showed that she
was uninfected with HIV
17. Results
Case Study # 7
MR. O.S. – Severe Immune Compromise
• In the last stage of the HIV disease
• Two months later, he disappeared from his
care facility and was found looking through
the dumpsters behind a nearby hospital.
• He was hospitalized for mental-health services
Case Study # 8
MRS. M.T.M. – Chronic Asymptomatic
HIV Infection
• In the stage called “Chronic Asymptomatic HIV
Infection”
• She decided not to tell her children and
started going to a support group but quit going
after the third time because it was to
depressing
• She developed a friendship with one of the
women in the group and they accompanied
eachother to their doctor appoitments
• Her surgery had no complications and was
discharged three days post-op
19. Stage 1
Seroconversion illness
Occurs 1-6 weeks after infection.
Once virus enters target host cell in the body, it
undergoes a period of rapid viral replication. During
this time, HIV can grow to several million particles per
milliliter of blood
20. Stage 1 Continued
• Seroconversion illness
Flu-like symptoms may occur. Additionally, the number of circulating CD4 T-lymphocyte cells drops as a result of
CD8 T-lymphocyte cells (which target HIV-infected cells) being activated. This is the stage where the majority of
CD4 cells are depleted; mostly in the intestinal mucosa. HIV targets the T-cells by their CCR5 receptors.
21. Stage 2
Asymptomatic infection
The virus levels fall, but replication is continuous.
CD4 and CD8 T-lymphocyte levels are normal. This
stage has no symptoms and can persist for years. CD8
T cells slow the disease progression, but don’t
eliminate the virus.
23. Stage 4
Symptomatic infection
Symptoms manifest. Because the immune system is
compromised, there is a greater risk for opportunistic
infections. This stage of symptoms is referred to as the
AIDS-related complex (ARC) and is regarded as the
precursor to AIDS.
The virus continues to keep T lymphocytes that are
essential to immune response at a low number.
24. Stage 4 Continued
Symptomatic infection
A normal human gut harbors many microbial agents
and bacteria, which are normally kept in check by
the mucosal immune system. Without it, the threat
of exposure to other sources of illness are greatly
increased.
25. Stage 5
AIDS
Characterized by severe immunodeficiency.
There are signs of life-threatening infections
and unusual tumors. This stage is
characterized by CD4 T-cell count below 200
cells per cubic millimeter.
After diagnosis, life expectancy without
treatment ranges from 6-19 months
26. Stage 6
Nonprogressors
There is a small group of patients who develop AIDS very slowly, or never at all. These patients are
called nonprogressors.
27. Treatments
A cure for HIV/AIDS has yet to be created, but there are several medications that can help control HIV and the many
complications.
• Non-nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors (NNRTIs)
• Nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors (NRTIs)
• Protease inhibitors (PIs)
• Entry or fusion inhibitors
• Integrase inhibitors
28. Medications
Non-nucleoside reverse
transcriptase inhibitors
NNRTIs immobilize a protein that is
necessary for HIV to duplicate
Nucleoside reverse
transcriptase inhibitors
NRTIs are broken down forms of
building blocks that HIV duplicate
Protease inhibitors
PIs incapacitate protease, another
protein that HIV needs to duplicate
29. Medications
These drugs block HIV's entry into
CD4 cells
Integrase inhibitors
Protein that HIV uses to insert its
genetic material into CD4 cells
Entry or fusion inhibitors
30. Diagnosis
HIV is diagnosed by testing your blood or saliva for the antibodies to
the virus.
These types of HIV tests are not correct immediately after you
contract the infection.
It normally takes up to 12 weeks for the antibodies to become
present. Some cases can take up to 6 months for an HIV test to
become positive.
The latest test checks for HIV antigen, a protein created by the virus
immediately after infection. This test can confirm a diagnosis within days
of infection.
The earlier you get tested, the sooner you can take the precautions to
save your life and avoid spreading the disease to others.
32. Tests to Customize Treatment
CD4 count
CD4 cells are a type of white blood
cell that's specifically targeted and
destroyed by HIV. A healthy person's
CD4 count can vary from 500 to
more than 1,000. Even if a person
has no symptoms, HIV infection
progresses to AIDS when his or her
CD4 count becomes less than 200.
Viral load
This test measures the amount of
virus in your blood. Studies have
shown that people with higher viral
loads generally fare more poorly
than do those with a lower viral
load.
Drug resistance
This blood test determines whether
the strain of HIV you have will be
resistant to certain anti-HIV
medications and the ones that may
work better
33. Pertinent Epidemiology
• AIDS was first recognized in
the United States in June of
1981
• First recognized in
homosexual men
• HIV is sexually transmitted,
blood borne, and can be
passed down from mother to
child during child birth or
through breastfeeding
34. Pertinent Epidemiology
• An estimated 34 million
people were living with HIV
worldwide by the end of
2010
• The number of deaths
caused from AIDS in 2010
were 1.8 million
• 1,000 children are newly
infected with HIV everyday
35. Pertinent Epidemiology
How to protect yourself
• Practice safe sex by using
condoms
• Limit the amount of alcohol
you consume
• Do not share syringes or any
type of injection equipment
• Use sterile equipment when
getting tattoos or piercings
36. How has this study helped?
This particular study has been used to help educate
aspiring and current healthcare professionals as a
course in the different stages, treatments and
complications of HIV.
Many older Americans with HIV are typically
diagnosed during the final stages of HIV infection.
As a result, they are often too late to benefit from
antiretroviral medications. Studies like these serve
as public service announcements to inform an
unassuming and at-risk population.
37. How has this study helped?
Studies also help establish a cross-section into the
lives of individuals affected by HIV. The studies
spotlight risky behaviors, sources of illness and
prevalent modes of transmission among exposed
and at-risk individuals. These studies highlight the
significance of access to care, the benefits of safe
sex and the dangers of drug use.
38. How has this study helped?
"When you treat HIV you want to suppress the virus and get the virus
level in the blood so low that it can’t be transmitted to another
person. This not only treats and benefits the patient but it is also
prevents new cases.”
- Anne Spaulding, MD at Rollins School of Public Health
39. The U.S. First Confirmed Case
In 1968, a 15-year-old black male who
lived in St. Louis was hospitalized
He died of an aggressive case of
Kaposi's sarcoma (KS)
His tissue and serum samples tested HIV
positive.
This appears to be the first confirmed
case of HIV infection in the United
States.
40. Historical Figures
First clinical observation of AIDS – 1981
CDC called HIV “lymphadenopathy”, or Kaposi’s Sarcoma and
Opportunistic Infections
CDC called it the 4H disease, as it affected Haitans, Homosexuals,
Hemophiliacs and heroin users
41. Robert Gallo and Luc Montagnier
1983
Two teams, led by Gallo and
Montagnier published their findings in
Science journal
Robert Gallo Luc Montagnier
Gallo isolated a virus from an AIDS
patient which looked similar to human
T-lymphotropic viruses (HTLVs). He
called it HTLV-III.
Montagnier isolated a virus from a
patient with swollen lymph nodes
and lethargy. He showed that core
proteins of the virus were different
from HTLV-1
42. Robert Gallo and Luc Montagnier
The two viruses turned
out to be the same
1986 – LAV and HTLV-III
were renamed HIV
43. Historical Figures
Elizabeth Glaser
She was recognized through her battle
with HIV
Co-founder of one of the top AIDS
charities (Elizabeth Glaser Pediatric
AIDS Foundation)
Died in 1994
Robert Reed
Tested HIV positive in 1991
Died in 1992 from colon cancer
Played Mike Brady on The Brady Bunch
show
44. Historical Figures
Magic Johnson
November 7, 1991 was the day Mr.
Johnson told the world he was HIV
Positive
One of the greatest NBA players of all
time
Freddie Mercury
Tested positive in 1987
Died 4 years after from AIDS related
pneumonia
Lead singer of British group Queen
Eric “Eazy – E” Wright
Died at age 31, a month after he was
diagnosed with AIDS
He gained notoriety from the group
N.W.A., which he cofounded with Dr.
Dre
45. Citations
• Mandal, A. AIDS Pathophysiology. News-medical.net. Online. July 3, 2013. http://www.news-
medical.net/health/AIDS-Pathophysiology.aspx
• Sharp, P. M., & Hahn, B. H. (2010). The evolution of HIV-1 and the origin of AIDS. Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences,365(1552), 2487-2494.
• The Body. Fame and hiv: 15 of histor'ys biggest hiv-positive celebrities.
http://www.thebody.com/content/64374/fame-and-hiv-10-of-historys-biggest-hivpositive.html
• Osmond, D. H. (2003, March). Epidemiology of HIV/AIDS in the United States.
http://hivinsite.ucsf.edu/InSite?page=kb-01-03
• Mayo Clinic Staff. Treatments and drugs. Mayo Foundation for Medical Education and Research. (11
August 2012). http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/hiv-aids/DS00005/DSECTION=treatments-and-
drugs
• Mayo Clinic Staff. HIV/ AIDS: tests and diagnosis. Mayo Foundation for Medical Education and
Research. (11 August 2012). http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/hiv-aids/DS00005/DSECTION=tests-
and-diagnosis
46. Citations
• Joint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS (UNAIDS) (2011)How to get to zero: Faster. Smarter.
Better.
http://www.unaids.org/en/media/unaids/contentassets/documents/unaidspublication/2011/jc221
6_worldaidsday_report_2011_en.pdf
• United States Fund for UNICEF (2013) Join our Fight Againt AIDS
http://www.unicefusa.org/work/hivaids/?gclid=CJbK9KXQmLgCFWhp7AodLScAMg
• amfAR (2013) Basic facts about HIV/AIDS http://www.amfar.org/facts-about-hiv-and-aids/
• Merrill, R. M. (2013). Introduction to epidemiology (6th ed.). Burlington, Mass.: Jones & Bartlett
Learning.