This document provides an overview of the perception of Indonesia's history and culture by Western scholars. It notes that Indonesia has over 300 ethnic groups and widespread religious diversity, including Islam, Hinduism, Buddhism, and Christianity. It discusses how the New Order government suppressed some ethnic and religious conflicts but also exacerbated tensions between groups. It argues that Indonesia has a long history of integrating different cultures and achieving a high degree of interethnic tolerance, and that the country has experienced both democratic developments and authoritarian rule. It examines some specific topics like the 19th century Padris Islamic revival movement in Sumatra and the Arab minority population in Indonesia.
This document discusses social exclusion in Indonesia, particularly of the lower strata which makes up 70% of the population. During Dutch colonial rule, Indonesians were socially excluded and deemed a lower stratum below Europeans, Arabs, and Chinese. More recently, while social stratification has become more open, the majority remain excluded. State policies have emphasized national unity over addressing vertical social classes. Political parties and social organizations also tend to prioritize horizontal religious and ethnic identities over vertical class solidarity, hindering inclusion of the lower strata. Overall social mobility remains low, with positions in middle and upper strata still mostly occupied by those from such backgrounds.
Ernest Renan argued that a nation is defined not by objective criteria like language or culture, but by a subjective "desire to live together" and shared memories of suffering. Ernest Gellner viewed nations as modern constructs that emerged with industrialization to serve the needs of standardized education and mobility. Anthony Smith argued that modern nations have roots in pre-modern "ethnies" defined by shared ancestry, history, culture, and territory. Benedict Anderson conceived of nations as "imagined communities" made possible by the development of print capitalism and vernacular languages that allowed for unified communication over great distances.
This document discusses several key aspects of nationalism including:
1) Nationalism emerged as a relatively recent concept in the 17th-18th centuries and involves the idea of an inclusive nation that treats all members equally and is sovereign.
2) National identity is socially and politically constructed over time and can be used as a resource by leaders to pursue other interests.
3) There are different theories for explaining nationalism including viewing it as arising from primordial bonds, cultural construction, political institutions, and structural forces in society.
Nationalism is a political, social, and economic ideology and movement characterized by the promotion of the interests of a particular nation especially with the aim of gaining and maintaining self-governance over the homeland
Its define as the freedom from being governed or ruled by another country
Self determination means that person makes own decision , plan his or her own future
This document defines key concepts related to nationalism and nation-building. It discusses how nationalism and national identity can develop through either a primordial view that nations have always existed, or a modernity view that they emerged due to social and economic changes like capitalism and industrialization. Benedict Anderson's concept of nations as "imagined communities" is also summarized, where he argues nations emerged from challenges to dynastic rule during the Enlightenment. The document also discusses nation-building as an ongoing struggle, noting examples like the Philippine revolution led by Bonifacio and indigenous intellectual movements introducing concepts like "kapwa" and "bayan" related to Filipino nationalism.
Xinjiang article by Dr. A.R.M. Imtiyaz.doc for 11122013A.R.M. Imtiyaz
This document summarizes theories on ethnic conflict and examines tensions between Uyghurs and Han Chinese in China's Xinjiang region. It argues that Chinese policies promoting assimilation, known as "Chinesization", have fueled ethnic conflict and violence. While both Uyghurs and Han Chinese have engaged in violence, each side's violent actions increase distrust between the groups. The document discusses historical factors contributing to tensions and suggests political solutions like partition or power-sharing could help resolve the protracted conflict.
This document defines and discusses various concepts related to nationalism. It begins by defining a nation as a cultural, political, and psychological community bound together by common language, religion, history and traditions. Nationalism is then defined as the political belief that nations should govern themselves independently.
It goes on to discuss different types of nationalism like liberal nationalism, which supports national self-determination, versus expansionist nationalism, which is more exclusive and chauvinistic. Civic nationalism is defined as being inclusive and based on citizenship, while ethno-cultural nationalism is exclusive and based on descent. Conservative nationalism promotes social cohesion over liberal principles. Anticolonial nationalism emerged in opposition to Western imperialism.
About the Burmese Nationalism
About the rise of Nationalism in Burma
About the Nationalist Movement during the period of the struggle for independence in Myanmar
This document discusses social exclusion in Indonesia, particularly of the lower strata which makes up 70% of the population. During Dutch colonial rule, Indonesians were socially excluded and deemed a lower stratum below Europeans, Arabs, and Chinese. More recently, while social stratification has become more open, the majority remain excluded. State policies have emphasized national unity over addressing vertical social classes. Political parties and social organizations also tend to prioritize horizontal religious and ethnic identities over vertical class solidarity, hindering inclusion of the lower strata. Overall social mobility remains low, with positions in middle and upper strata still mostly occupied by those from such backgrounds.
Ernest Renan argued that a nation is defined not by objective criteria like language or culture, but by a subjective "desire to live together" and shared memories of suffering. Ernest Gellner viewed nations as modern constructs that emerged with industrialization to serve the needs of standardized education and mobility. Anthony Smith argued that modern nations have roots in pre-modern "ethnies" defined by shared ancestry, history, culture, and territory. Benedict Anderson conceived of nations as "imagined communities" made possible by the development of print capitalism and vernacular languages that allowed for unified communication over great distances.
This document discusses several key aspects of nationalism including:
1) Nationalism emerged as a relatively recent concept in the 17th-18th centuries and involves the idea of an inclusive nation that treats all members equally and is sovereign.
2) National identity is socially and politically constructed over time and can be used as a resource by leaders to pursue other interests.
3) There are different theories for explaining nationalism including viewing it as arising from primordial bonds, cultural construction, political institutions, and structural forces in society.
Nationalism is a political, social, and economic ideology and movement characterized by the promotion of the interests of a particular nation especially with the aim of gaining and maintaining self-governance over the homeland
Its define as the freedom from being governed or ruled by another country
Self determination means that person makes own decision , plan his or her own future
This document defines key concepts related to nationalism and nation-building. It discusses how nationalism and national identity can develop through either a primordial view that nations have always existed, or a modernity view that they emerged due to social and economic changes like capitalism and industrialization. Benedict Anderson's concept of nations as "imagined communities" is also summarized, where he argues nations emerged from challenges to dynastic rule during the Enlightenment. The document also discusses nation-building as an ongoing struggle, noting examples like the Philippine revolution led by Bonifacio and indigenous intellectual movements introducing concepts like "kapwa" and "bayan" related to Filipino nationalism.
Xinjiang article by Dr. A.R.M. Imtiyaz.doc for 11122013A.R.M. Imtiyaz
This document summarizes theories on ethnic conflict and examines tensions between Uyghurs and Han Chinese in China's Xinjiang region. It argues that Chinese policies promoting assimilation, known as "Chinesization", have fueled ethnic conflict and violence. While both Uyghurs and Han Chinese have engaged in violence, each side's violent actions increase distrust between the groups. The document discusses historical factors contributing to tensions and suggests political solutions like partition or power-sharing could help resolve the protracted conflict.
This document defines and discusses various concepts related to nationalism. It begins by defining a nation as a cultural, political, and psychological community bound together by common language, religion, history and traditions. Nationalism is then defined as the political belief that nations should govern themselves independently.
It goes on to discuss different types of nationalism like liberal nationalism, which supports national self-determination, versus expansionist nationalism, which is more exclusive and chauvinistic. Civic nationalism is defined as being inclusive and based on citizenship, while ethno-cultural nationalism is exclusive and based on descent. Conservative nationalism promotes social cohesion over liberal principles. Anticolonial nationalism emerged in opposition to Western imperialism.
About the Burmese Nationalism
About the rise of Nationalism in Burma
About the Nationalist Movement during the period of the struggle for independence in Myanmar
Nations are defined by a combination of cultural and political factors. Culturally, they are groups of people who are bound together by a common language, religion, history and traditions. Ultimately, however, nations define themselves through the existence of a shared civic consciousness, classically expressed as the desire to achieve or maintain statehood.
Distinctive cultural and political forms of nationalism can be identified. Cultural nationalism emphasizes the regeneration of the nation as a distinctive civilization on the basis of a belief in the nation as a unique, historical and organic whole. Political nationalism, on the other hand, recognizes the nation as a discrete political com munity, and is thus linked with ideas such as sovereignty and self-determination
There have been a number of contrasting manifestations of political nationalism. Liberal nationalism is based on a belief in a universal right to self-determination. Conservative nationalism values the capacity of national patriotism to deliver social cohesion and political unity. Expansionist nationalism is a vehicle for aggression and imperial conquest. Anticolonial nationalism is associated with the struggle for national liberation, often fused with the quest for social development
The nation-state now confronts a number of challenges. Nation-states have been subject to centrifugal pressures generated by the growth in ethnic politics. Extern ally, they have confronted challenges from the growing power of supranational bodies, the advance of economic and cultural globalization, and the need to find international solutions to the environmental crisis
Giuseppe Mazzini was an Italian revolutionary and nationalist who founded the secret society Young Italy to promote Italian unification and republicanism. He believed a popular uprising could create a unified Italian republic.
Woodrow Wilson was the 28th US President who promoted international cooperation through the League of Nations after World War 1. He believed the League could prevent future wars and that nations must come to mutual understanding for international order.
Vladimir Lenin rejected nationalism and believed revolution was necessary for international socialism. He saw the League of Nations as a deception and believed socialist revolutions worldwide were needed following the Russian Revolution.
The document discusses the role of television fiction in nation building. It examines how television represents national identity through localization, language, cultural symbols, and history. It analyzes how the Aboriginal Peoples Television Network builds nationhood for Indigenous peoples in Canada through storytelling traditions, celebrating accomplishments, and issues of importance to Aboriginal communities. The network uses television to share culture, inspire children, and honor elders in a way that affirms First Nations identity and sovereignty.
The document defines and discusses key concepts related to nation-states. It explains that a nation is a large group of people united by a common culture, language and history, while a state is a political unit that exercises sovereignty over a territory. A nation-state is a state that encompasses the territory of a single nation. Characteristics of nation-states include self-rule, organized government, defined territory, and population. Examples provided are Iceland, Japan and Ireland. The document also discusses the formation and potential future decline of nation-states in a globalized world.
This document discusses the rise of cultural rights and repatriation of cultural objects. It explores how cultural groups are asserting their rights to have cultural property returned, especially objects taken during colonialism. Repatriation raises questions about what constitutes cultural rights and how heritage can authenticate claims. While repatriation can help cultural groups reconnect with their past, it also presents legal issues. The document examines definitions of cultural property and repatriation in international law and how this relates to the ability of cultural groups to make claims and have objects returned.
This document provides an outline of Benedict Anderson's book "Imagined Communities" which examines the concept of nationalism in the global era. Some key points:
- Anderson argues that nations are "imagined communities" that are socially constructed and limited rather than objective realities.
- The rise of print capitalism and standardized languages in the late 18th century helped spread ideas of nationalism by creating unified fields of exchange and communication.
- Different types of nationalism emerged such as creole nationalism in colonial societies and official nationalism promoted by ruling elites to unite diverse empires.
- By the early 20th century, nationalism had become the international norm as modernization and globalization spread concepts of the nation-state worldwide
Cultural imperialism paper 11 Post Colonial StudiesKrishnaPatel380
Colonialism,post colonialism, cultural imperialism, Michel Foucault, Edward Said, Language, Food, Clothes, Brands, Training sysytem of Army,Movies, pop music, Holiday system
Globalization is a new form of imperialism. While globalization has increased communication, trade, and transportation globally, it has also allowed powerful countries to indirectly dominate smaller nations economically, socially, and culturally. Examples include China investing in Africa primarily to access natural resources, and India pressuring Nepal over weapons agreements with other countries. Though globalization provides benefits of increased business and connectivity, it can also exploit weaker countries who have little power over policies set by larger nations.
Framing truth, memory and reconciliation in timor lesteDavid Webster
How are mass atrocities remembered in Timor-Leste? This slideshow overviews depictions created by the Timor-Leste Commission for Reception, Truth, and Reconciliation. Presented at Canadian Council for Southeast Asian Studies, 2013.
Understanding Culture
Culture & Communication, Classical Dominant Approaches of Communication & Culture
Imperialism, Which Motives Caused Imperialism, Cultural Imperialism, Media & Cultural Imperialism, Two Models of Cultural Imperialism, Contributions to Cultural Imperialism, Defense of Cultural Imperialism by Response Theorists, Post Structuralism Approach of Cultural Imperialism, Theory of Globalization, Critics of U.S Cultural Imperialism Revised Their Earlier Reproaches (World System Theory), New Face of Imperialism, The Media Monopoly by Ben Bagdikian , Cultural Imperialism in Pakistan by Abid Zafar
Nationalism involves a strong identification of a group with a political entity defined in national terms, such as a nation. It has both united people and divided them, helping to liberate some from oppressive rule while also causing conflict, bitterness, and war. Nationalist struggles have contributed to the redrawing of state boundaries. A nation is an "imagined community" held together by shared beliefs, history, territory, political ideals, and common political identity among its members.
Edward Said's contribution in postcolonial studies. Anti-Semitism and Anti Muslim sentiment both derived from the same source that is Orientalism and goes in hand in hand with.
Cultural globalization can spread both cultural products like films and songs, as well as cultural attitudes like democracy and human rights. While globalization is often seen as westernization, the West dominated due to historical factors like the Reformation, Renaissance, Industrial Revolution, and strong navies. Cultural globalization in India was impacted by the Aryan migration which introduced the caste system and Sanskrit language, Muslim invasions which spread Islam and influenced art/architecture, and Western colonization which spread Christianity, abolished rituals, introduced education/celebrations, and led to the rise of nationalism and rediscovery of India's past.
The document discusses the history of international systems from ancient times to the present. It describes how systems have evolved from independent city-states and empires to the modern nation-state system. Key points include:
- Ancient systems included the Persian, Greek, Indian, and Roman Empires, which dominated large territories politically and economically.
- The feudal system fragmented power among lords, vassals, and the Catholic Church from the 9th-14th centuries in Europe.
- The modern nation-state system emerged in Europe after the 16th century through the rise of royal authority over the church and decentralization of power.
- European colonization in the 19th century globalized this system
Cultural imperialism involves the promotion and spread of one nation's culture into another nation, often through economic or military power. Historically, empires expanded by conquering other lands and imposing their culture, language, and institutions. In the 20th century, the US and Soviet Union engaged in cultural imperialism through exporting popular culture like films, music, and television. Capitalism is an economic system based on private ownership of production and goods/services created for profit in competitive markets. It developed from interactions between products, capital/consumer goods, labor, land/resources, and private ownership of resources and capital goods. Capitalism involves three interconnected markets of labor, goods/services, and financial systems that regulate money supply and flows
rising graph of intolerance compels me to make this presentation . this presentation doesn't aim at criticizing anyone, the purpose is only awareness.
nation and nationalism connect everyone of us and i do respect and favor nationalism by not surely at the cost of others' denial of rights and integrity. this ppt brings fore revelation about the linked defects in modern meaning of nationalism.
This document discusses cultural imperialism and its effects. It defines cultural imperialism as more powerful cultures promoting themselves over lesser known cultures. It notes that the term emerged in the 1960s. It explores how American mass culture dominates the global cultural sphere through television, film, and advertising. It also discusses how Europe constructed its identity by relegating non-European cultures to secondary status. Additionally, it mentions that cultural diversity is important to preserve, similar to ecological diversity. Finally, it notes that major media companies are now multinational, allowing Western media to impact developing country cultures.
The document discusses different perspectives on cultural globalization and how it relates to culture. It describes culture as a social construction that includes arts, commodified output of industries, and everyday expressions. It also discusses concepts of cultural globalization such as stretching, diffusion, and hybridization. Additionally, it provides a historical perspective on how religions, empires, nation-states, and ideologies have contributed to cultural globalization over time. It examines the role of technologies, industries, and infrastructures in facilitating contemporary cultural globalization.
The document discusses how cultural imperialism through mass media from larger Western nations can negatively impact the national identity and media diversity of smaller nations. It provides examples from the novel "The God of Small Things" of how characters are influenced by Western media imports like television and movies, becoming lazy, selfish or developing unrealistic views of relationships. While Bollywood initially found popularity in places like West Africa, the westernization of newer Bollywood films has lessened their influence as indigenous cultures try to maintain their distinct identities in the face of globalized media.
5 taoism and ethnics- usefulness of the uselessJen W
The document discusses concepts from Eastern philosophy and quantum physics that relate to seeing beyond rigid dualities and embracing paradox. It references Niels Bohr's symbolism of yin and yang, and explores Zhuangzi's idea of "staying at the pivot" to see an entity as both "this" and "that" rather than adhering to one view. Seeing from this perspective allows one to understand the transformations and interconnectedness of all things according to their nature.
This course explores intercultural communication through examining verbal and nonverbal communication patterns in Great Britain. The course objectives are to increase awareness of British communication practices and enhance understanding of intercultural communication concepts. Students will spend more time on field trips than in classrooms, including trips to the House of Commons, markets, parks, and outside London. Assignments include journal entries, a final exam, and a 10-20 page research paper. A tentative course schedule outlines topics, activities, and locations for each day in London and Edinburgh.
This document provides details about a 4-week summer seminar for school teachers on World War I in British culture, to be held in England, France, and Belgium. The seminar will examine British art, museums, monuments, poetry, and memoirs related to WWI to understand its continuing impact on British culture and memory. Week 1-2 will be in London exploring archives and sites. Week 3 will be spent on the Western Front visiting battlefields, memorials, and museums. Week 4 returns to London to discuss the postwar period. Participants will develop a classroom project on how the experience has changed their understanding of WWI.
Nations are defined by a combination of cultural and political factors. Culturally, they are groups of people who are bound together by a common language, religion, history and traditions. Ultimately, however, nations define themselves through the existence of a shared civic consciousness, classically expressed as the desire to achieve or maintain statehood.
Distinctive cultural and political forms of nationalism can be identified. Cultural nationalism emphasizes the regeneration of the nation as a distinctive civilization on the basis of a belief in the nation as a unique, historical and organic whole. Political nationalism, on the other hand, recognizes the nation as a discrete political com munity, and is thus linked with ideas such as sovereignty and self-determination
There have been a number of contrasting manifestations of political nationalism. Liberal nationalism is based on a belief in a universal right to self-determination. Conservative nationalism values the capacity of national patriotism to deliver social cohesion and political unity. Expansionist nationalism is a vehicle for aggression and imperial conquest. Anticolonial nationalism is associated with the struggle for national liberation, often fused with the quest for social development
The nation-state now confronts a number of challenges. Nation-states have been subject to centrifugal pressures generated by the growth in ethnic politics. Extern ally, they have confronted challenges from the growing power of supranational bodies, the advance of economic and cultural globalization, and the need to find international solutions to the environmental crisis
Giuseppe Mazzini was an Italian revolutionary and nationalist who founded the secret society Young Italy to promote Italian unification and republicanism. He believed a popular uprising could create a unified Italian republic.
Woodrow Wilson was the 28th US President who promoted international cooperation through the League of Nations after World War 1. He believed the League could prevent future wars and that nations must come to mutual understanding for international order.
Vladimir Lenin rejected nationalism and believed revolution was necessary for international socialism. He saw the League of Nations as a deception and believed socialist revolutions worldwide were needed following the Russian Revolution.
The document discusses the role of television fiction in nation building. It examines how television represents national identity through localization, language, cultural symbols, and history. It analyzes how the Aboriginal Peoples Television Network builds nationhood for Indigenous peoples in Canada through storytelling traditions, celebrating accomplishments, and issues of importance to Aboriginal communities. The network uses television to share culture, inspire children, and honor elders in a way that affirms First Nations identity and sovereignty.
The document defines and discusses key concepts related to nation-states. It explains that a nation is a large group of people united by a common culture, language and history, while a state is a political unit that exercises sovereignty over a territory. A nation-state is a state that encompasses the territory of a single nation. Characteristics of nation-states include self-rule, organized government, defined territory, and population. Examples provided are Iceland, Japan and Ireland. The document also discusses the formation and potential future decline of nation-states in a globalized world.
This document discusses the rise of cultural rights and repatriation of cultural objects. It explores how cultural groups are asserting their rights to have cultural property returned, especially objects taken during colonialism. Repatriation raises questions about what constitutes cultural rights and how heritage can authenticate claims. While repatriation can help cultural groups reconnect with their past, it also presents legal issues. The document examines definitions of cultural property and repatriation in international law and how this relates to the ability of cultural groups to make claims and have objects returned.
This document provides an outline of Benedict Anderson's book "Imagined Communities" which examines the concept of nationalism in the global era. Some key points:
- Anderson argues that nations are "imagined communities" that are socially constructed and limited rather than objective realities.
- The rise of print capitalism and standardized languages in the late 18th century helped spread ideas of nationalism by creating unified fields of exchange and communication.
- Different types of nationalism emerged such as creole nationalism in colonial societies and official nationalism promoted by ruling elites to unite diverse empires.
- By the early 20th century, nationalism had become the international norm as modernization and globalization spread concepts of the nation-state worldwide
Cultural imperialism paper 11 Post Colonial StudiesKrishnaPatel380
Colonialism,post colonialism, cultural imperialism, Michel Foucault, Edward Said, Language, Food, Clothes, Brands, Training sysytem of Army,Movies, pop music, Holiday system
Globalization is a new form of imperialism. While globalization has increased communication, trade, and transportation globally, it has also allowed powerful countries to indirectly dominate smaller nations economically, socially, and culturally. Examples include China investing in Africa primarily to access natural resources, and India pressuring Nepal over weapons agreements with other countries. Though globalization provides benefits of increased business and connectivity, it can also exploit weaker countries who have little power over policies set by larger nations.
Framing truth, memory and reconciliation in timor lesteDavid Webster
How are mass atrocities remembered in Timor-Leste? This slideshow overviews depictions created by the Timor-Leste Commission for Reception, Truth, and Reconciliation. Presented at Canadian Council for Southeast Asian Studies, 2013.
Understanding Culture
Culture & Communication, Classical Dominant Approaches of Communication & Culture
Imperialism, Which Motives Caused Imperialism, Cultural Imperialism, Media & Cultural Imperialism, Two Models of Cultural Imperialism, Contributions to Cultural Imperialism, Defense of Cultural Imperialism by Response Theorists, Post Structuralism Approach of Cultural Imperialism, Theory of Globalization, Critics of U.S Cultural Imperialism Revised Their Earlier Reproaches (World System Theory), New Face of Imperialism, The Media Monopoly by Ben Bagdikian , Cultural Imperialism in Pakistan by Abid Zafar
Nationalism involves a strong identification of a group with a political entity defined in national terms, such as a nation. It has both united people and divided them, helping to liberate some from oppressive rule while also causing conflict, bitterness, and war. Nationalist struggles have contributed to the redrawing of state boundaries. A nation is an "imagined community" held together by shared beliefs, history, territory, political ideals, and common political identity among its members.
Edward Said's contribution in postcolonial studies. Anti-Semitism and Anti Muslim sentiment both derived from the same source that is Orientalism and goes in hand in hand with.
Cultural globalization can spread both cultural products like films and songs, as well as cultural attitudes like democracy and human rights. While globalization is often seen as westernization, the West dominated due to historical factors like the Reformation, Renaissance, Industrial Revolution, and strong navies. Cultural globalization in India was impacted by the Aryan migration which introduced the caste system and Sanskrit language, Muslim invasions which spread Islam and influenced art/architecture, and Western colonization which spread Christianity, abolished rituals, introduced education/celebrations, and led to the rise of nationalism and rediscovery of India's past.
The document discusses the history of international systems from ancient times to the present. It describes how systems have evolved from independent city-states and empires to the modern nation-state system. Key points include:
- Ancient systems included the Persian, Greek, Indian, and Roman Empires, which dominated large territories politically and economically.
- The feudal system fragmented power among lords, vassals, and the Catholic Church from the 9th-14th centuries in Europe.
- The modern nation-state system emerged in Europe after the 16th century through the rise of royal authority over the church and decentralization of power.
- European colonization in the 19th century globalized this system
Cultural imperialism involves the promotion and spread of one nation's culture into another nation, often through economic or military power. Historically, empires expanded by conquering other lands and imposing their culture, language, and institutions. In the 20th century, the US and Soviet Union engaged in cultural imperialism through exporting popular culture like films, music, and television. Capitalism is an economic system based on private ownership of production and goods/services created for profit in competitive markets. It developed from interactions between products, capital/consumer goods, labor, land/resources, and private ownership of resources and capital goods. Capitalism involves three interconnected markets of labor, goods/services, and financial systems that regulate money supply and flows
rising graph of intolerance compels me to make this presentation . this presentation doesn't aim at criticizing anyone, the purpose is only awareness.
nation and nationalism connect everyone of us and i do respect and favor nationalism by not surely at the cost of others' denial of rights and integrity. this ppt brings fore revelation about the linked defects in modern meaning of nationalism.
This document discusses cultural imperialism and its effects. It defines cultural imperialism as more powerful cultures promoting themselves over lesser known cultures. It notes that the term emerged in the 1960s. It explores how American mass culture dominates the global cultural sphere through television, film, and advertising. It also discusses how Europe constructed its identity by relegating non-European cultures to secondary status. Additionally, it mentions that cultural diversity is important to preserve, similar to ecological diversity. Finally, it notes that major media companies are now multinational, allowing Western media to impact developing country cultures.
The document discusses different perspectives on cultural globalization and how it relates to culture. It describes culture as a social construction that includes arts, commodified output of industries, and everyday expressions. It also discusses concepts of cultural globalization such as stretching, diffusion, and hybridization. Additionally, it provides a historical perspective on how religions, empires, nation-states, and ideologies have contributed to cultural globalization over time. It examines the role of technologies, industries, and infrastructures in facilitating contemporary cultural globalization.
The document discusses how cultural imperialism through mass media from larger Western nations can negatively impact the national identity and media diversity of smaller nations. It provides examples from the novel "The God of Small Things" of how characters are influenced by Western media imports like television and movies, becoming lazy, selfish or developing unrealistic views of relationships. While Bollywood initially found popularity in places like West Africa, the westernization of newer Bollywood films has lessened their influence as indigenous cultures try to maintain their distinct identities in the face of globalized media.
5 taoism and ethnics- usefulness of the uselessJen W
The document discusses concepts from Eastern philosophy and quantum physics that relate to seeing beyond rigid dualities and embracing paradox. It references Niels Bohr's symbolism of yin and yang, and explores Zhuangzi's idea of "staying at the pivot" to see an entity as both "this" and "that" rather than adhering to one view. Seeing from this perspective allows one to understand the transformations and interconnectedness of all things according to their nature.
This course explores intercultural communication through examining verbal and nonverbal communication patterns in Great Britain. The course objectives are to increase awareness of British communication practices and enhance understanding of intercultural communication concepts. Students will spend more time on field trips than in classrooms, including trips to the House of Commons, markets, parks, and outside London. Assignments include journal entries, a final exam, and a 10-20 page research paper. A tentative course schedule outlines topics, activities, and locations for each day in London and Edinburgh.
This document provides details about a 4-week summer seminar for school teachers on World War I in British culture, to be held in England, France, and Belgium. The seminar will examine British art, museums, monuments, poetry, and memoirs related to WWI to understand its continuing impact on British culture and memory. Week 1-2 will be in London exploring archives and sites. Week 3 will be spent on the Western Front visiting battlefields, memorials, and museums. Week 4 returns to London to discuss the postwar period. Participants will develop a classroom project on how the experience has changed their understanding of WWI.
This chapter discusses the increasing diversity in the US population and the need for intercultural communication. It notes that technological changes have made the world smaller and increased interactions between diverse groups. However, without effective communication, differences can lead to conflict as seen in ethnic conflicts around the world. The chapter then outlines several benefits of intercultural communication, including healthier communities, increased commerce, reduced conflict, and personal growth. It also discusses the growing racial and ethnic diversity in the US according to census data, with the Hispanic population increasing most significantly. The chapter emphasizes that competence in intercultural communication is necessary to manage diversity and global interactions.
The document is a student workbook for a class on music in film. It includes a class syllabus, unit guides on various aspects of film scoring, and viewing guides for specific films. The syllabus outlines grading, assignments, and a schedule that covers the history of film music from the 1930s to modern times. It also lists composers and films that will be studied throughout the course. The unit guides provide examples of how music can intensify or relax the pace of a film, create atmosphere, hit the action, and provide insight. Specific film scenes are referenced as examples.
This book contains essays that examine various aspects of British culture and society in the 1970s. It is divided into sections on politics and art, media and social change, youth cultures, film production contexts, and social spaces. The essays explore cultural interventions, social experiments, and developments from this transformative decade, seeking to present a more nuanced understanding of the 1970s as a period of cultural exuberance rather than just kitsch and decline.
The document provides information on the test design and framework for the English assessment. It describes the two tests that make up the assessment, including the content areas covered, number of questions, and percentage of the total test score derived from each section. It also provides more detailed frameworks and objectives for the content areas of comprehension of literary and informational texts, reading skills and strategies, writing conventions and processes, writing for various purposes, and oral and visual communications.
The document provides an overview of developments in British theatre from the 1940s to present day. It discusses the rise of social realism in the 1940s-1950s influenced by Samuel Beckett and Bertolt Brecht. The 1960s-1970s saw "shock tactics" and the growth of alternative theatre. The 1980s-1990s explored the impact of Margaret Thatcher's government. Significant playwrights mentioned include Harold Pinter, Caryl Churchill, Tom Stoppard, Alan Bennett, and Willy Russell. The summary also highlights theatre in Scotland, for women, and from ethnic minority groups.
This document discusses cultural translation and intercultural communication. It defines cultural translation as the process anthropologists and ethnographers use to interpret and translate the language, culture, and way of life of an indigenous group into the researcher's own language and from the perspective of their academic culture. Cultural translation involves comprehending the "other" through the lens of the researcher's professional training, personal motivations, and the prevailing cultural views of the society they live in. More broadly, cultural translation is the interpretation and appropriation of another culture according to one's own cultural knowledge and values.
The document summarizes cultural issues that arose after the merger of German company Daimler and American company Chrysler. Germans preferred structured, detailed processes for decision making, while Americans liked more flexible, creative processes. Germans were frustrated by the lack of protocols in American meetings, while Americans found Germans too rigid and formal. These differences in management style and communication led to conflicts and misunderstandings. DaimlerChrysler later invested in cultural training to help employees from both countries understand and adapt to each other's working styles.
The document discusses cultural differences that can impact negotiations between British and European negotiators. Some key points include:
- The British have a tendency to "hint" rather than state things directly, which can make their positions and needs unclear to counterparts from more direct cultures.
- British conversational style involves speaking quickly in a soft tone of voice and avoiding generalizations, which contrasts with styles in other European countries.
- British negotiators may seem individualistic and unpredictable compared to counterparts from cultures with stronger rules around relationships.
- British negotiators focus heavily on quantitative details and accounting perspectives due to an emphasis on business pragmatism.
- There are differing views between the British and other Europeans
This document discusses the state of Cultural Studies in Spanish English departments. It notes that while Cultural Studies has gained popularity, there are still challenges to its acceptance and institutionalization in Spain. Cultural Studies scholars in Spain tend to study more marginalized texts and take interdisciplinary approaches, but still face resistance from those holding more traditional views. The future of Cultural Studies in Spain depends on establishing its methodologies more firmly within English programs and gaining wider acceptance across disciplines, which will take continued enthusiasm and support over many years.
goingglobal-session-2-1225-thursday-elt-roger-hawkey-paperJen W
This document summarizes a study conducted by Cambridge ESOL Examinations on the impacts of the IELTS exam. The study explored the effects of the exam on candidates, preparation courses, and receiving institutions. It utilized questionnaires for candidates and teachers, lesson observations, and material reviews to understand test anxiety, motivation, preparation methods and satisfaction. Over 500 candidates from major test-taking regions completed questionnaires providing insights into their experiences, strategies, and attitudes towards IELTS.
This document provides information about the JCOM 368 Intercultural Communication course taught at The Ohio State University in Fall Quarter 2001. The course objectives focus on applying theory and research to increase understanding of culture and communication across cultures. Students will examine cultural similarities and differences, the role of nonverbal communication in intercultural relationships, barriers to effective intercultural communication, and skills to improve intercultural competence. Coursework includes lectures, discussions, activities and a final group project applying course concepts to develop an intercultural training packet and presentation. Grades are based on exams, papers, projects, presentations and class participation.
The 5th International Conference on Intercultural Communication Competence was held in Wichita, Kansas from May 21-23, 2008. The conference was a great success with 139 attendees from over 15 countries and many US states. Participants found the conference to be very well organized and enjoyed the high quality presentations, workshops and opportunities to network. Many attendees expressed interest in future collaborations with Wichita State University faculty. The conference helped strengthen partnerships between the College of Education and local school districts. It also led to plans for future publications and international conferences on intercultural communication topics.
The document analyzes the themes presented at the 14th Congress of the Nordic Network for Intercultural Communication on identity in a globalized world. It identifies key topics related to culture and identity based on a content analysis of presentation abstracts. The top themes included cultural identity, cultural differences, cultural learning, and the role of context like cultural environment, globalization, and media in shaping cultural identity. Over a third of presentations discussed aspects of cultural identity, showing it is a core theme in analyzing identity and intercultural communication.
This document discusses key concepts in intercultural communication. It defines intercultural communication as occurring when individuals from different cultural communities negotiate shared meanings. It notes there are varying definitions of what constitutes a culture. The document also discusses how interactions exist on a continuum from highly intercultural to highly interpersonal. It outlines theories of ascribed and avowed group identity and the communication theory of identity. Elements of intercultural communication competence are identified, including language proficiency, sensitivity to nonverbal communication, flexibility, and avoiding ethnocentrism. A developmental model of intercultural sensitivity is presented that progresses from denial to integration of cultural differences.
This course explores British popular culture through a cultural studies framework. It examines how identity, class, gender, race and sexuality are represented in popular forms like film, television and advertising. Students will analyze theoretical debates, apply theory to visual texts, and engage with British cultural sites through field trips and film screenings. Key topics include the study of popular culture, gender representation, class and taste, and analyzing local Brighton culture.
Dewar-Li-Davis - photographic images in tourism advertising - 24 June 06Jen W
This document summarizes a study that used Q methodology to examine how Canadian university students, Chinese university students, and Chinese students acculturated through study in Canada perceive photographic images related to tourism and travel destinations. The study found that cultural background strongly influences how individuals interpret and view travel-related photographs. Chinese students viewed images differently than Chinese students exposed to North American culture through study in Canada, and both Chinese student groups viewed images differently than Canadian students. The study demonstrates that cultural lenses shape expectations and experiences with travel photography, and that marketers need to carefully select images that will be interpreted appropriately by different cultural audiences.
The document discusses how Jesuits acted as knowledge brokers between Europe and China from 1582 to 1773, shaping European views of China. It argues that while scholars largely attribute the shift from European admiration to disdain for China to endogenous changes in Europe, the Jesuits also contributed through how they transmitted information. As the sole intermediaries between the cultures, Jesuits' personal motivations and barriers to cross-cultural understanding impacted the one-dimensional image of China conveyed to Europe. This image contributed to later Orientalist views by reducing China and using it to define European identity.
Indonesian Multiculturalism: Risks and ChallengesIJRESJOURNAL
ABSTRACT. Indonesia is a multicultural country with full diversity. Indonesia consists of diverse culture, local language, race, ethnicity, religion and beliefs, etc. There are risks and challenges of diversity in Indonesia. Therefore, such diversity must be managed properly to avoid problems and conflicts. Lately, it appears many of the problems of diversity in Indonesia. Conflicts among tribes, religions, beliefs and groups are frequent. Conflict occurs in the form of thought and physical. Although the conflict is normal in a multicultural society, the conflict will be a major issue if not managed properly. This article discusses the risks and challenges faced by Indonesia in managing cultural diversity.
This document discusses social exclusion in Indonesia, particularly of the lower strata which makes up 70% of the population. During Dutch colonial rule, Indonesians were socially excluded and stratified below Dutch/Europeans and some other ethnic groups. More recently, while social stratification has opened up somewhat, the majority remains marginalized. Historical and cultural factors from Indonesia's diverse influences, as well as the influence of competing ideologies like nationalism, Islam, and communism, have impacted social structures in ways that prevent inclusion of the lower strata. State policies under Sukarno also emphasized national unity and spatial integration over addressing vertical social inequalities.
Nationalism is a complex concept with no agreed-upon definition. It is generally associated with the French Revolution but some scholars argue it emerged earlier. Nationalism can be viewed as an abstract group identity or as a natural distinction between groups. It has been argued to have both constructive and destructive effects. While nationalism may promote isolation, some scholars believe it can also facilitate global integration as local identities are strengthened alongside growing international connections. The relationship between colonizers and colonized was sometimes positive with cultural exchange and economic development, contradicting arguments that colonialism inherently caused underdevelopment.
This document provides an introduction to ethnicity in Sindh, Pakistan. It begins with dictionary definitions of ethnicity as relating to a common cultural tradition or origin. It then discusses ethnicity as a social group that shares cultural heritage, ancestry, language, religion, cuisine and other symbolic systems. Pakistan is described as a multiethnic country with over 60 languages spoken and dozens of ethnic groups residing within its borders. The largest ethnic groups are Punjabis, Pashtuns, Sindhis, Saraikis, Mohajirs, and Balochis. The document provides statistics on the main languages spoken in Pakistan and the percentages of the population that speak each as their native language.
The Rwandan genocide of 1994 resulted in the deaths of over 800,000 Tutsi and moderate Hutu people. Tensions between the Hutu and Tutsi ethnic groups had been exacerbated by colonial policies that favored the Tutsi minority. After Rwanda gained independence in 1962, Hutu extremists took power and discrimination against Tutsi increased. The assassination of the Hutu president in 1994 triggered the genocide, as Hutu militias and civilians began systematically killing Tutsi civilians. The UN and international community failed to intervene to stop the killings despite warnings, resulting in one of the fastest and largest mass killings of the 20th century over the span of around 100 days. The genocide had devastating impacts on Rwandan society and
Global Threats The Problem of Protection from ThemYogeshIJTSRD
The article presents scientific views on the history of mankind and the current global threats, their dangers and nature. In particular, the existence of constructive ideas and destructive ideas influences their interests. Xolbekova Mavluda Usmanovna | Tajibayev Muxiddin Abdurashidovich "Global Threats - The Problem of Protection from Them" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Special Issue | International Research Development and Scientific Excellence in Academic Life , March 2021, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd38721.pdf Paper Url: https://www.ijtsrd.com/humanities-and-the-arts/social-science/38721/global-threats--the-problem-of-protection-from-them/xolbekova-mavluda-usmanovna
Literaure circle presentation simeen tabatabaiGary Cimorelli
The document provides background information on the Hutu and Tutsi ethnic groups in Burundi. It discusses their origins, languages, religions, populations, and the social and political differences that emerged between the groups. It describes how Belgian colonizers exacerbated existing divisions by favoring Tutsis over Hutus and classifying them as racially distinct. This colonial system and the ending of Tutsi monarchies after independence led to ethnic conflict, genocide, and civil war in both Rwanda and Burundi in the 1990s and 2000s.
Abstract: National integration is an idea of belongingness to a nation. Secularism, a word patronized by G.H. Holyoaks means separation of the church from the state and gives a position of neutrality between different religions. Integration is more of a geographical identity and touches the core of sensitivity to national activities and causes. Secularism is an important aspect of Indian society, for this India is known in the entire world. A unique feature of our country is that it is the playground of all the major religions of the world and these have flourished here since their inception in the country. The Sanatana Dharma as understood from Vedas talks of essential unity of manhood. From time immemorial we find the common people in villages lived harmoniously for centuries without being disturbed by the wars waged by the rulers. The invasions of Mughal and Aryans and their like added cultures and religions to the already diversified India. The disrupters of communal harmony has its roots in the divide & rule policy practiced by the British and after the independence, it is due to the electoral politics pursued by the politicians. The cross border import of communalism encouraged by the vested interests also fueled tensions within the religion and then the country. Underneath the turbulence of communal discord, we find a natural tendency of the people for an inherent secularism in our country. One can worship a god of one’s choice based on family values or adherences, and respect others for having their own sense of this. An attempt is made in this article to explain the sources of discord among the religions and we tried to present a few solutions as well. The article tries to study the inherent secular values of the Indians and try to portray things from Indian perspective.
Cultural diversity is the term used to describe many different cultures co-existing within one larger culture. The fact that we can eat so many different types of cuisine in the United States is because people from other countries have immigrated to the US and brought aspects of their own cultures with them. This means that under the umbrella of American culture there are actually many different ethnic traditions being practiced in communities around the country.
As an abstract concept, cultural diversity is actually pretty straightforward; however, finding a concrete definition of culture can be a little bit tricky. This is because the definition of culture can change depending on who's using it and the context in which it's being used. For example, some people use the term to describe the creative arts, like dancing or painting, while others use it in a much broader context to refer to all of the traditions, practices, and belief systems of a particular population of people. For the purposes of this lesson, we are going to look at culture as the latter of these two definitions.
The Rwandan genocide of 1994 resulted in the deaths of over 800,000 Tutsi and moderate Hutus. Tensions between the Hutu majority and Tutsi minority had been exacerbated by colonialism and a civil war. When the Hutu president's plane was shot down, extremist Hutu militias began systematically killing Tutsis and moderate Hutus. The UN and international community failed to intervene to stop the genocide in a timely manner.
This document discusses theories of global culture and cultural flows, focusing on cultural differentialism. It defines cultural differentialism as the theory that cultures remain stubbornly different and unaffected by globalization. It discusses Samuel Huntington's "Clash of Civilizations" theory, which argues major world civilizations like Western, Islamic, and Sinic differ greatly in philosophy and outlook. Huntington believed clashes would occur at fault lines between civilizations, and that the West should maintain its distinct identity and leadership role to survive. The document thus presents cultural differentialism as positing lasting cultural differences that resist global homogenization.
Samuel Huntington was an influential American political scientist known for his theory of a post-Cold War world order outlined in his 1993 article "The Clash of Civilizations?" and subsequent 1996 book. He argued that future conflicts would occur along cultural and religious lines between major civilizations, namely Western, Orthodox, Islamic, Hindu, African, and Sinic civilizations. Huntington defined civilizations based on religion, language, history, and values. He believed the most prevalent conflicts would be between Islamic and non-Islamic civilizations due to factors like religious differences and the Islamic resurgence. His thesis was influential but also highly criticized for overgeneralizing cultures and ignoring internal political factors driving conflicts.
This article analyzes how the 1947 Partition of India led to the development of a pathological political system in India and Pakistan characterized by communal animosity and hostility. The Partition involved massive violence, population transfers, and trauma that have endured over decades and worsened relations between the countries. The author argues that the Partition epitomizes negative identity politics when fear, mistrust, and insecurity reign. It set in motion processes that legitimized pathological, ethnicized political behavior focused on rejection, exclusion, and the use of force. This paradigm has informed politics in both countries and contributed to their current potential for nuclear conflict, making South Asia the most dangerous nuclear flashpoint.
2Ethnographic Research about the Popular CultureSummaryInt.docxtarifarmarie
2
Ethnographic Research about the Popular Culture
Summary/Introduction
Ethnography is a crucial aspect of the society, as it does not only represent a people of various backgrounds, but it also enables researchers to explain the means to coexistence among different sets of cultures. Cultural differences manifest in various social institutions such as the political setup of a community, social norms, cultural beliefs of a community, the economic system, and an identity language of a community. With the knowledge of cultural diversity, an individual realizes the importance of promoting peaceful coexistence in the society as compared to when a person only knows about his or her culture and expects others to conform to it. To develop a better understanding of the difference in cultural patterns between communities, it is important that a person first recognize the equality of the human race since this will not only enable him or her to shun perceived prejudices, but it will also enable the person to appreciate the diversity of race. On this note, an ethnographic research of the popular culture will present the cultural patterns that are unique to particular communities in the world.
The popular culture
The popular culture has become a crucial aspect of the contemporary world. I have chosen this topic because I want to establish the cultural patterns exhibited by the multi-racial population in the United States and the world beyond. According to Fiske (93), the popular culture bears a significant impact on the world’s major social institutions. According to Lowenthal (22), the popular culture originated from the United States during the Harlem Renaissance. In this way, it is imperative to relate to the current American homogeny and its influence on the world’s cultural patterns. Moreover, an ethnographic research about the popular culture illuminates our understanding of the influence of the American homogeny on the world’s politics considering the superpower aspect of the United States. As Hammersley (17) points out, the multi-racial aspect of the America’s population is observed in everyday life especially in colleges and places of work. Therefore, I will access the community by observing the multi-racial population of my college.
The Origin of the Popular Culture
In essence, Ross notes that the popular culture developed during the aftermath of the Harlem Renaissance after the end of the civil war. During this period, the United States of America experienced an economic boom that was later followed by an instant recession, which, in turn, caused a widespread economic crisis. Despite the scary crisis, Americans still rejoiced in their victory in the civil war, in which African Americans contributed significantly.
The Evolution of the Popular Culture
Ross points out that previously, the popular culture was characterized by Jazz and graffiti, which were the main forms of musical entertainment and street art respectively. However, Mauch notes that.
The document discusses cross-cultural communication skills and how they can help reduce ethnocentrism and promote ethno-relative understanding and acceptance of cultural differences. It defines ethnocentrism as evaluating other cultures based on the standards of one's own culture and outlines Bennett's Developmental Model of Intercultural Sensitivity, which describes a progression from ethnocentric to ethno-relative stages of cultural understanding through cross-cultural communication skills. Developing these skills can help individuals adapt to other cultures while maintaining their own identities, fostering cultural coexistence and respect for differences.
This document provides information about an international business communication course titled "Intercultural Communication in Business" taught in the fall of 2006. The course aims to help students develop intercultural competence through developing awareness of cultural influences on business. Students will analyze case studies of different cultures and develop communication skills for international business contexts. The course will use lectures, discussions, simulations and presentations. Students will be evaluated based on attendance, presentations, exams and a group project analyzing cultural influences on business communication.
This document provides a detailed overview of youth culture and popular spaces in South Korea since the early 1990s. It focuses on two areas in particular - "the Hongik University Area" and Apgujungdong in Seoul. It describes how these areas emerged as hubs for youth culture, with cafes, clubs, and shops catering to young people. It discusses how youth expressed themselves through fashion, music, and socializing in these spaces. While some criticized these areas as superficial or capitalist, the document argues they also provided spaces for progressive self-expression as youth explored new identities outside of traditional Korean norms. The document uses these areas as a lens to examine the transformations in Korean popular and youth culture over recent decades.
This chapter discusses intercultural communication in organizations. It aims to help students understand how cultural contexts, environmental contexts, and perceptual contexts affect business across cultures. Some key points covered include how dimensions of culture like individualism/collectivism, power distance, and uncertainty avoidance influence organizational values and practices. The chapter also compares managerial styles and manager-subordinate relationships in Japan, Germany, and Arab countries.
The document provides information about the Summer Institute for Intercultural Communication hosted by the Intercultural Communication Institute in 2010. It includes a letter of invitation welcoming participants, the schedule of the 3-5 day workshops on various intercultural topics being offered, and a sample of one-day workshops also being offered. The workshops are aimed at providing professional development for people working in intercultural fields and issues.
This document provides definitions for key terms used in Stuart Hall's essay "Encoding/Decoding" including articulation, ideology, sign, code, language, and polysemy. It explains that articulation refers to connections, ideology refers to beliefs that characterize a society, and signs, codes, and language are related terms from semiotics referring to things that represent other things according to conventions. Polysemy means a sign can have different meanings. The document asks questions about Hall's arguments against the standard communication model, how encoding and decoding are organized by codes, why the moments of encoding and decoding are important, and how production and reception are related.
This document provides an overview of the Tokugawa period in Japan from 1603 to 1868. It summarizes that early histories described the Tokugawa system as oppressive feudal rule, but newer scholarship finds it was a time of significant social and economic growth. The Tokugawa shogunate established a centralized bureaucratic system and balanced authority with autonomy for daimyo lords. During this period, Japan experienced rapid economic growth through increased agricultural production, development of trade and markets, and urbanization. This growth benefited merchants and peasants more than the samurai class.
Stuart Hall argued that the British press framed street crime as a "race" issue to distract from the country's economic crisis. Within Marxist theory, there are two models of racism - the relative autonomy model views racism and class as interconnected but separate phenomena, while the autonomy model sees racism as arising independently from class relations. Later theorists attempted to unify these perspectives by arguing racism is part of societal structures but must be analyzed historically in different contexts.
This document outlines a proposed 6-week Indian culture unit for high school students. The unit will begin with lectures on Indian history and culture. Students will then watch and analyze two films, Gandhi and Lagaan, to learn about India. The next part of the unit focuses on reading, including the novel Nectar in a Sieve. Various activities are designed to improve reading comprehension. The overall goals are to help students learn about other cultures and increase cultural acceptance and interest in foreign topics.
This document discusses the history of teaching culture in the foreign language classroom. It covers how culture was traditionally taught through a focus on literature and facts about the target culture. More recently, approaches have emphasized understanding cultural values and behaviors. The document examines different frameworks for conceptualizing and teaching culture over time, from the 1960s to present. It argues that effectively teaching culture involves understanding behaviors and mindsets below the surface level of awareness.
This document provides a guide to British culture for visitors to the UK. It begins with an introduction that gives some key facts about the UK population and diversity. It then covers various aspects of British culture such as religion, families, relationships, communication styles, socializing habits, and body language norms. Throughout it includes observations and anecdotes from both British people and foreign visitors. The overall goal is to help visitors adapt more quickly to the local cultural context.
This document discusses emotions and their role in intercultural communication. It argues that the ability to regulate emotions is key to effective intercultural communication and adjustment. It describes how culture influences verbal language, nonverbal behavior, and the communication process. Intercultural communication is defined as involving interactants from different cultures and inherent uncertainty and ambiguity. Conflict and misunderstandings are inevitable in intercultural encounters due to cultural differences in communication norms and decoding of behaviors. The ability to regulate emotions allows for successful resolution of conflicts arising in intercultural interactions and leads to more effective long-term intercultural communication.
This document is a dissertation submitted by William P. Lipscomb III to the Graduate Faculty of Louisiana State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Communication Studies. The dissertation analyzes the relationship between professional wrestling as performance and its fans. It examines professional wrestling through four cultural sites - the historical archive, live events, televised events, and the internet - focusing on how components define wrestling, how they operate, and their purpose. Drawing on theories of performance and culture, the dissertation investigates whether wrestling functions with an "operational aesthetic" that exposes rather than veils its operations to viewers.
This document is the introduction to Teresa Mastalerz's diploma thesis on incorporating elements of British culture into teaching English to secondary school students in Poland. It provides sample lesson plans on selected British saints.
The introduction summarizes the theoretical background covered in the first three chapters on the concept of culture, the relationship between culture and language, and incorporating culture into English language teaching. It then justifies the choice of focusing on British patron saints in the sample lesson plans. The plans aim to find similarities between cultures and stimulate further learning.
The introduction concludes by stating that the lesson plans follow the concept that culture is an inherent part of teaching a foreign language and that learning culture and language should be integrated.
This document provides an author index for a document on British theology. It lists authors alphabetically from Abbey, Charles John to [Baxter, Andrew] and includes brief descriptions of each author and their works. The index contains over 100 entries of authors and their theological writings, sermons, poems, and other works related to the study of religion in Britain.
The document summarizes a summer course on intercultural communication offered by the Netherlands Institute for Academic Studies in Damascus from June 27th to July 8th, 2010. The course aims to improve students' intercultural communication skills. It is unique in that it brings a Dutch course on this topic to the Middle East. The course will examine communication between those with Western and Middle Eastern backgrounds, with a focus on Syria. It involves readings before the first week, lectures and workshops over two weeks addressing informal, professional, and organizational communication.
This document contains 10 multiple choice questions about cultural practices and norms in different countries. The questions cover topics such as how Americans approach arguments, the importance of "face" in China, typical negotiating tactics of Germans, gift giving customs in Columbia, the role of rumors in Spain, the percentage of women on executive boards in various countries, and etiquette practices in Japan, the Arab world, and Spain. The document is a quiz that tests knowledge of intercultural communication and business norms across societies.
This document provides guidance on obtaining British Film Certification under Schedule 1 to the Films Act 1985. It outlines the application process and requirements to pass the Cultural Test and be certified as a British film. Key points include:
- Applications must be made by a UK-registered film production company.
- To pass the Cultural Test and be certified as a British film, a film must score at least 16 points out of a possible 31 under criteria examining creative control, expenditures and cultural contribution.
- Applications should include a completed form, shooting script and accountant's report if claiming points for UK expenditures.
- Certificates will be issued within 21 days if the application is complete and the film passes the Cultural
The Birmingham School, led by Stuart Hall, was a key contributor to Cultural Studies. Hall and his students at the Birmingham School developed important concepts such as encoding/decoding, resistance, hegemony, and homology. Many of Hall's students went on to become influential professors in the field of Cultural Studies, including Dick Hebdige, Larry Grossberg, and Angela McRobbie. This lecture aims to provide a critical assessment of Stuart Hall and the influential Birmingham School.
1. The perception of Indonesia’s history and culture by Western
historians and social scientists
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Helmut Lukas
Austrian Academy of Sciences, Commission for Social Anthropology, Vienna (Austria)
Indonesia’s Cultural Diversity in Times of Global Change
A one-day seminar organized by the Indonesian Embassy, Brussels
In cooperation with The European Institute for Asian Studies, Brussels
The Royal Academy of Overseas Sciences, Brussels
And The International Institute for Asian Studies, Leiden, The Netherlands
Monday, 16 December 2002
Hotel Tulip Inn Brussels Boulevard,
Avenue du Boulevard 17,
1210 Brussels
1. Introduction
Indonesia is one of the largest insular nations in the world. Moreover, it is also the world's
most splintered country. Indonesia, inhabited by 220 Mio. people, holds the fourth position as
one of the most populated nations in the world after China, India and the U.S.A. The extreme
insular fragmentation results in an amazing ethnic and cultural heterogeneity. There are more
than 300 ethnic groups within the Indonesian territory in which just as many different
languages are spoken. Thus Indonesia is one of the most pluralistic countries with the widest
diversity in languages in the world. Apart from a great number of regional idioms there is,
however, bahasa Indonesia - a national language derived from Malay during the War of
Independence, in the true sense of the word embodying the national unity and the
independence of Indonesia. Hence, Indonesia is one of the few nations of the so-called Third
World which did not have to fall back on its former colonial power after gaining its
independence in order to counteract the above mentioned sort of babylonic fragmentation of
languages within the vast insular empire. What is more, Indonesia generated or harboured
virtually all the major world religions – Islam, Hinduism, Confucianism, Buddhism, and
Christianity of all kinds as well as a vast variety of tribal religions (Geertz 1994:12).
1
2. The picture of a more or less peaceful co-existence of so many different ethnic groups,
religious communities and social classes in the past emerges as myth and forged history.
Periods of comparative peace and stability were periodically interrupted by regional or
nationwide violence and instability: "There has hardly been a year since Independence when
some sort of serious primordially-framed violence has not erupted in some part of the
archipelago or other, and hardly a day when it has not threatened to do so." (Geertz 1994:14)1
The time between 1966 and 1998 is characterised by pseudo-stability, since structural
deformations generated during the ORBA2 era did hardly ever come to the fore. Due to the
fact that during the New Order the press was only allowed to report on conflicts between
ethnic groups (as well as on those between religious communities, "races" or social classes) in
such a way that it is enough to make people feel "concerned", many violent conflicts were
hushed up.
Long restrained tensions which evolved in violent outbreaks after the ouster of president
Suharto in 1998, led to the impression of growing instability and anarchy. Freedom of the
press, freedom of speech, freedom of assembly as well as the modern communication
technologies (internet etc.) resulted in the fact that ethnic, religious or social conflicts could no
longer be easily suppressed or covered up as it used to be. This caused the false impression of
reformasi as era of violence, anarchy and instability.
Nevertheless, since 1998 it cannot be denied that Indonesia as many other countries of the
world is facing increasing ethnic tensions and even spiralling religious and ethnic conflicts
(e.g. in the Moluccas and in Kalimantan). The pretended ethnic and religious harmony and
absence of overt conflict were partly due to the great emphasis on tolerance and economic
growth but primarily ascribed to the strictly centralized state control and the relentless
repression of any "deviant" movement. Taming of "primordial attachments" (Clifford Geertz)
was the overall concept of this time: According to this theory, the problem that the "primordial
attachments", the original social ties to the local culture and its own ethnic group, might turn
out to be stronger than the feeling of affiliation to the state and call into question the unity of
the nation seems to be of utmost importance. A corollary of this theory was a taming-policy
tracing back nearly every problem to the disruptive potential of ethnic loyalties and
simultaneously providing an a priori justification for the state policy and the national
development concept. Accordingly, ethnic groups living in the so-called "outer islands" had
not only to share their land with huge numbers of transmigrants from "Inner Indonesia" (Java,
Madura, Bali, West Lombok), but were also resettled in order to make room for the new
migrants. In case of violent conflicts the Armed Forces (ABRI) were bound to intervene. The
intensification of the ethnic imbalance coming into existence during the colonial era was a
serious consequence of this policy. Decentralization and democratisation during the reformasi
period, however, resulted in a reduced state control and a lack of legal certainty which then
often led to the eruption of previously latent ethnic/religious conflicts. Likewise even bigger
ethnic communities (e.g. Dayak-groups in Kalimantan or Minangkabaus of Sumatra) were put
at a disadvantage by the New Order government since those in power systematically ignored
their adat rights (Benda-Beckmann/ Benda-Beckmann 2002; McCarthy 2002). During the
Suharto era the small and peripheral ethnic groups in particular, however, used to be exalted as
a negative shock image of backward isolated communities (masyarakat terasing). This
national disgrace was to be settled by advancing the development of peripheral regions (Lukas
2002).
1
e.g. Darul Islam revolt in the fifties, regional civil wars in 1958, the enormous "communist" massacres in Java,
Northern Sumatra and Bali in 1965, separatist movements in Aceh and West New Guinea, the 23 years of war in
East-Timor
2
Orde Baru = New Order, self-designation of the Suharto-government
2
3. In spite of ethnic conflicts constantly flaring up today and the Islam growing in importance, it
cannot be overlooked, however, that the perhaps most significant foundation laid for the high
degree of interethnic tolerance in Indonesia is not politically decreed from the highest
governing body, but rather seems to be a common cultural feature of Indonesian cultures. It is
certainly due to the repeated absorption of many different cultural influences, chiefly religions:
The "animistic" cultures of Indonesia had been exposed to Indianisation since the first century
AD and since about the 13th century a widespread Islamisation took place. All these
influences were digested into more or less syncretistic syntheses (Geertz 1969). In that way the
constantly emerging new religions came to be assimilated so that there was no need for the
indigenous peoples to abandon their own traditions. In particular, the Javanese culture
developed a remarkable capacity for integration which becomes manifest in sectorially
differentiated syncretic syntheses (cf. Clifford Geertz’s distinction between three religious and
cultural streams, priyayi, santri and abangan) whose components form parts of one and the
same system in a sort of spiritual equilibrium of power in spite of their incompatibilities
(motto: "everyone after his own fashion").
Many foreign observers tend to describe the current developments exclusively negative. At
this point not only the positive achievements of the reformasi era are overlooked but also are
to this day the continued effects of the grave legacy stemming from the era of the New Order
government. Every keen observer of the current situation in Indonesia (after the ouster of
president Suharto) is simultaneously faced
♦ with promising developments like building up civil society, ratification of the international
convention against torture, removal of the police from military control, lifting restrictions
on political parties, the most democratic elections in Indonesia since 1955, appointment of
the first civilian defence minister in decades, freedom of the press and free association,
creation of new human rights courts, decentralization, the first well meant dialogues with
autonomist or separatist movements (cf. peace agreement with the Aceh guerrilla
movement in Geneva on 9th December 2002) etc.
♦ as well as with alarming phenomena like rising ethno-religious violence (e.g. religious and
ethnic conflicts in the Moluccas and in Kalimantan), ethno-religious revival, Islamism,
separatism and even religiously inspired terrorism.
Simple answers (e.g. Huntington’s theory) never help us to solve the urgent problems of our
time. According to Huntington’s hypothesis, Western ideas of individualism, liberalism,
human rights, democracy etc. were never (and will never be ?) "ingrained" in Non-Western
("Islamic", "Buddhist" etc.) cultures. Only few civilizations succeeded in generating
democratic principles. Especially in the Islamic world Huntington comes across
"undemocratic nations". Instead of taking Huntington’s hypothesis seriously, we should
submit the present situation in Indonesia to a careful examination and look back on the history
of Indonesia.
A serious investigation of Indonesian history, social structure and culture would furnish proof
that the "West" in the form of the Dutch East India Company and subsequently of the colonial
government of the so-called "Netherlands Indies" in no case acted as taskmaster of democracy.
Furthermore, a historical analysis provides evidence that, first, the Republic of Indonesia had
already a democratic development (between 1950 and 1960), and, second, the majority of
biggest (but far from unitary and monolithic!) Islamic nation of the world advocated for a
democratic and pluralistic Islam (This development was interrupted by the New Order
government) (Hefner 2000).
On the other hand, pre-modern structures and concepts also seem to have survived up to post-
colonial Indonesia. Liddle (1985), for instance, is working on the assumption that the tradition
3
4. of the "theatre state" was still alive in the New Order Era. Western scholars, who believed in
the persistence of this above-described "great tradition" of political culture, tried to explain the
symbolic legitimisation, particularly the "bureaucratic populism", of the New Order
government as an increasing recourse to court ideologies of pre-colonial Indonesia.
Furthermore, a historical analysis provides evidence that, first, the Republic of Indonesia had
already a democratic development (between 1950 and 1960), and, second, the majority of
biggest (but far from unitary and monolithic!) Islamic nation of the world advocated for a
democratic
2. The Padris of Sumatra – an Islamic revival movement of the 19th century
An interesting example for a biased European view of the past would be the so-called Padri
war or Imam Bonjol war after the Minangkabau Imam Bonjol (1772-1864), the most
outstanding leader of the Padri movement. This war started 1821 and ended 1838 with the
capture of the last Padri fortresses, Bonjol and Dalu-Dalu, by the Dutch colonial army. The so-
called Padri warriors were the most noticeable sign for the Islamic revival movement among
the Minangkabau on the eve of the 19th century. Inspired by Wahabitic ideas imported to
Sumatra by returning hajjis, the Padris who called themselves orang putih ("white people")
tried to reform the Islamic faith and to get accepted strict observance of the sharia. In their
course of combating infidelity and syncretism the Padri started already in 1803 to forbid
gambling, cockfights, betting, and consummation of palm wine and opium, as well as to burn
down symbols of the pre-Islamic adat like communal meeting halls (balai adat); only after
1825 the Padris of Minangkabau turned against their neighbours in the north, the Bataks by
invading the Batak area, scorching many Batak villages and killing thousands of pigs. Their is
every indication that the cruelty and the fanatism of the Padris are the result of systematic
exaggerations by Dutch administrators, civil servants and scientists who used this as
justification for the conquest of Indonesia, euphemistically paraphrased as Pax Neerlandica.
I take the view that it took very long time until the colonial government regarded Islamic
"agitation" and "infiltration" (from outside, i.e. mainly from Arabia) as the greatest threat to
the Dutch rule in Indonesia. During the second half of the 19th century the Dutch government
became particularly suspicious towards Islam as a potentially oppositional force to their
regime, and identified the Hadhramis, i.e. the Arabs of the Hadhramaut (see below), as the
bearers of Islam in the colony. It was not until the second half of the 19th century that this fear
of rebellious Islam caused the Dutch government to send C. Snouck Hurgronje in the late
seventies of the 19th century to make a secret research on the hajji pilgrimage in Mecca:
"Disguised as a Moslem, he [i.e. Snouck Hurgronje, a Dutch Jew!, H.L.] observed all the
rituals of the hajj as a participant, and also interviewed many of the Indonesian pilgrims who
were staying in the Indonesian quarters of Mecca during the celebrations." (Koentjaraningrat
1975:53)
In a over subtle phrasing: The rebellious Muslims (Wahabites, Muslim brotherhoods, pan-
Islamic networks etc.) were for the Dutch of the 19th century what is nowadays Al-Qaeda for
the Bush administration. Therefore the Dutch became blind to the real causes of political
uprisings in Indonesia.
The common (and superficial) interpretation of the Padri war and the Islamic revival
movement by the contemporary Dutch observers as well as of the majority of Western
scientists was pointing to the influence of the Wahabites from Saudi Arabia flowing into
Indonesia by the Indonesian hajjis coming back from their pilgrimage to Mecca. The
government as well as the scientific community of this time seems to have been fairly unaware
of the fact that economic and socio-cultural changes in Indonesia itself could be the ultimate
4
5. reasons of this ideological change. It was not until the eighties of the 20th century that Western
scientists realized that this Islamic revival was mainly induced by drastic socio-economic
changes, especially by the rapid development of the coffee export (Dobbin 1983):
At the eve of the 18th century Islam was disseminated even to the remote Minangkabau
highlands. The international coffee-boom intensified the trade and export of coffee and
induced an Islamic reform movement and created new economic and political requirements
(i.e. promotion of trade, norms guaranteeing the safety of markets, elimination of unsafeness
concerning the trade routes, marginalization of men by the matrilineal system etc.). It were the
till then most disadvantaged villages in the high mountains of the democratic bodi caniago
adat-areas which could derive the biggest benefits from the coffee trade. The villages of the
koto piliang-areas, recognizing the supremacy of the aristocracy and the royal dynasty,
however, were put at a disadvantage. The (1) exhaustion of the gold deposits (i.e. the
economic foundation of the aristocratic and royal power), the (2) international coffee boom
and (3) the "flow in" of Wahabitic concepts through returning pilgrims together caused the rise
of an Islamic reform movement which became well-known as Padri movement (cf. Dahm
1983, Kraus 1984).
3. The Arab minority - a white spot on the ethnic map of Indonesia
At present many militant and scripturalistic3 Muslim groups in Indonesia are led by members
of the Arab minority of Indonesia, for instance:
1. Jafar Umar Thalib (leader of the Laskar Jihad, the Jihad troops)
2. Habib Rizq Shihab (leader of the Front Pembela Islam, Islamic Defence Front)
3. Abu Bakar Baasyir (leader of the Majelis Mujahidin Indonesia/MMI, Indonesian
Council of Jihad Fighters; alleged links with the Jamaah Islamiyyah)
4. Habib Husen al-Habsyi (leader of the Jamaah al-Ikhwan al-Muslimin Indonesia)
As a result of the involvement of prominent Arabs in the activities of militant Muslim groups
the Arabs run the risk of getting the image of Muslim radicals or even extremists. But in fact
not all Arabs in Indonesia are necessary Muslim radicals or extremists. Hence it follows that it
is high time to get to know the Hadhramis, the Indonesian Arab minority originating from the
south of the Arabian Peninsula. Up to now this minority is still a white spot on the ethnic map
of Indonesia. Due to political instability and economic hardship, on the eve of the 18th century
the population of the Hadhramaut (in South Yemen) started to emigrate in large numbers to
countries located around the Indian Ocean (Berg 1886). This stream of emigration lasted until
World War II. At the end of the 1930s about 110 000 Hadhramis lived in the Diaspora, that is
20 to 30 percent of the country's total population, 90 000 of them in the Netherlands East
Indies, today's independent Indonesia. There is a scholarly dispute concerning the early period
of Hadhrami immigration (13th - 18th century) as well as their role in Islamisation of the
Indonesian Archipelago. Attempting to refute the allegation that the Arabs brought Islam to
Indonesia, Drewes (1985; cf. Holt/Lambton/Lewis 1977) points out that the immigration of
Hadhramis into Indonesia is of a much later date than the advent of Islam there. Though this is
by and large true, I should add that there is a lot of evidence for the very early presence of
individual Hadhramis in Southeast Asia who played an important role in the transmission of
Islam, through their religious counselling of local rulers, or even their acquisition of political
power (cf. Majul 1985). Probably the coastal Labbai communities of Southern India
introduced Islam into Indonesia via Aceh. The coastal Labbais of Southern India, i. e. Tamil
Muslims belonging to the Shafi'i law school, claim to be descended from Arab merchants. In
3
That means that these groups share a literal interpretation of Islam and claim that Muslims should practice only
"pure" Islam.
5
6. all probability, the Labbais (Labbai or Lebbai probably derives from arabî = "Arab") are in
fact descendants of Hadhramis and derive their religious and cultural "purity" from their
history of direct links to Arabia. According to Bayly (1986) these Labbai communities started
the large-scale Islamization of Indonesia. In today's Malay or Indonesian language "lebai"
means "mosque official" and the like.
For many years the Arabs were ignored by the Dutch government. The first ethnographic
study focusing exclusively on the Hadhrami community in the Hadhramaut and in Indonesia is
Van den Berg's classic Le Hadhramaut et les Colonies Arabes dans L'Archipel Indien,
published 1886. Prior to this publication, namely in the 1850s, the Dutch ignored the Arabs to
such a degree that S. Keyzer, professor at the Delft Academy for training civil servants for the
Netherlands Indies, "did not know that practically all the Arabs living in Indonesia originated
from Hadhramaut" (Drewes 1985: 7). Oddly enough, it was only in the 1990s that scholars re-
discovered the Hadhrami Diaspora per se as their object of enquiry. In April 1995 the School
of Oriental and African Studies (SOAS), London, staged the first international conference
concerning the history of Hadhramaut and its Diaspora (cf. Freitag/Clarence-Smith 1997). But
nevertheless, one of the organizers of this conference, Ulrike Freitag, has to concede that
"[e]xact data on the Hadhrami diaspora in the second half of the twentieth century are not
available"!
Commercial and religious activities often went hand in hand in the Hadhrami Diaspora. The
first Hadhrami religious organisation, the al-Irsh d, was founded in 1914 in Batavia (Jakarta),
inspired by Islamic modernism with its intellectual centre in Egypt (Salafiya). In the 1930s, a
women’s (originating in Pekalongan) and a youth wing were also established. Ideologically,
the organisation emphasised the equality of all Muslim believers, thus challenging the
hierarchy in its own community where the s da, who claim descent from the prophet
Mohammed, expect special respect from their fellow Hadhramis (Mobini-Kesheh 1997).
Hadhramis have played a significant political role since their arrival in the archipelago, a fact
hitherto almost ignored by scholars of Indonesia.
Due to ever stronger competition from Chinese entrepreneurs, rich Hadhrami businessmen
helped significantly to establish a trade protection association organised along religious lines
(as their rivals were non-Muslim Chinese), the Sarekat Dagang Islamiah in Bogor (near
Jakarta) in 1909. This association quickly spread to the main cities of Hadhrami business like
Surakarta, Surabaya and Pekalongan. Most importantly, out of this economically motivated
organisation developed Indonesia’s first nationalistic mass movement, the Sarekat Islam
(United Islam). Nearly unnoticed by Western scientists is the fact, that certain Hadhrami
families belong to the political elite of present Indonesia, with regard to the positions held by
members of these families; for example, Ali Alatas, who was minister of foreign affairs from
1988 until 1999 under the Suharto and Habibie administrations respectively; Alwi Shihab
whose ancestors founded the sultanate of Siak, was in charge until the end of Abdurrahman
Wahid’s presidency in July 2001.
It is worth mentioning that, in contrast to the scientific community in Indonesian public
discourses, the Hadhramis as distinct ethnic category virtually do not exist. Consequently, the
average Indonesian is not at all acquainted with the term "Hadhrami", but categorises all
peoples from Arabia under the collective designations "orang Arab" ("Arab") or "keturunan
Arab" ("of Arab descent").
Another characteristic of Hadhrami Diaspora communities is that they manage to find
themselves in a relatively immune position concerning xenophobic tendencies in host
societies. In times of religious and ethnic violence as well as increasing hostility towards
foreigners in many countries of our world, it seems to be of considerable value to try to find
out what makes a relationship between an immigrant community and a host society relatively
harmonious or at least free of violence.
6
7. 4. Peripheral minorities - ethnic imbalance - indigenous knowledge
The situation of peripheral minorities is an almost completely neglected issue. Beyond
the accurate empirical analysis of the local situation of the respective peripheral minorities
we have to put them into the socio-cultural, political and historical context as well as to
compare these cases with others in Southeast Asia. My assumption is that the peripheral
minorities are the touchstone of the state policy towards ethnic minorities!
The Department of Social Affairs has identified 360 tribal societies which are considered
as still living in "backwardness", living in ninety districts dispersed in eighteen provinces
of Indonesia. Peripheral minorities are geographically as well as culturally, economically
and politically peripheral. It is impossible for these ethnic groups to resist external threats
ensuing from unfavourable political, economic and ecological developments in the present
nation-state. In this light, responsible anthropological policy means detecting and
translating their real needs as well as realizing sound concepts of protection. These ethnic
groups are worth being protected due to their ideal sustainable utilization of natural
resources. As for instance the Anak Dalam of Sumatra represent the periphery, which
according to the cultural symbolism of Southeast Asian states is regarded as a negative
reflection of the core area, the state society: in terms of its ecology, its religious practices,
its social structure, its governance, and its fugitive dissident population (The usual
designation "Kubu" which is indeed an extremely pejorative exonym reflects the
customary discrimination). Why has the state almost always been the enemy of people
who move around? The contention of James Scott is that hunter-gatherers and hill
societies in Southeast Asia represent the illegible, non-state space, where state control has
always been tenuous. Consequently, the kingdoms of the past as well as the modern
nation-states see these peripheral peoples not only as peoples who are just out of reach:
"They see them instead as examples of all that is uncivilized, barbaric, and crude. Even
when they are looked at with some sympathy, as they are by current «developmental
regimes», they are seen as benighted primitives, «our living ancestors» who need to be
developed, brought into modern life. They are thought of as what we were like before we
discovered Islam or Buddhism, rice cultivation, sedentary life, and civilization." (Scott
1999:45). Moreover, the New Order government categorized forest dwelling peoples
routinely as "security problem", regarding them as people susceptible to communist
influence
Hopefully through an intercultural dialogue the Western perception could make a
contribution to the improvement of the traditionally bad image of peripheral ethnic groups.
By this dialogue we could learn from each other. According to the principle "No culture is
perfect” we should try to discover our respective blind spots. On the other hand it seems
that the treatment of peripheral minorities is not only an outcome of historical traditions
but depends to a large part on the current political developments as the following example
shows: Since the seventies of the 20th century the former "New Order" government of
Indonesia launched many projects in the course of the "Five-Year Development Plans"
intended to integrate the so-called "isolated tribes" (suku-suku terasing) or "isolated
communities" (masyarakat terasing) into the mainstream society of the nation-state. On
the other hand, the living space of these originally roaming foragers was increasingly
reduced by large-scale clearings of foreign as well as domestic logging companies over
the last 30 years. Moreover, the government "transmigrated" poor people from Java into
this "empty" land and in this way produced a population pressure not yet existing by then.
During the last few years vast areas of Sumatra covered with forest were just burned
down, in order to open big plantations. These illegal actions of scorching the forests were
often ordered and protected by powerful politicians and tycoons. The big forest fires of
1997 and afterwards which raged in Sumatra and Kalimantan destroyed many hundred
7
8. thousands of hectares rain forests. The impact of this forest fires on the hunter-gatherers
can not be estimated at the moment. Fortunately, since the end of the "New Order"
government of General Suharto in May 1998 a fundamental change of the attitudes
towards the hunter-gatherers and other peripheral minorities has been going on. For
instance, the pejorative term "isolated tribe" / "isolated community" (suku terasing /
masyarakat terasing), formerly used by government officials, was replaced by the more
honourable designation "adat society" (masyarakat adat). In sharp contrast to the past the
peripheral minorities are now more and more described as very just and democratic
societies and as native ecologists who are protecting the ecological environment, if
necessary also against the pressure of profit-oriented timber-hungry groups of the
"modern" Indonesian society4.
State-sponsored transmigration often connected with a resettlement of the local swidden
cultivators intensified an already existing ethnic imbalance instead of functioning as a
bridge between the supposedly 'backward' communities and the modern world.
As a rule contemporary development in the periphery (daerah) is destroying not only the
botanic gene pools of the tropical forests, but also the indigenous (traditional)
knowledge of how to exploit this gene pool. I would wish that foreign as well as
Indonesian "development planners" learn from anthropologists and start to regard villagers
or tribesmen as experts and abstain from seeing traditional societies primarily as subject
for planned intervention and change. In many cases the modern formal education might
even be a cause of developmental problems in Indonesia: "Some problems stem from
removing the student from his rural environment to continue his schooling. This removal
prematurely terminates the student’s informal schooling in the technical aspects of his
local economy and ecology. As a result, the average educated inhabitant of Java’s or
Bali’s cities is far more ignorant of and insensitive to the principles of a balanced rural
ecosystem, for example, than the average uneducated inhabitant of Java’s or Bali’s
countryside. Nonetheless, it is the former not the latter to whom the government solely
entrusts development planning for the rural environment – with the result that much of
this planning is wrongheaded and unsuccessful. This will continue to be the case so long
as traditional systems of knowledge and belief are regarded as obstacles to development,
to be destroyed wherever possible, as opposed to resources for development, to be studied
and utilized wherever possible." (Dove 1990:7f) This problem might be solved by
establishing participatory management of ecological resources (incl. ecological
sustainability). Because of the fact that interethnic problems on Papua and Kalimantan not
only have economic but also ecological underpinnings, democracy and economic issues
are interconnected!
5. Reformation (reformasi): decentralisation and adat
The post-Suharto governments are facing a vast number of problems, among other things
the restoration of the rule of law (Rechtsstaat, negara hukum, incl. fair procedures etc.) as
well as the execution of anti-corruption measures and of a participatory development. In
contrast to the New Order era decentralization is now regarded as a main prerequisite of a
more democratic society as well as a more transparent and accountable government
4
On 31st January 2000 the "head" (tumenggung) of an Anak Dalam band, who waged peaceful resistance
campaign against the mindless destruction of the Hompongan forest in Jambi, was called "environmental
savior" and received the Kehati award 2000 from a non-governmental organization fighting for saving the
bio-diversity in Indonesia (cf. The Jakarta Post, Tuesday, February 8, 2000:7; Suara Pembaruan, 1st
February 2000:16; Kompas, Kamis, 3rd February 2000).
8
9. (regional communities should decide their own affairs according to their own interests and
aspirations ...): But the project to decentralize Suharto’s over-centralized system turned
out to be very difficult. Let me summarize some effects of Suharto’s centralization /
unification policy:
• Weakening, undermining, pushing back or even abolishing adat institutions: "Since
Suharto had unified the village political and financial structure throughout Indonesia
in the late 1970s, the traditional adat structures had largely become dormant. ...
Neglect of adat unity and leadership was held to be responsible for the malfunctioning
of the administration, lack of democratic values, the loss of respect for the old, and the
squandering of village resources." (Benda-Beckmann, F./ Benda-Beckmann, K.
2002:12) Many people in the countryside lost control of their land or other natural
resources. Land and resources were taken away, often under pressure, by those close
to the Suharto government.
• Most of the government interventions and projects were characterized by a remarkable
lack of understanding of the respective social structure of the region in which they
worked
If decentralization should work, it has to be linked with poverty alleviation as well as with
anti-corruption, human rights, governance and democracy issues. But in fact
decentralization in the form of a return, reinstallation or revival of the old adat was now
seen as an opportunity to regain or to get control over land or other resources. But then the
question arose what these traditional adat structures were. This was not only a
philosophical issue; different definitions and concepts are favouring different people. For
instance: How should the newcomers be incorporated into the Minangkabau matri-clan
system, which prefers the descendants of the founding lineage core etc.? How should the
Islamic leaders be integrated into the adat council? At the national level this adat revival is
looked upon sceptically because it is often associated with ethnic clashes and regarded as
a threat to the unity of the state (Benda-Beckmann, F./ Benda-Beckmann, K. 2002). In
fact, the reassertion of adat rights and the recreation of adat institutions was quite often
leading to open conflicts: "... re-assertive village actors [in Central Kalimantan] are
asserting de facto control over surrounding resources held to be subject to customary
property rights. In the absence of institutions that secure customary property rights or
mediate conflicts, village actors can only take recourse to "people’s justice" initiatives
such as demonstrations, direct intimidation of rival claimants and even open violence."
(McCarthy 2002:21) Under these circumstances it is very likely that the villagers "take the
law into their own hands" (main hakim sendiri). Decentralization efforts, neo-liberal
reforms and the loss of authority produced a very weak and fragmentary state which
cannot guarantee at least a minimum of social security as well as provide institutional
frameworks for negotiating access to resources and to resolve conflicts in a fashion that
avoids violent conflicts.
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