The document provides an overview of the cardiovascular system and components of blood. It discusses the anatomy and function of the heart, including the four chambers and valves. It describes the circulation of oxygenated and deoxygenated blood through the heart and major blood vessels. It also explains the conduction system that regulates heart rhythm. Furthermore, it outlines the three main types of blood vessels and defines the roles of arteries, veins and capillaries. Finally, it identifies the key components of blood, such as plasma, red blood cells, white blood cells and platelets, and their main functions.
The document summarizes the histology of the female reproductive system. It describes the layers of the ovary including the cortex containing ovarian follicles and stroma, and the medulla containing blood vessels, connective tissue, and hilus cells. It also describes the layers of the uterus (perimetrium, myometrium, endometrium), uterine tubes (mucous membrane, muscle coat, serosa), and vagina (mucous membrane with stratified squamous epithelium, muscle coat, adventitia).
1) The document discusses the rhythmicity and automaticity of the heart, which refers to the heart's ability to beat regularly and generate impulses without external stimuli.
2) It originates from within the heart itself (myogenic, not neurogenic) and several factors can influence the heart rate such as the autonomic nervous system, temperature, drugs, blood gases, and inorganic ions.
3) The sinoatrial node acts as the pacemaker for the heart and has membrane properties that allow it to spontaneously depolarize, initiating the heartbeat via an action potential involving sodium, calcium, and potassium ion fluxes.
Platelets (The Guyton and Hall Physiology)Maryam Fida
Plate like so called platelets
150-350,000 /µl,
life span 8-12 days, no nucleus
They are not true cells rather circulating fragments of cells
Cytoplasm
Actin and Myosin molecules
Thrombosthenin : for platelet contraction
Residuals of ER and of GA : for the synthesis of enzymes and storage of Calcium ions
Mitochondria and enzyme systems : for synthesis of ATP and ADP
Enzyme systems : for the synthesis of prostaglandins
Fibrin Stabilizing factor
Alpha granules
vWF
Fibrinogen
PF4
Beta Thromboglobulin
PDGF
Thrombospondin
Dense granules (Delta)
ADP, ATP
Serotonin
Calcium
Collagen and microfibrillar proteins
ADP released from damaged RBCs and activated platelets
Thromboxane from activated platelets
Platelet activating factor from basophils
Epinephrine (stress)
Thrombin
is the arrest of bleeding to avoid blood loss from the vessel. It usually, but not always, involves formation of a blood clot.
Events in Hemostasis
1. Vascular constriction
Formation of platelet plug
Formation of blood clot
Growth of fibrous tissue into blood clot
events
1. vasoconstriction
In larger vessels smooth muscle spontaneously constricts when damaged.
3. Formation of clot
chemical reactions that lead to a fibrin clot. Clot begins to develop in 15 to 20 seconds/ severe truma
1-2 minuts / minor trauma
4. Growth of fibrous tissue into blood clot
Clot retraction : After 20 minuts to an hour
Thrombocytopenia
Platelet count of less than 150,000/mm3
Causes can be decreased platelet production, decreased destruction, or a combination of two
Decreased platelet production due to infection (HIV), chemotherapy, radiotherapy, vit. Deficiency, tumor infiltrates marrow, storage diseases etc.
Increased platelet destruction due to
hypersplenism (liver disease, malignancy)
Immune thrombocytopenic purpra
Thrombotic microangiopathies
Post-transfusion purpra
Heparin induced thrompocytopenia
Disseminated intravascular coagulation
Erythropoiesis is the process of red blood cell formation. It occurs in the yolk sac in embryos, the liver and spleen in fetuses, and the red bone marrow after birth. Factors that affect erythropoiesis include oxygen supply, the state of hematopoietic organs like the bone marrow and liver, hormones, and diet. Erythropoietin is the key hormone that stimulates erythropoiesis by acting on stem cells in the bone marrow to speed up red blood cell development.
Demonstration of different fixatives used in Histopathology
Demonstration of different Microtome used in Histopathology
To demonstrate the activity of enzyme
Demonstration of following enzymes activity in a Tissue
Demonstration of Laboratory method that uses antibodies
Demonstrate the FIC and FITC techniques
Demonstration of the technique used to separate DN
Demonstration of technique for rapidly producing
Demonstrate the Flow cytometer technique
Action potential By Dr. Mrs. Padmaja R Desai Physiology Dept
To study the Concept of Action Potential and describe the stages of action potential.
Ionic basis of Action Potential & its Propogation.
Properties of Action Potential.
Types action Potential
The document discusses the lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) blood test used for heart attack victims. LDH is an enzyme found in most body cells that is released when cells are damaged or die. An LDH blood test can detect elevated levels after a heart attack, indicating heart muscle cell death. The test is most useful within 12-24 hours of a heart attack. Higher-than-normal total LDH combined with higher LDH-1 than LDH-2 isoenzymes suggests a heart attack. The LDH level is measured using a UV-Vis spectrophotometer to detect the decrease in absorbance of NADH at 340nm as LDH converts pyruvate to lactate.
The Blood and Hemostasis and Blood CoagulationAmany Elsayed
The document discusses the functions of blood and its components. Blood transports oxygen, nutrients, hormones, and removes waste throughout the body via circulation. It is composed of plasma and formed elements like red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets. Red blood cells contain hemoglobin which binds oxygen in the lungs and releases it in tissues, enabling gas exchange. Blood also maintains homeostasis by regulating pH and temperature. Problems with blood composition or circulation can impair tissue function.
The document summarizes the histology of the female reproductive system. It describes the layers of the ovary including the cortex containing ovarian follicles and stroma, and the medulla containing blood vessels, connective tissue, and hilus cells. It also describes the layers of the uterus (perimetrium, myometrium, endometrium), uterine tubes (mucous membrane, muscle coat, serosa), and vagina (mucous membrane with stratified squamous epithelium, muscle coat, adventitia).
1) The document discusses the rhythmicity and automaticity of the heart, which refers to the heart's ability to beat regularly and generate impulses without external stimuli.
2) It originates from within the heart itself (myogenic, not neurogenic) and several factors can influence the heart rate such as the autonomic nervous system, temperature, drugs, blood gases, and inorganic ions.
3) The sinoatrial node acts as the pacemaker for the heart and has membrane properties that allow it to spontaneously depolarize, initiating the heartbeat via an action potential involving sodium, calcium, and potassium ion fluxes.
Platelets (The Guyton and Hall Physiology)Maryam Fida
Plate like so called platelets
150-350,000 /µl,
life span 8-12 days, no nucleus
They are not true cells rather circulating fragments of cells
Cytoplasm
Actin and Myosin molecules
Thrombosthenin : for platelet contraction
Residuals of ER and of GA : for the synthesis of enzymes and storage of Calcium ions
Mitochondria and enzyme systems : for synthesis of ATP and ADP
Enzyme systems : for the synthesis of prostaglandins
Fibrin Stabilizing factor
Alpha granules
vWF
Fibrinogen
PF4
Beta Thromboglobulin
PDGF
Thrombospondin
Dense granules (Delta)
ADP, ATP
Serotonin
Calcium
Collagen and microfibrillar proteins
ADP released from damaged RBCs and activated platelets
Thromboxane from activated platelets
Platelet activating factor from basophils
Epinephrine (stress)
Thrombin
is the arrest of bleeding to avoid blood loss from the vessel. It usually, but not always, involves formation of a blood clot.
Events in Hemostasis
1. Vascular constriction
Formation of platelet plug
Formation of blood clot
Growth of fibrous tissue into blood clot
events
1. vasoconstriction
In larger vessels smooth muscle spontaneously constricts when damaged.
3. Formation of clot
chemical reactions that lead to a fibrin clot. Clot begins to develop in 15 to 20 seconds/ severe truma
1-2 minuts / minor trauma
4. Growth of fibrous tissue into blood clot
Clot retraction : After 20 minuts to an hour
Thrombocytopenia
Platelet count of less than 150,000/mm3
Causes can be decreased platelet production, decreased destruction, or a combination of two
Decreased platelet production due to infection (HIV), chemotherapy, radiotherapy, vit. Deficiency, tumor infiltrates marrow, storage diseases etc.
Increased platelet destruction due to
hypersplenism (liver disease, malignancy)
Immune thrombocytopenic purpra
Thrombotic microangiopathies
Post-transfusion purpra
Heparin induced thrompocytopenia
Disseminated intravascular coagulation
Erythropoiesis is the process of red blood cell formation. It occurs in the yolk sac in embryos, the liver and spleen in fetuses, and the red bone marrow after birth. Factors that affect erythropoiesis include oxygen supply, the state of hematopoietic organs like the bone marrow and liver, hormones, and diet. Erythropoietin is the key hormone that stimulates erythropoiesis by acting on stem cells in the bone marrow to speed up red blood cell development.
Demonstration of different fixatives used in Histopathology
Demonstration of different Microtome used in Histopathology
To demonstrate the activity of enzyme
Demonstration of following enzymes activity in a Tissue
Demonstration of Laboratory method that uses antibodies
Demonstrate the FIC and FITC techniques
Demonstration of the technique used to separate DN
Demonstration of technique for rapidly producing
Demonstrate the Flow cytometer technique
Action potential By Dr. Mrs. Padmaja R Desai Physiology Dept
To study the Concept of Action Potential and describe the stages of action potential.
Ionic basis of Action Potential & its Propogation.
Properties of Action Potential.
Types action Potential
The document discusses the lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) blood test used for heart attack victims. LDH is an enzyme found in most body cells that is released when cells are damaged or die. An LDH blood test can detect elevated levels after a heart attack, indicating heart muscle cell death. The test is most useful within 12-24 hours of a heart attack. Higher-than-normal total LDH combined with higher LDH-1 than LDH-2 isoenzymes suggests a heart attack. The LDH level is measured using a UV-Vis spectrophotometer to detect the decrease in absorbance of NADH at 340nm as LDH converts pyruvate to lactate.
The Blood and Hemostasis and Blood CoagulationAmany Elsayed
The document discusses the functions of blood and its components. Blood transports oxygen, nutrients, hormones, and removes waste throughout the body via circulation. It is composed of plasma and formed elements like red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets. Red blood cells contain hemoglobin which binds oxygen in the lungs and releases it in tissues, enabling gas exchange. Blood also maintains homeostasis by regulating pH and temperature. Problems with blood composition or circulation can impair tissue function.
The red blood cell membrane consists of 50% protein, 20% phospholipid, 20% cholesterol, and 10% carbohydrate. It has three basic components: a lipid bilayer, integral membrane proteins, and a membrane cytoskeleton. The cytoskeleton is formed by structural proteins including spectrin, actin, ankyrin, and proteins 4.1 and 4.2. It interacts with the lipid bilayer and maintains the biconcave shape of red blood cells. Defects in membrane proteins can cause hereditary disorders like hereditary spherocytosis or elliptocytosis, which are inherited hemolytic anemias.
The document summarizes membrane potentials and action potentials in nerve cells. It discusses:
1) The concentration gradients that give rise to resting membrane potentials via the Nernst equation and Goldman equation. Key ions like sodium, potassium and chloride contribute to a resting potential of around -90mV.
2) How action potentials are initiated when the membrane reaches a threshold potential, causing voltage-gated sodium channels to open and depolarize the membrane. Potassium channels then open to repolarize the membrane.
3) The roles of other ions like calcium and various ion pumps and channels in maintaining resting potentials and propagating action potentials down nerve fibers via saltatory conduction. Action potentials rely on precise ion concentration gradients maintained
The document discusses various types and classifications of glands. It begins by defining glands as organs composed of specialized secretory cells derived from epithelial tissue. Glands are classified based on their site of secretion (exocrine, endocrine, paracrine), cell number (unicellular, multicellular), duct structure (simple, compound), secretory end piece shape (tubular, alveolar, etc.), secretion type (serous, mucous, mixed), secretion mode (merocrine, apocrine, holocrine, cytocrine), and developmental origin (ectodermal, mesodermal, endodermal). Key exocrine gland features and the development of both exocrine and endocrine glands are also
01.26.09: Histology of the Endocrine SystemOpen.Michigan
Slideshow is from the University of Michigan Medical School's M1 Endocrine / Reproduction sequence
View additional course materials on Open.Michigan:
openmi.ch/med-M1Endo
The pancreatic juice contains water and electrolytes secreted by pancreatic duct cells as well as digestive enzymes secreted by acinar cells. The enzymes include proteases like trypsinogen, lipase for fat digestion, and amylase for carbohydrate digestion. Secretin is released when chyme enters the duodenum and stimulates bicarbonate secretion to neutralize acid. Cholecystokinin stimulates enzyme secretion from acinar cells to digest proteins, fats, and carbohydrates. Together, secretin and cholecystokinin regulate the exocrine pancreatic secretion in response to food in the duodenum.
The document provides an overview of the urinary system and kidney anatomy and histology. It describes the key functions and components of the kidneys, including the cortex and medulla. It explains the nephron is the functional unit of the kidney, consisting of the renal corpuscle and uriniferous tubule. The renal corpuscle contains the glomerulus and Bowman's capsule. Filtration occurs across the glomerular capillary endothelium, glomerular basement membrane, and podocytes within Bowman's capsule.
The document summarizes the history and characteristics of platelets. It describes key discoveries such as George Gulliver drawing early platelet images in 1841 and Max Schultze describing "spherules" in 1865. The document outlines platelet formation in the bone marrow, structure, granule contents, functions in hemostasis, testing of platelet function, causes of low and high platelet counts, and associated conditions.
A comprehensive presentation on glomerular filtration rate (GFR) & renal blood flow and how these entities are impacted by intrinsic and extrinsic regulation.
This was presented by the author in the finals of the physiology seminar presentation in medical school.
Autoregulation of glomerular filtration rate and renal bloodDeepa Devkota
The document summarizes the autoregulation of glomerular filtration rate (GFR) and renal blood flow. It describes two main mechanisms - tubuloglomerular feedback and myogenic autoregulation. Tubuloglomerular feedback senses sodium chloride concentration at the macula densa and controls afferent and efferent arteriole diameter to maintain GFR. Myogenic autoregulation involves the vascular smooth muscle sensing changes in arterial pressure to resist vessel stretching and regulate resistance. These mechanisms help keep GFR and renal blood flow relatively constant despite changes in blood pressure, preventing extreme fluctuations in renal excretion.
The document discusses haemopoiesis (blood cell formation) and the histology of bone marrow. It describes how in fetal life, blood cells are formed in the yolk sac, liver, and later the bone marrow and liver. In newborns, children and adults, red bone marrow is found in all bones up to age 20, and later in flat bones and ends of long bones. Bone marrow contains hematopoietic stem cells that differentiate into the various blood cell lineages through progenitor and precursor cells in the bone marrow microenvironment.
Lecture 4 (transport of substances through plasmallema)Ayub Abdi
The document summarizes the key mechanisms of transport across the cell membrane. It describes how lipid-soluble substances can diffuse directly through the lipid bilayer, while water and other molecules require protein channels. Transport occurs via diffusion, either simple diffusion through openings or facilitated diffusion using carrier proteins, or active transport against gradients using ATP or the sodium-potassium gradient. Protein channels provide selective permeability and can be gated to control transport.
Hematopoiesis: Origin and development of blood cellsVarun Singh
The document discusses the origin and development of blood cells through the process of hematopoiesis. It describes how hematopoietic stem cells in the bone marrow differentiate into the various blood cell lineages through regulated stages of proliferation and maturation. Key points covered include the major sites of hematopoiesis, growth factors involved in lineage commitment and differentiation, and the morphological changes that occur as progenitors mature into red blood cells, white blood cells, platelets or megakaryocytes. The process of hematopoiesis is tightly controlled to maintain blood cell homeostasis.
The document discusses acidification of urine and the kidney's role in maintaining acid-base balance.
1) The kidneys excrete acidic or alkaline urine to maintain blood pH within a narrow range of 6.8-7.8. When blood pH changes, the kidneys compensate by regulating urine pH.
2) The kidneys secrete hydrogen ions into the tubular fluid in exchange for sodium and bicarbonate ions to be reabsorbed into the blood. This maintains bicarbonate levels and helps buffer acids produced by metabolism.
3) When acidosis occurs, the body responds through intracellular and extracellular buffering, increased ventilation, and enhanced renal acid secretion and bicarbonate re
Bile is a fluid produced by the liver that aids in digestion. It contains bile salts that emulsify and solubilize lipids, allowing for absorption. Bile is stored in the gallbladder and released in response to hormones like cholecystokinin during a meal. Disruptions to bile composition can lead to gallstones or malabsorption issues like steatorrhea.
This document discusses the structure, composition, functions, formation and lifespan of platelets. It provides details on platelets, including that they are the smallest blood cells, lack a nucleus, and function in hemostasis through adhesion, aggregation and clot formation. Platelets are formed from megakaryocytes in the bone marrow, have a lifespan of 8-12 days, and are destroyed by macrophages in the spleen.
The parathyroid glands secrete parathyroid hormone (PTH) which regulates calcium and phosphate levels in the blood. PTH increases blood calcium levels by promoting calcium absorption in the gut and bones. It decreases blood phosphate levels by enhancing phosphate excretion by the kidneys. Abnormalities in PTH secretion can cause hypocalcemia and hypercalcemia. Hypoparathyroidism is caused by low PTH and results in low blood calcium and high phosphate. Hyperparathyroidism is caused by excessive PTH and results in high blood calcium.
This document discusses the formation and types of calculi (stones). It begins by defining calculi as mineral salt concretions that can form in organs like the kidneys or gallbladder. It then discusses the formation of specific types of calculi like gallstones and renal stones. The major types of gallstones are cholesterol and pigment stones, while renal stones include calcium, uric acid, struvite, and cystine stones. The document outlines risk factors, clinical manifestations, diagnostic tests, and treatment options for different stone types. It provides details on promoting and preventive factors, as well as genetic predispositions for calculi formation.
The red blood cell membrane consists of three layers - an outer glycocalyx, lipid bilayer in the middle, and inner phospholipid and cholesterol layer. The lipid bilayer contains phospholipids like phosphatidylcholine and sphingomyelin in the outer monolayer, and phosphatidylethanolamine, phosphatidylserine, and phosphoinositol in the inner monolayer. Transport proteins maintain this asymmetric distribution, which is important for cell integrity and survival. The membrane also contains proteins that contribute to cell structure, transport, adhesion, and signaling.
Haemostasis involves three main processes: vasoconstriction, temporary haemostatic plug formation by platelets, and definitive plug formation through blood coagulation. Platelet adhesion and aggregation leads to a temporary plug, while coagulation involves clotting factors that ultimately convert fibrinogen to fibrin for a solid clot. Several factors regulate haemostasis, including the endothelium, circulating anticoagulants, liver synthesis of clotting factors, and vitamin K which enables procoagulant synthesis. Disruptions can lead to bleeding disorders or thrombosis.
The urinary system removes waste from the bloodstream through the kidneys, which filter blood to form urine. The urine travels from the kidneys to the bladder via ureters. The bladder stores urine until urination, when urine exits the body through the urethra. The kidneys contain nephrons, which filter blood in the glomerulus and reabsorb nutrients in the tubules, forming urine.
The circulatory system includes the heart, blood vessels, and blood. The heart is a muscular pump made of four chambers that pumps blood throughout the body. There are three types of blood vessels - arteries, which carry blood away from the heart; capillaries, where nutrient and gas exchange occurs; and veins, which carry blood back to the heart. Blood contains red blood cells to carry oxygen, white blood cells for immunity, platelets for clotting, and plasma. The circulatory system transports these components between tissues and organs.
The document summarizes key aspects of the cardiovascular system and haemoglobin. It defines the circulatory system and its components like arteries, veins, and capillaries. It explains that the heart has its own blood supply via the coronary circulation. It defines systemic blood pressure and how it is measured. It lists common diagnostic tests for cardiovascular disease and risk factors. It also describes the role of haemoglobin as an oxygen-transporting protein in red blood cells.
The red blood cell membrane consists of 50% protein, 20% phospholipid, 20% cholesterol, and 10% carbohydrate. It has three basic components: a lipid bilayer, integral membrane proteins, and a membrane cytoskeleton. The cytoskeleton is formed by structural proteins including spectrin, actin, ankyrin, and proteins 4.1 and 4.2. It interacts with the lipid bilayer and maintains the biconcave shape of red blood cells. Defects in membrane proteins can cause hereditary disorders like hereditary spherocytosis or elliptocytosis, which are inherited hemolytic anemias.
The document summarizes membrane potentials and action potentials in nerve cells. It discusses:
1) The concentration gradients that give rise to resting membrane potentials via the Nernst equation and Goldman equation. Key ions like sodium, potassium and chloride contribute to a resting potential of around -90mV.
2) How action potentials are initiated when the membrane reaches a threshold potential, causing voltage-gated sodium channels to open and depolarize the membrane. Potassium channels then open to repolarize the membrane.
3) The roles of other ions like calcium and various ion pumps and channels in maintaining resting potentials and propagating action potentials down nerve fibers via saltatory conduction. Action potentials rely on precise ion concentration gradients maintained
The document discusses various types and classifications of glands. It begins by defining glands as organs composed of specialized secretory cells derived from epithelial tissue. Glands are classified based on their site of secretion (exocrine, endocrine, paracrine), cell number (unicellular, multicellular), duct structure (simple, compound), secretory end piece shape (tubular, alveolar, etc.), secretion type (serous, mucous, mixed), secretion mode (merocrine, apocrine, holocrine, cytocrine), and developmental origin (ectodermal, mesodermal, endodermal). Key exocrine gland features and the development of both exocrine and endocrine glands are also
01.26.09: Histology of the Endocrine SystemOpen.Michigan
Slideshow is from the University of Michigan Medical School's M1 Endocrine / Reproduction sequence
View additional course materials on Open.Michigan:
openmi.ch/med-M1Endo
The pancreatic juice contains water and electrolytes secreted by pancreatic duct cells as well as digestive enzymes secreted by acinar cells. The enzymes include proteases like trypsinogen, lipase for fat digestion, and amylase for carbohydrate digestion. Secretin is released when chyme enters the duodenum and stimulates bicarbonate secretion to neutralize acid. Cholecystokinin stimulates enzyme secretion from acinar cells to digest proteins, fats, and carbohydrates. Together, secretin and cholecystokinin regulate the exocrine pancreatic secretion in response to food in the duodenum.
The document provides an overview of the urinary system and kidney anatomy and histology. It describes the key functions and components of the kidneys, including the cortex and medulla. It explains the nephron is the functional unit of the kidney, consisting of the renal corpuscle and uriniferous tubule. The renal corpuscle contains the glomerulus and Bowman's capsule. Filtration occurs across the glomerular capillary endothelium, glomerular basement membrane, and podocytes within Bowman's capsule.
The document summarizes the history and characteristics of platelets. It describes key discoveries such as George Gulliver drawing early platelet images in 1841 and Max Schultze describing "spherules" in 1865. The document outlines platelet formation in the bone marrow, structure, granule contents, functions in hemostasis, testing of platelet function, causes of low and high platelet counts, and associated conditions.
A comprehensive presentation on glomerular filtration rate (GFR) & renal blood flow and how these entities are impacted by intrinsic and extrinsic regulation.
This was presented by the author in the finals of the physiology seminar presentation in medical school.
Autoregulation of glomerular filtration rate and renal bloodDeepa Devkota
The document summarizes the autoregulation of glomerular filtration rate (GFR) and renal blood flow. It describes two main mechanisms - tubuloglomerular feedback and myogenic autoregulation. Tubuloglomerular feedback senses sodium chloride concentration at the macula densa and controls afferent and efferent arteriole diameter to maintain GFR. Myogenic autoregulation involves the vascular smooth muscle sensing changes in arterial pressure to resist vessel stretching and regulate resistance. These mechanisms help keep GFR and renal blood flow relatively constant despite changes in blood pressure, preventing extreme fluctuations in renal excretion.
The document discusses haemopoiesis (blood cell formation) and the histology of bone marrow. It describes how in fetal life, blood cells are formed in the yolk sac, liver, and later the bone marrow and liver. In newborns, children and adults, red bone marrow is found in all bones up to age 20, and later in flat bones and ends of long bones. Bone marrow contains hematopoietic stem cells that differentiate into the various blood cell lineages through progenitor and precursor cells in the bone marrow microenvironment.
Lecture 4 (transport of substances through plasmallema)Ayub Abdi
The document summarizes the key mechanisms of transport across the cell membrane. It describes how lipid-soluble substances can diffuse directly through the lipid bilayer, while water and other molecules require protein channels. Transport occurs via diffusion, either simple diffusion through openings or facilitated diffusion using carrier proteins, or active transport against gradients using ATP or the sodium-potassium gradient. Protein channels provide selective permeability and can be gated to control transport.
Hematopoiesis: Origin and development of blood cellsVarun Singh
The document discusses the origin and development of blood cells through the process of hematopoiesis. It describes how hematopoietic stem cells in the bone marrow differentiate into the various blood cell lineages through regulated stages of proliferation and maturation. Key points covered include the major sites of hematopoiesis, growth factors involved in lineage commitment and differentiation, and the morphological changes that occur as progenitors mature into red blood cells, white blood cells, platelets or megakaryocytes. The process of hematopoiesis is tightly controlled to maintain blood cell homeostasis.
The document discusses acidification of urine and the kidney's role in maintaining acid-base balance.
1) The kidneys excrete acidic or alkaline urine to maintain blood pH within a narrow range of 6.8-7.8. When blood pH changes, the kidneys compensate by regulating urine pH.
2) The kidneys secrete hydrogen ions into the tubular fluid in exchange for sodium and bicarbonate ions to be reabsorbed into the blood. This maintains bicarbonate levels and helps buffer acids produced by metabolism.
3) When acidosis occurs, the body responds through intracellular and extracellular buffering, increased ventilation, and enhanced renal acid secretion and bicarbonate re
Bile is a fluid produced by the liver that aids in digestion. It contains bile salts that emulsify and solubilize lipids, allowing for absorption. Bile is stored in the gallbladder and released in response to hormones like cholecystokinin during a meal. Disruptions to bile composition can lead to gallstones or malabsorption issues like steatorrhea.
This document discusses the structure, composition, functions, formation and lifespan of platelets. It provides details on platelets, including that they are the smallest blood cells, lack a nucleus, and function in hemostasis through adhesion, aggregation and clot formation. Platelets are formed from megakaryocytes in the bone marrow, have a lifespan of 8-12 days, and are destroyed by macrophages in the spleen.
The parathyroid glands secrete parathyroid hormone (PTH) which regulates calcium and phosphate levels in the blood. PTH increases blood calcium levels by promoting calcium absorption in the gut and bones. It decreases blood phosphate levels by enhancing phosphate excretion by the kidneys. Abnormalities in PTH secretion can cause hypocalcemia and hypercalcemia. Hypoparathyroidism is caused by low PTH and results in low blood calcium and high phosphate. Hyperparathyroidism is caused by excessive PTH and results in high blood calcium.
This document discusses the formation and types of calculi (stones). It begins by defining calculi as mineral salt concretions that can form in organs like the kidneys or gallbladder. It then discusses the formation of specific types of calculi like gallstones and renal stones. The major types of gallstones are cholesterol and pigment stones, while renal stones include calcium, uric acid, struvite, and cystine stones. The document outlines risk factors, clinical manifestations, diagnostic tests, and treatment options for different stone types. It provides details on promoting and preventive factors, as well as genetic predispositions for calculi formation.
The red blood cell membrane consists of three layers - an outer glycocalyx, lipid bilayer in the middle, and inner phospholipid and cholesterol layer. The lipid bilayer contains phospholipids like phosphatidylcholine and sphingomyelin in the outer monolayer, and phosphatidylethanolamine, phosphatidylserine, and phosphoinositol in the inner monolayer. Transport proteins maintain this asymmetric distribution, which is important for cell integrity and survival. The membrane also contains proteins that contribute to cell structure, transport, adhesion, and signaling.
Haemostasis involves three main processes: vasoconstriction, temporary haemostatic plug formation by platelets, and definitive plug formation through blood coagulation. Platelet adhesion and aggregation leads to a temporary plug, while coagulation involves clotting factors that ultimately convert fibrinogen to fibrin for a solid clot. Several factors regulate haemostasis, including the endothelium, circulating anticoagulants, liver synthesis of clotting factors, and vitamin K which enables procoagulant synthesis. Disruptions can lead to bleeding disorders or thrombosis.
The urinary system removes waste from the bloodstream through the kidneys, which filter blood to form urine. The urine travels from the kidneys to the bladder via ureters. The bladder stores urine until urination, when urine exits the body through the urethra. The kidneys contain nephrons, which filter blood in the glomerulus and reabsorb nutrients in the tubules, forming urine.
The circulatory system includes the heart, blood vessels, and blood. The heart is a muscular pump made of four chambers that pumps blood throughout the body. There are three types of blood vessels - arteries, which carry blood away from the heart; capillaries, where nutrient and gas exchange occurs; and veins, which carry blood back to the heart. Blood contains red blood cells to carry oxygen, white blood cells for immunity, platelets for clotting, and plasma. The circulatory system transports these components between tissues and organs.
The document summarizes key aspects of the cardiovascular system and haemoglobin. It defines the circulatory system and its components like arteries, veins, and capillaries. It explains that the heart has its own blood supply via the coronary circulation. It defines systemic blood pressure and how it is measured. It lists common diagnostic tests for cardiovascular disease and risk factors. It also describes the role of haemoglobin as an oxygen-transporting protein in red blood cells.
Class 11 project biology prect topic body fluid and circulationSoumyaJain899222
This document is a biology project file submitted by Soumya Jain of Class XI on the topic of body fluids and circulation. It includes an index, acknowledgements, and sections summarizing key topics like blood groups, the circulatory system, cardiac cycle, ECG, blood disorders and more. Each section provides definitions and details about important terms and concepts relating to body fluids and circulation. References used include websites like Google, YouTube, and textbooks.
Here are the key points about the baroreceptor reflex:
- Baroreceptors are pressure sensors located in the carotid sinuses and aortic arch.
- When blood pressure increases, the baroreceptors are stimulated and send action potentials to the cardioregulatory center in the medulla oblongata.
- The cardioregulatory center responds by increasing parasympathetic stimulation and decreasing sympathetic stimulation to the heart. This lowers heart rate and stroke volume.
- The end result is a decline in blood pressure, providing a negative feedback loop to maintain blood pressure within a normal range.
The baroreceptor reflex is an important autonomic mechanism that helps regulate short-term blood pressure levels
Here are the key points about the baroreceptor reflex:
- Baroreceptors are pressure sensors located in the carotid sinuses and aortic arch.
- When blood pressure increases, the baroreceptors are stimulated and send action potentials to the cardioregulatory center in the medulla oblongata.
- The cardioregulatory center responds by increasing parasympathetic stimulation and decreasing sympathetic stimulation to the heart. This lowers heart rate and stroke volume.
- The end result is a decline in blood pressure, providing a negative feedback loop to maintain normal blood pressure levels.
The baroreceptor reflex is an important autonomic mechanism that helps regulate short-term blood pressure through adjustments to
The circulatory system transports oxygen, nutrients, hormones, and removes waste through two circuits - the pulmonary and systemic circuits. The pulmonary circuit transports deoxygenated blood to the lungs and the systemic circuit transports oxygenated blood to the rest of the body. The heart pumps blood through arteries, veins, and capillaries which allow for gas and nutrient exchange. Blood consists of plasma, red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets.
Chapter 2 Blood Circulation and TransportationBrandon Loo
The circulatory system transports blood throughout the body via arteries, veins and capillaries. Blood carries oxygen, nutrients, hormones and waste products. The heart pumps blood through two circuits - pulmonary circulation to the lungs and systemic circulation to the rest of the body. The document provides details on the structure and function of the heart, blood vessels, blood composition and the importance of blood donation.
lymphatic system, a subsystem of the circulatory system in the vertebrate body that consists of a complex network of vessels, tissues, and organs. The lymphatic system helps maintain fluid balance in the body by collecting excess fluid and particulate matter from tissues and depositing them in the bloodstream
CLASS 10 CH 5 Human Circulatory & Excretory System NOTES EX.pdfEXCELLENT CLASSES
The circulatory system transports blood, nutrients, oxygen, carbon dioxide, and hormones throughout the body using the heart, blood vessels, and blood. The heart pumps blood through arteries, veins, and capillaries. It has four chambers - two upper atria and two lower ventricles. Blood enters the right atrium from the body and enters the left atrium from the lungs. It then flows to the ventricles and is pumped back out through arteries. The circulatory system helps sustain organ systems and protects cells from pathogens. Waste products are also transported for removal from the body.
A mathematical model of two phase, (One phase is Newtonian and other is non-N...iosrjce
In the present paper we have formulated the renal blood flow along the capillaries in case of renal
disease Diabetes . keeping in the view the nature of renal circulatory system in human body. P.N.Pandey and
V.Upadhyay have considered the blood flow has two phased one of which is that of red blood cells and other is
plasma. According to Fahreaus-Lindqvist effect the blood flow in two separated layers while passing through
capillaries. The plasma layer which flows along the surface of the capillaries contains almost no blood cells.
The second layer the core layer containing blood cells which flows in plasma along the axis of capillary. We
have collected a clinical data in case of Diabetes for hematocrit v/s blood pressure. The graphical presentation
for particular parametric value is much closed to the clinical observation. The overall presentation is in
tensorial form and solution technique adapted is analytical as well as numerical. The role of hematocrit is
explicit in the determination of blood pressure drop in case of renal disease Diabetes
The document summarizes key components and functions of the circulatory and excretory systems. It describes the components of blood and the double circulatory system, which transports blood to and from the heart and lungs. The document also outlines urine formation through the kidneys and excretory system. Major illnesses like arteriosclerosis, thrombosis, heart attacks and cystitis are also summarized.
This document summarizes the three main types of granulocytes in human blood: neutrophils, eosinophils, and basophils. Granulocytes are a group of white blood cells characterized by granules in their cytoplasm. They are the most numerous white cells and are larger than red blood cells. The three types are distinguished by the color their granules stain when treated with dye. Neutrophils, eosinophils, and basophils play important roles in the inflammatory response.
The document discusses the circulatory system, including its components and functions. It describes the closed circulatory system in humans, which involves the heart pumping blood through arteries, arterioles, capillaries, venules and veins. The circulatory system transports nutrients, gases, wastes and more throughout the body. Blood consists of plasma and formed elements like red blood cells, white blood cells and platelets. Red blood cells contain hemoglobin and transport oxygen, while white blood cells help fight infection. Platelets help the blood clot to stop bleeding.
The document summarizes the structure and function of the cardiovascular system. It describes the three types of blood vessels - arteries, capillaries, and veins. It explains how blood flows through the heart chambers, and the role of the heart valves and muscles in pumping blood. Key concepts covered include blood pressure, the cardiac cycle, heart sounds, and neural and hormonal control of the heart.
The document describes a science lesson about the human circulatory system taught to 7th grade students. It begins with testing the students' prior knowledge with questions. The lesson then covers the definition and main parts of the circulatory system, including the heart, blood vessels, and blood. Details are provided about the heart's four chambers and layers, and the valves. The roles of the different types of blood vessels and components of blood like plasma, red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets are also summarized. The lesson ends with recaps of the material for students.
The cardiovascular system consists of the heart, blood vessels, and blood. The heart pumps blood through a closed system of arteries, capillaries and veins. Arteries carry oxygenated blood away from the heart while veins carry deoxygenated blood back to the heart. Capillaries allow for the exchange of oxygen, nutrients and waste between the blood and tissues. The circulatory system transports these materials throughout the body to sustain homeostasis.
The cardiovascular system consists of the heart, blood vessels, and blood. The heart pumps blood through a closed system of arteries, capillaries and veins. Arteries carry oxygenated blood away from the heart while veins carry deoxygenated blood back to the heart. Capillaries allow for the exchange of oxygen, nutrients and waste between the blood and body tissues. The circulatory system transports these materials throughout the body to sustain homeostasis.
The document discusses the cardiovascular system and factors that influence heart disease. It begins by describing the vital functions of the heart and blood vessels in transporting oxygen, nutrients, and waste throughout the body. It then explains the four main components of blood - plasma, red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets - and their respective roles. Finally, it provides an overview of blood flow, blood pressure, blood vessel anatomy and the layers comprising arteries.
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Does Over-Masturbation Contribute to Chronic Prostatitis.pptxwalterHu5
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Estas diretrizes visam melhorar a qualidade dos cuidados pós-natais essenciais e de rotina prestados às mulheres e aos recém-nascidos, com o objetivo final de melhorar a saúde e o bem-estar materno e neonatal.
Uma “experiência pós-natal positiva” é um resultado importante para todas as mulheres que dão à luz e para os seus recém-nascidos, estabelecendo as bases para a melhoria da saúde e do bem-estar a curto e longo prazo. Uma experiência pós-natal positiva é definida como aquela em que as mulheres, pessoas que gestam, os recém-nascidos, os casais, os pais, os cuidadores e as famílias recebem informação consistente, garantia e apoio de profissionais de saúde motivados; e onde um sistema de saúde flexível e com recursos reconheça as necessidades das mulheres e dos bebês e respeite o seu contexto cultural.
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O estabelecimento da amamentação e o manejo das principais intercorrências é contemplada.
Recomendamos muito.
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1. Define an electrocardiogram (ECG) and electrocardiography
2. Describe how dipoles generated by the heart produce the waveforms of the ECG
3. Describe the components of a normal electrocardiogram of a typical bipolar lead (limb II)
4. Differentiate between intervals and segments
5. Enlist some common indications for obtaining an ECG
6. Describe the flow of current around the heart during the cardiac cycle
7. Discuss the placement and polarity of the leads of electrocardiograph
8. Describe the normal electrocardiograms recorded from the limb leads and explain the physiological basis of the different records that are obtained
9. Define mean electrical vector (axis) of the heart and give the normal range
10. Define the mean QRS vector
11. Describe the axes of leads (hexagonal reference system)
12. Comprehend the vectorial analysis of the normal ECG
13. Determine the mean electrical axis of the ventricular QRS and appreciate the mean axis deviation
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Study Resources:
1. Chapter 11, Guyton and Hall Textbook of Medical Physiology, 14th edition
2. Chapter 9, Human Physiology - From Cells to Systems, Lauralee Sherwood, 9th edition
3. Chapter 29, Ganong’s Review of Medical Physiology, 26th edition
4. Electrocardiogram, StatPearls - https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK549803/
5. ECG in Medical Practice by ABM Abdullah, 4th edition
6. Chapter 3, Cardiology Explained, https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK2214/
7. ECG Basics, http://www.nataliescasebook.com/tag/e-c-g-basics
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NVBDCP.pptx Nation vector borne disease control programSapna Thakur
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Overall life span (LS) was 1671.7±1721.6 days and cumulative 5YS reached 62.4%, 10 years – 50.4%, 20 years – 44.6%. 94 LCP lived more than 5 years without cancer (LS=2958.6±1723.6 days), 22 – more than 10 years (LS=5571±1841.8 days). 67 LCP died because of LC (LS=471.9±344 days). AT significantly improved 5YS (68% vs. 53.7%) (P=0.028 by log-rank test). Cox modeling displayed that 5YS of LCP significantly depended on: N0-N12, T3-4, blood cell circuit, cell ratio factors (ratio between cancer cells-CC and blood cells subpopulations), LC cell dynamics, recalcification time, heparin tolerance, prothrombin index, protein, AT, procedure type (P=0.000-0.031). Neural networks, genetic algorithm selection and bootstrap simulation revealed relationships between 5YS and N0-12 (rank=1), thrombocytes/CC (rank=2), segmented neutrophils/CC (3), eosinophils/CC (4), erythrocytes/CC (5), healthy cells/CC (6), lymphocytes/CC (7), stick neutrophils/CC (8), leucocytes/CC (9), monocytes/CC (10). Correct prediction of 5YS was 100% by neural networks computing (error=0.000; area under ROC curve=1.0).
2. Intended Learning Outcomes (ILOs)
By the end of this chapter, the trainee should be able to:
➢ Know the components of the circulatory system, and the flow of blood in heart and
blood vessels.
○ Know the main components of the blood, and it’s functions in the body.
➢ Understand homeostasis, and hemostasis and their importance in the human body.
○ Understand the positive and negative feedback mechanism, and their role to
maintain homeostasis.
➢ Understand blood clotting and the role of platelets during it.
○ Understand the coagulation cascade (intrinsic, extrinsic and common pathway),
and the central role of factor Xa in blood clotting.
3. Topics
1. Physiology of cardiovascular system
a. Heart
b. Blood vessels & Blood
2. Homeostasis and Hemostasis
3. Blood clotting
5. ➢ The heart pumps blood to the
body through a network of
arteries and veins (blood
vessels).
➢ The circulatory system can also
be defined as your
cardiovascular system. Cardio
means heart, and vascular refers
to blood vessels.
➢ It includes the systemic
circulation, pulmonary
circulation, and coronary
circulation.
What is the circulatory system ?
8. Heart
➢ The heart itself is made up of 4 chambers, 2 upper chambers (atria) and 2 lower
chamber (ventricles).1
9. Heart
A large, significant vein responsible
for returning deoxygenated blood
collected from the body back into the
right atrium.
A large vein that carries the
deoxygenated blood from the lower
and middle body into the right atrium
of the heart.
An artery in the pulmonary circulation
that carries deoxygenated blood from
the right side of the heart to the lungs.
Transfer oxygenated
blood from the lungs to
the left atrium.
The main artery that
carries blood away from
your heart to the rest of
your body.
10. Heart Valves
➢ The heart itself is made up of has 4 valves, which open or close to control the
blood flow in the one direction (unidirectional valves).
Tricuspid valve between right atrium
and right ventricle
Pulmonary valve between right
ventricle and pulmonary artery
Mitral valve between left atrium and
left ventricle
Aortic valve between left ventricle
and aorta
11. The Atrial Kick
➢ Atrial kick is the phenomenon of increased force generated by the atria during
contraction.
➢ This event occurs late in atrial systole when blood flows from the left atrium into
the left ventricle.
➢ The purpose of the atrial kick is to increase flow across the mitral valve by
increasing the pressure gradient.
12. 1. Anatomy and Physiology of the Heart - Normal Function of the Heart - Cardiology Teaching Package - Practice Learning - Division of Nursing - The University of Nottingham. (2022). Retrieved 16 June 2022, from
https://www.nottingham.ac.uk/nursing/practice/resources/cardiology/function/anatomy.php
Blood circulation through the heart
Deoxygenated
blood
Oxygenated
blood
Mitral
Valve
Aortic Valve
Inferior vena cava
15. Cardiac Conduction System
➢ The SA node releases electrical stimuli at a
regular rate, the rate is dictated by the
needs of the body.
➢ Each stimulus passes through the
myocardial cells of the atria creating a
wave of contraction which spreads rapidly
through both atria. (1,2,3)
16. Cardiac Conduction System
➢ The electrical stimulus from the SA node
eventually reaches the AV node and is
delayed briefly so that the contracting
atria have enough time to pump all the
blood into the ventricles.
➢ Once the atria are empty of blood the
valves between the atria and ventricles
close.
➢ At this point the atria begin to refill and
the electrical stimulus passes through the
AV node and Bundle of His into the Bundle
branches and Purkinje fibres. (4,5,6)
20. Blood vessels
1. Blood Vessels. (2022). Retrieved 16 June 2022, from https://www.fi.edu/heart/blood-vessels#:~:text=There%20are%20three%20kinds%20of,allows%20blood%20to%20flow%20easily.
➢ There are three kinds of blood vessels: arteries, veins, and capillaries. Each of
these plays a very specific role in the circulation process. It Forms a network
that carry blood from and back to the heart.1
21. Blood vessels
1. Blood Vessels. (2022). Retrieved 16 June 2022, from https://www.fi.edu/heart/blood-vessels#:~:text=There%20are%20three%20kinds%20of,allows%20blood%20to%20flow%20easily.
➢ Arteries carry oxygenated blood away from the heart.
22. Blood vessels
1. Blood Vessels. (2022). Retrieved 16 June 2022, from https://www.fi.edu/heart/blood-vessels#:~:text=There%20are%20three%20kinds%20of,allows%20blood%20to%20flow%20easily.
➢ Capillaries connect the arteries to veins. The arteries deliver the oxygen-rich
blood to the capillaries, where the actual exchange of oxygen and carbon
dioxide occurs. The capillaries then deliver the waste-rich blood to the veins for
transport back to the lungs and heart.1
As blood plasma passes through capillaries,
hydrostatic pressure forces some of plasma
fluid out of the capillary wall to form tissue
fluid.
23. Blood vessels
1. Blood Vessels. (2022). Retrieved 16 June 2022, from https://www.fi.edu/heart/blood-vessels#:~:text=There%20are%20three%20kinds%20of,allows%20blood%20to%20flow%20easily.
➢ Veins carry the deoxygenated blood back to the heart.
24. Functions of the blood
1. InformedHealth.org [Internet]. Cologne, Germany: Institute for Quality and Efficiency in Health Care (IQWiG); 2006-. What does blood do? [Updated 2019 Aug 29]. Available from:
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK279392/
1. Transportation 1
➢ The blood transports oxygen from the lungs to the cells of the body.
➢ The carbon dioxide produced is carried back to the lungs by the blood.
➢ Blood also provides the cells with nutrients, transports hormones and removes
waste products, which organs such as the liver, the kidneys or the intestine
then get rid of.
25. Functions of the blood
1. InformedHealth.org [Internet]. Cologne, Germany: Institute for Quality and Efficiency in Health Care (IQWiG); 2006-. What does blood do? [Updated 2019 Aug 29]. Available from:
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK279392/
2. Regulation 1
➢ The blood makes sure that the right body temperature is maintained.
➢ When the blood vessels expand, the blood flows more slowly and this
causes heat to be lost. When the temperature outside the body is low,
the blood vessels can contract to reduce the amount of heat lost.
26. Functions of the blood
1. InformedHealth.org [Internet]. Cologne, Germany: Institute for Quality and Efficiency in Health Care (IQWiG); 2006-. What does blood do? [Updated 2019 Aug 29]. Available from:
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK279392/
3. Protection1
➢ This involves parts of the blood such as blood platelets and coagulation factors
that are dissolved in the blood plasma, these parts of the blood stick together
(clot) very quickly and make sure that it stops bleeding.
➢ White blood cells and certain chemical messengers also play an important role
in the immune system.
27. Components of the blood
1. Blood Components. (2022). Retrieved 16 June 2022, from https://www.redcrossblood.org/donate-blood/how-to-donate/types-of-blood-donations/blood-components.html
2. Mathew J, Sankar P, Varacallo M. Physiology, Blood Plasma. [Updated 2022 Apr 28]. In: StatPearls [Internet]. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing; 2022 Jan-. Available from:
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK531504/
Adapted from reference 1
Plasma contains 91% to 92% of water and 8% to 9% of solids. It
mainly comprises of:2
➢ Coagulants, mainly fibrinogen, aid in blood clotting.
➢ Plasma proteins, such as albumin and globulin, that help
maintain the colloidal osmotic pressure at about 25 mmHg.
➢ Electrolytes like sodium, potassium, bicarbonate, chloride,
and calcium.
➢ Immunoglobulins help fight infection and various other
small amounts of enzymes, hormones, and vitamins.
28. Components of the blood
1. Blood Components. (2022). Retrieved 16 June 2022, from https://www.redcrossblood.org/donate-blood/how-to-donate/types-of-blood-donations/blood-components.html
2. Richard van Wijk, Wouter W. van Solinge; The energy-less red blood cell is lost: erythrocyte enzyme abnormalities of glycolysis. Blood 2005; 106 (13): 4034–4042. doi: https://doi.org/10.1182/blood-2005-04-1622
3. Rewar, Suresh. (2014). RESEALED ERYTHROCYTES AS CARRIERS AND ITS APPLICATION IN THERAPY. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF CURRENT RESEARCH IN CHEMISTRY AND PHARMACEUTICAL SCIENCES. 1. 101-114.
Adapted from reference 1
Called Erythrocytes, they are flattened biconcave disc,
which increase surface area for gas exchange: 1,2
➢ Life span: 120 days.
➢ They lack nucleus (High flexibility) and lack
mitochondria (anaerobic metabolism).
➢ Contain haemoglobin which gives the blood its red
color.
Adapted from reference 3
29. Components of the blood
1. Blood Components. (2022). Retrieved 16 June 2022, from https://www.redcrossblood.org/donate-blood/how-to-donate/types-of-blood-donations/blood-components.html
2. What Are White Blood Cells? - Health Encyclopedia - University of Rochester Medical Center. (2022). Retrieved 16 June 2022, from
https://www.urmc.rochester.edu/encyclopedia/content.aspx?ContentID=35&ContentTypeID=160
3. Shirazi, Syed & Umar, Arif & Naz, Saeeda & Razzak, Muhammad. (2016). Efficient leukocyte segmentation and recognition in peripheral blood image. Technology and health care : official journal of the
European Society for Engineering and Medicine. 24. 10.3233/THC-161133.
Adapted from reference 1
➢ Called Leukocytes, contain nucleus and
mitochondria, they can move and squeeze through
capillaries to reach the inflammation site.1,2
Adapted from reference 3
30. Components of the blood 1,2
1. Blood Components. (2022). Retrieved 16 June 2022, from https://www.redcrossblood.org/donate-blood/how-to-donate/types-of-blood-donations/blood-components.html
2. blood - Platelets (thrombocytes). (2022). Retrieved 16 June 2022, from https://www.britannica.com/science/blood-biochemistry/Platelets-thrombocytes.
Adapted from reference 1
➢ Platelets is the smallest blood element.
➢ After about 5-9 days in the circulation, platelets are
removed and destroyed.
➢ They lack nucleus but have the ability to move
(have mitochondria).
35. Homeostasis definition
Homeostasis can be defined as ‘preserving constancy in the internal
environment’.1
1. George F. Koob, Michel Le Moal, CHAPTER 10 - Drug Addiction: Transition from Neuroadaptation to Pathophysiology, Editor(s): George F. Koob, Michel Le Moal, Neurobiology of Addiction, Academic Press,
2006, Pages 429-461, ISBN 9780124192393, https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-012419239-3/50047-3.
2. 1.3A: Homeostatic Control. (2022). Retrieved 15 June 2022, from
https://med.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Anatomy_and_Physiology/Book%3A_Anatomy_and_Physiology_(Boundless)/1%3A_Introduction_to_Anatomy_and_Physiology/1.3%3A_Homeostasis/1.3A%3A_Homeo
static_Control#:~:text=An%20effector%20is%20any%20organ,blood%20pressure%20is%20too%20low.
Homeostatic control mechanisms have at least
three interdependent components:2
1. A receptor.
1. integrating center (not
involved in some
responses).
1. Effector.
36. Homeostasis control mechanisms
1. The receptor senses internal or external stimuli, sending the information
to the integrating center.
2. The integrating center, generally a region of the brain called the
hypothalamus, signals an effector (e.g. muscles or an organ ) to maintain
homeostasis.
3. Effector responds to the stimuli.
38. Homeostasis control mechanisms
➢ The body operates within a range of too much and too little, the limits of tolerance.
➢ As long as the disturbance is within the tolerance limit, the body will be able to regain
balance.
➢ If the change is beyond tolerance limit, the body won’t be able to regain balance.
39. Homeostasis control mechanisms
1. 1.3A: Homeostatic Control. (2022). Retrieved 15 June 2022, from
https://med.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Anatomy_and_Physiology/Book%3A_Anatomy_and_Physiology_(Boundless)/1%3A_Introduction_to_Anatomy_and_Physiology/1.3%3A_Homeostasis/1.3A%3A_Homeostatic_Control#:~:text=An%20effector%20is%20any%20organ,blood%20pressure%2
0is%20too%20low.
2. Research gate. (2022). Retrieved 15 June 2022, from https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Examples-of-causal-loop-diagrams-representing-positive-and-negative-feedback-loops-A_fig9_36712679
Positive and negative feedback are complicated mechanisms that maintain
homeostasis for more complex physiological processes.
Positive feedback Negative feedback
40. Positive feedback loop
1. 1.3A: Homeostatic Control. (2022). Retrieved 15 June 2022, from
https://med.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Anatomy_and_Physiology/Book%3A_Anatomy_and_Physiology_(Boundless)/1%3A_Introduction_to_Anatomy_and_Physiology/1.3%3A_Homeostasis/1.3A%3A_Homeo
static_Control#:~:text=An%20effector%20is%20any%20organ,blood%20pressure%20is%20too%20low.
Positive feedback mechanisms are designed to accelerate or enhance the output
created by a stimulus that has already been activated in order to reach the goal of
maintaining homeostasis.
A positive feedback example is blood platelet accumulation and
aggregation, which in turn causes blood clotting in response to an injury
of the blood vessels.
41. Positive feedback loop
1. Michigan.gov. (2022). Retrieved 15 June 2022, from https://www.michigan.gov/-/media/Project/Websites/explorelabscience/pdf/Presentation_on_Homeostasis.pdf?rev=148b2304bd6340a99e3cccda43539499
1. Break or tear occurs in
blood vessel wall
2. Positive feedback cycle is initiated
3. Platelets adhere to site and
release chemicals that attract
more platelets
4. Platelet plug forms
Feedback cycle ends when plug is formed
Positive
feedback loop
Adapted from reference 1
42. Homeostasis control mechanisms
1. 1.3A: Homeostatic Control. (2022). Retrieved 15 June 2022, from
https://med.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Anatomy_and_Physiology/Book%3A_Anatomy_and_Physiology_(Boundless)/1%3A_Introduction_to_Anatomy_and_Physiology/1.3%3A_Homeostasis/1.3A%3A_Homeostatic_Control#:~:text=An%20effector%20is%20any%20organ,blood%20pressure%2
0is%20too%20low.
2. Research gate. (2022). Retrieved 15 June 2022, from https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Examples-of-causal-loop-diagrams-representing-positive-and-negative-feedback-loops-A_fig9_36712679
Positive and negative feedback are complicated mechanisms that maintain
homeostasis for more complex physiological processes.
Positive feedback Negative feedback
43. Negative feedback loop
Negative feedback mechanisms reduce output or activity to return an organ or
system to its normal range of functioning.1
1
3
2
1`
2`
3`
44. Negative feedback loop1
Other examples of negative feedback loop?
Regulation of blood pressure is an example of negative feedback.
Normal Blood pressure
Blood pressure is high
➢ The heart rate
decreases
➢ vasodilation
➢ kidneys retain less
water.
Blood pressure is low
➢ The heart rate
increases
➢ vasoconstriction
➢ kidneys retain
more water.
1
2
1`
2`
45. Hemostasis definition
Hemostasis is the normal physiological response that
prevents significant blood loss following vascular
injury.1
1. Hemostasis: Stages and How the Process Stops Blood Flow. (2022). Retrieved 15 June 2022, from
https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/symptoms/21999-
hemostasis#:~:text=Hemostasis%20is%20your%20body's%20natural,much%20or%20too%20little%20clotting.
Sometimes, the processes that control hemostasis
can malfunction, causing potentially serious — or
even dangerous — problems with bleeding or clotting
(thrombosis).1
Adapted from reference 1
46. Activity
➢ Draw a sketch to show the role positive feedback in hemostasis.
47. Topics
1. Physiology of cardiovascular system
a. Heart
b. Blood vessels & Blood
2. Homeostasis and Hemostasis
3. Blood clotting
49. Blood Clotting
1. Blood Clots [Internet]. Hematology.org. 2022 [cited 19 June 2022]. Available from: https://www.hematology.org/education/patients/blood-clots
➢ Blood clotting, or coagulation, is an important process that prevents excessive
bleeding when a blood vessel is injured. 1
Promote hemostasis ( hemo = blood and stasis = standing)
➢ Platelets and proteins known as coagulation factors in your plasma work
together to stop the bleeding by forming a clot over the injury. 1
Under physiologic conditions platelets circulate without
adhering to intact and inactive endothelium.1
50. When endothelial lining of blood vessel is intact, platelets repel from each other and also
repel from the intact endothelium prostacyclin produced by the endothelium.
Other mechanisms to prevent platelets activation include:
➢ The protective effects of the glycocalyx.
➢ The endothelial production of nitric oxide (NO) which is potent platelet inhibitor.
➢ The production of the endothelial ecto-ADPase-CD39 metabolizes ADP, a strong platelet
activator, attenuating platelets activation indirectly.
1. Hamilos, M., Petousis, S., & Parthenakis, F. (2018). Interaction between platelets and endothelium: from pathophysiology to new therapeutic options. Cardiovascular diagnosis and therapy, 8(5), 568–580.
https://doi.org/10.21037/cdt.2018.07.01
51. Blood Clotting- How it all starts
TXA2: Thromboxane A2, ADP: Adenosine Diphosphate
1. 1. Smith, S. A., Travers, R. J., & Morrissey, J. H. (2015). How it all starts: Initiation of the clotting cascade. Critical reviews in biochemistry and molecular biology, 50(4), 326–336.
https://doi.org/10.3109/10409238.2015.1050550
Breakage of endothelial lining of blood
vessel 1
Circulating platelets adhere to the
site of trauma (collagen)
A series of enzymatic reactions
involving coagulation proteins
Platelets are activated and
aggregated
Fibrin is produced to form a stable
plug
52. Role of platelets
Sticky platelets release TXA2 and ADP inducing other platelets to stick (+ve
feedback).
53. Role of platelets
TXA2: Thromboxane A2
1. Periayah, M. H., Halim, A. S., & Mat Saad, A. Z. (2017). Mechanism Action of Platelets and Crucial Blood Coagulation Pathways in Hemostasis. International journal of hematology-oncology and stem cell
research, 11(4), 319–327.
➢ Phospholipids in the cell membrane of activated platelets activates clotting
factors that results in formation of fibrin. 1
➢ Release TXA2 and serotonin inducing vasoconstriction and reduce blood flow
to the injured area.1
➢ Release growth factors which maintain integrity of blood vessel.1
54. Blood Clotting- How it all starts
TXA2: Thromboxane A2, ADP: Adenosine Diphosphate
1. Smith, S. A., Travers, R. J., & Morrissey, J. H. (2015). How it all starts: Initiation of the clotting cascade. Critical reviews in biochemistry and molecular biology, 50(4), 326–336.
https://doi.org/10.3109/10409238.2015.1050550
Breakage of endothelial lining of blood
vessel. 1
Circulating platelets adhere to the
site of trauma (collagen)
A series of enzymatic reactions
involving coagulation proteins
Platelets are activated and
aggregated
Fibrin is produced to form a stable
plug
Sticky platelets release TXA2 and ADP inducing
other platelets to stick (+ve feedback?)
55. The coagulation cascade 1
1. Smith, S. A., Travers, R. J., & Morrissey, J. H. (2015). How it all starts: Initiation of the clotting cascade. Critical reviews in biochemistry and molecular biology, 50(4), 326–336.
https://doi.org/10.3109/10409238.2015.1050550
Extrinsic Pathway
Intrinsic Pathway
Common Pathway
Prothrombin is activated into thrombin, and fibrin is produced to form a stable
plug along with platelets
Generate
activated factor X
(factor Xa)
56. Intrinsic Pathway
➢ Coagulation initiated by components entirely within vasculature. 1
➢ Initiated by the contact system which is activated by blood contact with
nonendothelial surfaces.1
➢ It begins with the activation of Factor XII which becomes Factor XIIa after
exposure to endothelial collagen.
57. Intrinsic Pathway
XII
Binds to
subendothelial
surfaces exposed by
injury
XIIa
Prekallikrein to
Kallikrein
Ca++
XI to XIa
IX to IXa
Ca++, VIIIa, PL
X to Xa
➢ Quantitatively is the most important pathway, but slower than extrinsic
pathway.1
58. The coagulation cascade 1
1. Smith, S. A., Travers, R. J., & Morrissey, J. H. (2015). How it all starts: Initiation of the clotting cascade. Critical reviews in biochemistry and molecular biology, 50(4), 326–336.
https://doi.org/10.3109/10409238.2015.1050550
Extrinsic Pathway
Intrinsic Pathway
Common Pathway
Prothrombin is activated into thrombin, and fibrin is produced to form a stable
plug along with platelets
Generate
activated factor X
(factor Xa)
59. Extrinsic Pathway
1. Chaudhry R, Usama SM, Babiker HM. Physiology, Coagulation Pathways. [Updated 2021 Sep 1]. In: StatPearls [Internet]. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing; 2022 Jan-. Available from:
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK482253/
➢ The principle initiating pathway of invivo blood coagulation.
➢ The critical component is tissue factor embedded within and around blood
vessels and other tissue, under normal conditions it’s not exposed to blood.
➢ It’s main function is to augment the activity of the intrinsic pathway, it provides
a very rapid response to tissue injury.
60. Extrinsic Pathway
1. Chaudhry R, Usama SM, Babiker HM. Physiology, Coagulation Pathways. [Updated 2021 Sep 1]. In: StatPearls [Internet]. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing; 2022 Jan-. Available from:
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK482253/
Tissue
factor
activation
VII to VIIa
Tissue factor
+ VIIa + PL +
Ca++
X to Xa
61. The coagulation cascade 1
1. Smith, S. A., Travers, R. J., & Morrissey, J. H. (2015). How it all starts: Initiation of the clotting cascade. Critical reviews in biochemistry and molecular biology, 50(4), 326–336.
https://doi.org/10.3109/10409238.2015.1050550
Extrinsic Pathway
Intrinsic Pathway
Common Pathway
Prothrombin is activated into thrombin, and fibrin is produced to form a stable
plug along with platelets
Generate
activated factor X
(factor Xa)
62. The common Pathway
1. Chaudhry R, Usama SM, Babiker HM. Physiology, Coagulation Pathways. [Updated 2021 Sep 1]. In: StatPearls [Internet]. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing; 2022 Jan-. Available from:
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK482253/
X to Xa
Extrinsic Pathway Intrinsic
Pathway
Prothrombin (II)
to Thrombin
(IIa)
Fibrinogen (I)
into Fibrin (Ia)
Stable blood
clot
Fibrin
stabilizing
factor (XIII) to
XIIIa
Ca++, Va, PL
63. Factor Xa has a central role in thrombus
formation
➢ One molecule of factor Xa, activates 1000 thrombin
molecules.
➢ Factor Xa is a crucial site of amplification in the
coagulation process.
1. Ansell J. (2007). Factor Xa or thrombin: is factor Xa a better target?. Journal of thrombosis and haemostasis : JTH, 5 Suppl 1, 60–64. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1538-7836.2007.02473.x
65. The coagulation cascade
1. Smith, S. A., Travers, R. J., & Morrissey, J. H. (2015). How it all starts: Initiation of the clotting cascade. Critical reviews in biochemistry and molecular biology, 50(4), 326–336.
https://doi.org/10.3109/10409238.2015.1050550
➢ Each enzyme is present in inactive form which on activation release the active
factor.1
➢ The ultimate goal is to produce thrombin which activates soluble fibrinogen into
insoluble fibrin that forms a clot.1
➢ Intrinsic and extrinsic pathways release factor Xa, while common pathway
release thrombin.1
66.
67. Vitamin K is needed for the proper function of
factors II, VII, IX & X.
➢ Because of the indirect action of vitamin K on blood clotting,
vitamin K antagonists (e.g warfarin) take several days to
become effective as an anticoagulant.
1. Girolami, A., Ferrari, S., Cosi, E., Santarossa, C., & Randi, M. L. (2018). Vitamin K-Dependent Coagulation Factors That May be Responsible for Both Bleeding and Thrombosis (FII, FVII, and FIX). Clinical
and applied thrombosis/hemostasis : official journal of the International Academy of Clinical and Applied Thrombosis/Hemostasis, 24(9_suppl), 42S–47S. https://doi.org/10.1177/1076029618811109
71. Question
➢ Which of the following initiates the coagulation cascade IN VIVO?
A. Factor XII
B. Thrombin
C. Tissue factor
D. Factor X
E. Prekallikrein
➢ Which of the following is true?
A. The extrinsic system is activated first, and then the intrinsic system is turned
on later
B. The intrinsic system is weak and short-lived
Which factor has a central role in the coagulation cascade ? why?
72. The New Coagulation Cascade
Tissue factor: FT, APL: Acidic phspholipid
1. https://www.revespcardiol.org/en-the-new-coagulation-cascade-its-articulo-13114167
73. The New Coagulation Cascade
1. The complex formed by tissue factor and factor VII participates in the activation
of factor IX, indicating that the intrinsic and extrinsic coagulation pathways are
linked almost from the beginning of the process.
2. The complete process does not occur continuously but rather requires 3
consecutive phases: an initial phase, an amplification phase, and a propagation
phase. Platelets and thrombin are actively involved in the last 2 phases.
74. The New Coagulation Cascade
Initial Phase
The tissue factor - factor VII complex activates factor X, either directly or indirectly via factor IX, and
transforms prothrombin into thrombin in small amounts that are insufficient to complete the process of
fibrin formation.
Amplification Phase
The thrombin that has been formed, along with calcium from the blood and acidic phospholipids derived
from platelets, actively participates in a positive feedback process for the activation of factors XI, IX, VIII,
and V, and, especially, to accelerate platelet activation. Simultaneously, the factors mentioned are
attracted through chemotactic mechanisms to the surface of the platelets, where very rapid and
extensive activation and amplification occurs.
Propagation Phase
The amplification of the process through feedback mechanisms involving thrombin and platelets and the
activation of all these factors allow large quantities of factor X to be activated and form the
prothrombinase complex to convert prothrombin into thrombin and, through the action of thrombin,
fibrinogen into fibrin. The final process, always occurring on the surface of the platelets, accelerates and
leads to the explosive generation of large quantities of thrombin and fibrin.
77. During initial thrombus formation
1. Chapin, J. C., & Hajjar, K. A. (2015). Fibrinolysis and the control of blood coagulation. Blood reviews, 29(1), 17–24. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.blre.2014.09.003
Inhibit
plasminogen
activators during
initial thrombus
formation.
78. Once a stable fibrin clot has formed and injured tissues have been
repaired
1. Chapin, J. C., & Hajjar, K. A. (2015). Fibrinolysis and the control of blood coagulation. Blood reviews, 29(1), 17–24. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.blre.2014.09.003
Restores blood
flow
80. Hemostasis imbalance
➢ Any imbalance may lead to risk of bleeding or clotting (Thrombosis).1
1. Flores, B., Trivedi, H. D., Robson, S. C., & Bonder, A. (2017). Hemostasis, bleeding and thrombosis in liver disease. Journal of translational science, 3(3), 10.15761/JTS.1000182.
https://doi.org/10.15761/JTS.1000182
2. Carlos Jerjes-Sanchez, Venous and arterial thrombosis: a continuous spectrum of the same disease?, European Heart Journal, Volume 26, Issue 1, January 2005, Pages 3–4,
https://doi.org/10.1093/eurheartj/ehi041
➢ Arterial Thrombus (White thrombi) : composed mainly of platelets aggregation
and fibrins.2
➢ Venous Thrombus (Red thrombi) : composed of fibrins and red blood cells.2
81. Major diseases associated with thrombosis:
➢ Venous thromboembolism (VTE):
a disorder that includes deep vein thrombosis (DVT) and
pulmonary embolism (PE).1
DVT: Deep Vein Thrombosis, PE: Pulmonary Embolism
1. Thrombosis: Types, Causes, Symptoms & Treatment [Internet]. Cleveland Clinic. 2022 [cited 20 June 2022]. Available from: https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/22242-thrombosis
➢ Cardioembolic stroke:
occlusion of cerebral vessels with debris from a cardiac source.1
➢ Atherothrombosis:
a condition that occurs when a thrombus forms over an unstable
atherosclerotic plaque.
82. Topics
1. Physiology of cardiovascular system
a. Heart
b. Blood vessels & Blood
2. Homeostasis and Hemostasis
3. Blood clotting
When the blood vessels expand, the blood flows more slowly and this causes heat to be lost.
When body temperature is low, the blood vessels can contract to reduce the amount of heat lost.
Even the pH value of the blood is kept at a level ideal for the body.
***
***
Vasoconstriction controlled by brain, but platelets aggregation is internal response without integrating center
***
*** TXA2+AD
Sticky platelets release TXA2 and ADP inducing other platelets to stick (+ve feedback).
**** MEDUSA
** Warfarin indirectly inhibits inactive form
RIVA inhibits activated form only
*** move to end
*** move to end
*** move to end
*** move to end
*** Fibrinolysis must be accompanied by anticoagulation,
While anticoagulation enhances in body fibrinolysis