An overview of distillation column design concepts and major design considerations. Explains distillation column design concepts, what you would provide to a professional distillation column designer, and what you can expect back from a distillation system design firm. To speak with an engineer about your distillation column project, call EPIC at 314-207-4250.
Estimation of Pressure Drop in Pipe Systems
0 INTRODUCTION/PURPOSE
1 SCOPE
2 FIELD OF APPLICATION
3 DEFINITIONS
3.1 units
4 SOURCES OF DATA
5 BASIC CONCEPTS
5.1 Equation for Pressure Change in a Flowing
Fluid
5.2 Static and Stagnation Pressures
5.3 Sonic Flow
6 INCOMPRESSIBLE FLOW IN PIPES OF CONSTANT
CROSS-SECTION
6.1 Straight Circular Pipes
6.2 Ducts of Non-circular Cross-section
6.3 Coils
6.4 General Equation for Incompressible Flow
in Pipes of Constant Cross-section
7 COMPRESSIBLE FLOW IN PIPES OF CONSTANT
CROSS-SECTION
7.1 Isothermal Flow
7.2 Adiabatic Flow
7.3 Estimation of Pressure Drop for Adiabatic
Flow in Pipes of Constant Cross-section
7.4 Ratio of Isothermal to Adiabatic Pressure Drop
8 FLOW IN PIPE FITTINGS
8.1 Incompressible Flow
8.2 Compressible Flow
9 FLOW IN BENDS
9.1 Incompressible Flow in Bends
9.2 Compressible Flow in Bends
10 CHANGES IN CROSS-SECTIONAL AREA
9.1 Incompressible Flow
9.2 Compressible Flow
11 ORIFICES, NOZZLES AND VENTURIS
11.1 Incompressible Flow through an Orifice
11.2 Compressible Flow through an Orifice or Nozzle
11.3 Venturi Choke Tubes
12 VALVES
12.1 General
12.2 Incompressible Flow in Valves
12.2 Compressible Flow in Valves
13 COMBINING AND DIVIDING FLOW
9.1 Incompressible Flow
9.2 Compressible Flow
14 COMPUTER PROGRAMS FOR FLUID FLOW
15 NOMENCLATURE
16 REFERENCES
APPENDICES
A BASIC THERMODYNAMICS
B COMPRESSIBLE FLOW THROUGH ORIFICES
C THE ‘TWO-K’ METHOD FOR FITTING PRESSURE LOSS
Design Calculation of Venting for Atmospheric & Low Pressure Storage TanksKushagra Saxena
Storage Tanks are a very important part of a petroleum Industry, This software is based on the API Std. 2000, which calculates the design of Venting and its capacity for low pressure storage & atmospheric storage tanks in case of normal venting, due to thermal changes, and in case of fire exposure.
If you are in need of this software, Kindly contact at saxena.95kushagra@gmail.com
Design and Rating of Packed Distillation Columns
0 INTRODUCTION/PURPOSE
1 SCOPE
2 FIELD OF APPLICATION
3 DEFINITIONS
4 DESIGN PHILOSOPHY
5 PERFORMANCE GUARANTEES
6 DESCRIPTION OF PACKED COLUMN INTERNALS
7. DESIGN CALCULATIONS
7.1 Selection of Packing Size
7.2 Rough Design
7.3 Detailed Design and Rating
8 LIQUID DISTRIBUTION AND REDISTRIBUTION
8.1 Basic Concepts
8.2 Pour Point Density
8.3 Peripheral Irrigation - the Wall Zone
8.4 Distributor Levelness
8.5 Maximum Bed Height and Liquid Redistribution
9 PRACTICAL ASPECTS OF PACKED COLUMN DESIGN
9.1 Packing
9.2 Support Grid
9.3 Liquid Collector
9.4 Liquid Distributor or Redistributor
9.5 Packing Hold-down Grid
9.6 Reflux or Feed Pipe
9.7 Reboil Return Pipe
9.8 Liquid Draw-offs
9.9 Vapor Draw-offs
10 BIBLIOGRAPHY
APPENDICES
A DEFINITIONS
A.1 INTRODUCTION
A.2 MECHANICAL DEFINITIONS
A.3 PERFORMANCE DEFINITIONS
B PACKING HYDRAULICS - THE NORTON METHOD
TABLES
1 PACKING FACTORS FOR THE MORE COMMON
RANDOM PACKINGS
Shell and Tube Heat Exchanger in heat TransferUsman Shah
This slide will explain you the chemical engineering terms .Al about the basics of this slide are explain in it. The basics of fluid mechanics, heat transfer, chemical engineering thermodynamics, fluid motions, newtonian fluids, are explain in this process.
An overview of distillation column design concepts and major design considerations. Explains distillation column design concepts, what you would provide to a professional distillation column designer, and what you can expect back from a distillation system design firm. To speak with an engineer about your distillation column project, call EPIC at 314-207-4250.
Estimation of Pressure Drop in Pipe Systems
0 INTRODUCTION/PURPOSE
1 SCOPE
2 FIELD OF APPLICATION
3 DEFINITIONS
3.1 units
4 SOURCES OF DATA
5 BASIC CONCEPTS
5.1 Equation for Pressure Change in a Flowing
Fluid
5.2 Static and Stagnation Pressures
5.3 Sonic Flow
6 INCOMPRESSIBLE FLOW IN PIPES OF CONSTANT
CROSS-SECTION
6.1 Straight Circular Pipes
6.2 Ducts of Non-circular Cross-section
6.3 Coils
6.4 General Equation for Incompressible Flow
in Pipes of Constant Cross-section
7 COMPRESSIBLE FLOW IN PIPES OF CONSTANT
CROSS-SECTION
7.1 Isothermal Flow
7.2 Adiabatic Flow
7.3 Estimation of Pressure Drop for Adiabatic
Flow in Pipes of Constant Cross-section
7.4 Ratio of Isothermal to Adiabatic Pressure Drop
8 FLOW IN PIPE FITTINGS
8.1 Incompressible Flow
8.2 Compressible Flow
9 FLOW IN BENDS
9.1 Incompressible Flow in Bends
9.2 Compressible Flow in Bends
10 CHANGES IN CROSS-SECTIONAL AREA
9.1 Incompressible Flow
9.2 Compressible Flow
11 ORIFICES, NOZZLES AND VENTURIS
11.1 Incompressible Flow through an Orifice
11.2 Compressible Flow through an Orifice or Nozzle
11.3 Venturi Choke Tubes
12 VALVES
12.1 General
12.2 Incompressible Flow in Valves
12.2 Compressible Flow in Valves
13 COMBINING AND DIVIDING FLOW
9.1 Incompressible Flow
9.2 Compressible Flow
14 COMPUTER PROGRAMS FOR FLUID FLOW
15 NOMENCLATURE
16 REFERENCES
APPENDICES
A BASIC THERMODYNAMICS
B COMPRESSIBLE FLOW THROUGH ORIFICES
C THE ‘TWO-K’ METHOD FOR FITTING PRESSURE LOSS
Design Calculation of Venting for Atmospheric & Low Pressure Storage TanksKushagra Saxena
Storage Tanks are a very important part of a petroleum Industry, This software is based on the API Std. 2000, which calculates the design of Venting and its capacity for low pressure storage & atmospheric storage tanks in case of normal venting, due to thermal changes, and in case of fire exposure.
If you are in need of this software, Kindly contact at saxena.95kushagra@gmail.com
Design and Rating of Packed Distillation Columns
0 INTRODUCTION/PURPOSE
1 SCOPE
2 FIELD OF APPLICATION
3 DEFINITIONS
4 DESIGN PHILOSOPHY
5 PERFORMANCE GUARANTEES
6 DESCRIPTION OF PACKED COLUMN INTERNALS
7. DESIGN CALCULATIONS
7.1 Selection of Packing Size
7.2 Rough Design
7.3 Detailed Design and Rating
8 LIQUID DISTRIBUTION AND REDISTRIBUTION
8.1 Basic Concepts
8.2 Pour Point Density
8.3 Peripheral Irrigation - the Wall Zone
8.4 Distributor Levelness
8.5 Maximum Bed Height and Liquid Redistribution
9 PRACTICAL ASPECTS OF PACKED COLUMN DESIGN
9.1 Packing
9.2 Support Grid
9.3 Liquid Collector
9.4 Liquid Distributor or Redistributor
9.5 Packing Hold-down Grid
9.6 Reflux or Feed Pipe
9.7 Reboil Return Pipe
9.8 Liquid Draw-offs
9.9 Vapor Draw-offs
10 BIBLIOGRAPHY
APPENDICES
A DEFINITIONS
A.1 INTRODUCTION
A.2 MECHANICAL DEFINITIONS
A.3 PERFORMANCE DEFINITIONS
B PACKING HYDRAULICS - THE NORTON METHOD
TABLES
1 PACKING FACTORS FOR THE MORE COMMON
RANDOM PACKINGS
Shell and Tube Heat Exchanger in heat TransferUsman Shah
This slide will explain you the chemical engineering terms .Al about the basics of this slide are explain in it. The basics of fluid mechanics, heat transfer, chemical engineering thermodynamics, fluid motions, newtonian fluids, are explain in this process.
Selection of Heat Exchanger Types
0 INTRODUCTION/PURPOSE
1 SCOPE
2 FIELD OF APPLICATION
3 DEFINITIONS
4 BACKGROUND
5 FACTORS INFLUENCING SELECTION
5.1 Type of Duty
5.2 Temperatures and Pressures
5.3 Materials of Construction 5.4 Fouling
5.5 Safety and Reliability
5.6 Repairs
5.7 Design Methods
5.8 Dimensions and Weight
5.9 Cost
5.10 GBHE Experience
6 TYPES OF EXCHANGER
6.1 Shell and Tube Exchangers
6.2 Cylindrical Graphite Block Heat Exchangers
6.3 Cubic Graphite Block Heat Exchangers
6.4 Air Cooled Heat Exchangers
6.5 Gasketed Plate and Frame
6.6 Spiral Plate
6.7 Tube in Duct
6.8 Plate-fin
6.9 Printed Circuit Heat Exchanger (PCHE)
6.10 Scraped Surface/Wiped Film Exchangers
6.11 Welded or Brazed Plate
6.12 Double Pipe
6.13 Electric Heaters
6.14 Fired Process Heaters
TABLE
(1) ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF DIFFERENT SHELL AND TUBE DESIGNS
FIGURES
1 ESTIMATED MAIN PLANT ITEM COSTS
2 ESTIMATED INSTALLED COSTS
3 TEMA HEAT EXCHANGER NOMENCLATURE
4 F ‘CORRECTION FACTORS' : TEMA E SHELL WITH EVEN NUMBER OF PASSE
5 SHELL AND TUBE HEAT EXCHANGER HEAD TYPES
6 GENERAL ARRANGEMENT OF A CYLINDRICAL GRAPHITE BLOCK HEAT EXCHANGER
7 EXPLODED VIEW OF A CUBIC GRAPHITE BLOCK
HEAT EXCHANGER
8 TYPICAL AIR COOLED HEAT EXCHANGER
9 GENERAL VIEW OF ONE END OF A 3-STREAM
PLATE-FIN HEAT EXCHANGER
10 TYPICAL PCHE PLATE
11 VICARB ‘COMPABLOC' EXCHANGER
12 ‘BROWN FINTUBE' MULTITUBE HEAT EXCHANGER
13 FIRED HEATER : SCHEMATICS AND NOMENCLATURE
Thermal Design Margins for Heat Exchangers
0 INTRODUCTION/PURPOSE
1 SCOPE
2 FIELD OF APPLICATION
3 DEFINITIONS
4 TERMINOLOGY
5 REASONS FOR SPECIFYING A DESIGN MARGIN
5.1 Instantaneous Rates
5.2 Future Uprating
5.3 Plant Upsets
5.4 Process Control
5.5 Uncertainties in Properties
5.6 Uncertainties in Design Methods
5.7 Fouling
6 COMBINATION OF DESIGN MARGINS
7 CRITICAL AND NON-CRITICAL DUTIES
7.1 General
7.2 Penalties of Over-design
8 OPTIMIZATION OF EXCHANGER DUTY
9 WAYS OF PROVIDING DESIGN MARGINS
9.1 The Provision of Excess Surface
9.2 Decreasing the Design Temperature Difference
9.3 Increasing the Design Process Throughput
9.4 Increasing the Design Fouling Resistance
9.5 Reducing the Design Process Outlet Temperature Approach
9.6 Adjusting the Physical Properties
10 ACCURACY OF THE DESIGN METHODS FOR SHELL AND TUBE EXCHANGERS
10.1 Pressure Drop
10.2 Heat Transfer
11 SUGGESTED DESIGN MARGINS
11.1 No Phase Change Duties
11.2 Condensers
11.3 Boilers
12 EFFECT OF UNDER- OR OVER-SURFACE ON PERFORMANCE
FIGURES
1 EFFECT OF LENGTH ON EXCHANGER DUTY COUNTERCURRENT FLOW, C* = 1.0
2 EFFECT OF NUMBER OF TUBES ON EXCHANGER PERFORMANCE COUNTERCURRENT FLOW, C* = 1.0, ALL RESISTANCE IN TUBES
3 EFFECT OF TUBE LENGTH ON NUMBER OF TUBES, AREA AND PRESSURE DROP
Pressure Safety Valve Sizing - API 520/521/526Vijay Sarathy
No chemical process facility is immune to the risk of overpressure to avoid dictating the necessity for overpressure protection. For every situation that demands safe containment of process gas, it becomes an obligation for engineers to equally provide pressure relieving and flaring provisions wherever necessary. The levels of protection are hierarchical, starting with designing an inherently safe process to avoid overpressure followed by providing alarms for operators to intervene and Emergency Shutdown provisions through ESD and SIL rated instrumentation. Beyond these design and instrument based protection measures, the philosophy of containment and abatement steps such as pressure relieving devices, flares, physical dikes and Emergency Response Services is employed
This presentation is on shell and tube heat exchanger in which its design parameters and its troubleshooting conditions designed for better understanding and learning of all
Graphical Representation of Liquid-Liquid Phase EquilibriaGerard B. Hawkins
Graphical Representation of
Liquid-Liquid Phase Equilibria
0 INTRODUCTION/PURPOSE
1 SCOPE
2 FIELD OF APPLICATION
3 DEFINITIONS
4 GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATIONS OF PHYSICAL
PROPERTIES
4.1 Use of Composition Diagrams
4.2 Ternary Systems with Immiscible Liquids
4.3 Graphical Design Using Ternary Diagrams
APPENDICES
A INTERPOLATION AND CORRELATION OF THE LINES
FIGURES
1 TRIANGULAR CO-ORDINATES
2 TYPE 1 SYSTEM: ONE PAIR OF PARTIALLY MISCIBLE LIQUIDS
3 TYPE 2 SYSTEM: TWO PAIR OF PARTIALLYMISCIBLE LIQUIDS
4 DESIGN OF COUNTERCURRENT EXTRACTION SYSTEM WITHOUT REFLUX – TYPE 1 SYSTEM
5 BLOCK DIAGRAM OF REFLUXED LIQUID-LIQUID EXTRACTION
6 DESIGN OF COUNTERCURRENT SYSTEM WITH REFLUX
7 CONSTRUCTION OF THE CONJUGATE LINE
Mixing of Immiscible Liquids
0 INTRODUCTION/PURPOSE
1 SCOPE
2 FIELD OF APPLICATION
3 DEFINITIONS
4 EQUIPMENT
4.1 Agitated Tanks
4.2 Flow Mixers
4.3 'High Shear' Mixers
5 SYSTEM PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
5.1 Density
5.2 Viscosity
5.3 Interfacial Tension
6 STIRRED VESSELS
6.1 Design for Complete Dispersion
6.2 Prediction of Phase Inversion
6.3 Design for Mass Transfer
6.4 Design for Dispersed Phase Mixing
6.5 Hold-Up in Continuous Vessels
7 FLOW MIXERS
7.1 Design for Turbulent Conditions
7.2 Design for Laminar Conditions
TABLES
1 REYNOLDS NUMBER RANGES
FIGURES
1 STANDARD TANK CONFIGURATION
2 EXPERIMENTAL RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN MASS
TRANSFER COEFFICIENT AND POWER DENSITY
Selection of Heat Exchanger Types
0 INTRODUCTION/PURPOSE
1 SCOPE
2 FIELD OF APPLICATION
3 DEFINITIONS
4 BACKGROUND
5 FACTORS INFLUENCING SELECTION
5.1 Type of Duty
5.2 Temperatures and Pressures
5.3 Materials of Construction 5.4 Fouling
5.5 Safety and Reliability
5.6 Repairs
5.7 Design Methods
5.8 Dimensions and Weight
5.9 Cost
5.10 GBHE Experience
6 TYPES OF EXCHANGER
6.1 Shell and Tube Exchangers
6.2 Cylindrical Graphite Block Heat Exchangers
6.3 Cubic Graphite Block Heat Exchangers
6.4 Air Cooled Heat Exchangers
6.5 Gasketed Plate and Frame
6.6 Spiral Plate
6.7 Tube in Duct
6.8 Plate-fin
6.9 Printed Circuit Heat Exchanger (PCHE)
6.10 Scraped Surface/Wiped Film Exchangers
6.11 Welded or Brazed Plate
6.12 Double Pipe
6.13 Electric Heaters
6.14 Fired Process Heaters
TABLE
(1) ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF DIFFERENT SHELL AND TUBE DESIGNS
FIGURES
1 ESTIMATED MAIN PLANT ITEM COSTS
2 ESTIMATED INSTALLED COSTS
3 TEMA HEAT EXCHANGER NOMENCLATURE
4 F ‘CORRECTION FACTORS' : TEMA E SHELL WITH EVEN NUMBER OF PASSE
5 SHELL AND TUBE HEAT EXCHANGER HEAD TYPES
6 GENERAL ARRANGEMENT OF A CYLINDRICAL GRAPHITE BLOCK HEAT EXCHANGER
7 EXPLODED VIEW OF A CUBIC GRAPHITE BLOCK
HEAT EXCHANGER
8 TYPICAL AIR COOLED HEAT EXCHANGER
9 GENERAL VIEW OF ONE END OF A 3-STREAM
PLATE-FIN HEAT EXCHANGER
10 TYPICAL PCHE PLATE
11 VICARB ‘COMPABLOC' EXCHANGER
12 ‘BROWN FINTUBE' MULTITUBE HEAT EXCHANGER
13 FIRED HEATER : SCHEMATICS AND NOMENCLATURE
Thermal Design Margins for Heat Exchangers
0 INTRODUCTION/PURPOSE
1 SCOPE
2 FIELD OF APPLICATION
3 DEFINITIONS
4 TERMINOLOGY
5 REASONS FOR SPECIFYING A DESIGN MARGIN
5.1 Instantaneous Rates
5.2 Future Uprating
5.3 Plant Upsets
5.4 Process Control
5.5 Uncertainties in Properties
5.6 Uncertainties in Design Methods
5.7 Fouling
6 COMBINATION OF DESIGN MARGINS
7 CRITICAL AND NON-CRITICAL DUTIES
7.1 General
7.2 Penalties of Over-design
8 OPTIMIZATION OF EXCHANGER DUTY
9 WAYS OF PROVIDING DESIGN MARGINS
9.1 The Provision of Excess Surface
9.2 Decreasing the Design Temperature Difference
9.3 Increasing the Design Process Throughput
9.4 Increasing the Design Fouling Resistance
9.5 Reducing the Design Process Outlet Temperature Approach
9.6 Adjusting the Physical Properties
10 ACCURACY OF THE DESIGN METHODS FOR SHELL AND TUBE EXCHANGERS
10.1 Pressure Drop
10.2 Heat Transfer
11 SUGGESTED DESIGN MARGINS
11.1 No Phase Change Duties
11.2 Condensers
11.3 Boilers
12 EFFECT OF UNDER- OR OVER-SURFACE ON PERFORMANCE
FIGURES
1 EFFECT OF LENGTH ON EXCHANGER DUTY COUNTERCURRENT FLOW, C* = 1.0
2 EFFECT OF NUMBER OF TUBES ON EXCHANGER PERFORMANCE COUNTERCURRENT FLOW, C* = 1.0, ALL RESISTANCE IN TUBES
3 EFFECT OF TUBE LENGTH ON NUMBER OF TUBES, AREA AND PRESSURE DROP
Pressure Safety Valve Sizing - API 520/521/526Vijay Sarathy
No chemical process facility is immune to the risk of overpressure to avoid dictating the necessity for overpressure protection. For every situation that demands safe containment of process gas, it becomes an obligation for engineers to equally provide pressure relieving and flaring provisions wherever necessary. The levels of protection are hierarchical, starting with designing an inherently safe process to avoid overpressure followed by providing alarms for operators to intervene and Emergency Shutdown provisions through ESD and SIL rated instrumentation. Beyond these design and instrument based protection measures, the philosophy of containment and abatement steps such as pressure relieving devices, flares, physical dikes and Emergency Response Services is employed
This presentation is on shell and tube heat exchanger in which its design parameters and its troubleshooting conditions designed for better understanding and learning of all
Graphical Representation of Liquid-Liquid Phase EquilibriaGerard B. Hawkins
Graphical Representation of
Liquid-Liquid Phase Equilibria
0 INTRODUCTION/PURPOSE
1 SCOPE
2 FIELD OF APPLICATION
3 DEFINITIONS
4 GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATIONS OF PHYSICAL
PROPERTIES
4.1 Use of Composition Diagrams
4.2 Ternary Systems with Immiscible Liquids
4.3 Graphical Design Using Ternary Diagrams
APPENDICES
A INTERPOLATION AND CORRELATION OF THE LINES
FIGURES
1 TRIANGULAR CO-ORDINATES
2 TYPE 1 SYSTEM: ONE PAIR OF PARTIALLY MISCIBLE LIQUIDS
3 TYPE 2 SYSTEM: TWO PAIR OF PARTIALLYMISCIBLE LIQUIDS
4 DESIGN OF COUNTERCURRENT EXTRACTION SYSTEM WITHOUT REFLUX – TYPE 1 SYSTEM
5 BLOCK DIAGRAM OF REFLUXED LIQUID-LIQUID EXTRACTION
6 DESIGN OF COUNTERCURRENT SYSTEM WITH REFLUX
7 CONSTRUCTION OF THE CONJUGATE LINE
Mixing of Immiscible Liquids
0 INTRODUCTION/PURPOSE
1 SCOPE
2 FIELD OF APPLICATION
3 DEFINITIONS
4 EQUIPMENT
4.1 Agitated Tanks
4.2 Flow Mixers
4.3 'High Shear' Mixers
5 SYSTEM PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
5.1 Density
5.2 Viscosity
5.3 Interfacial Tension
6 STIRRED VESSELS
6.1 Design for Complete Dispersion
6.2 Prediction of Phase Inversion
6.3 Design for Mass Transfer
6.4 Design for Dispersed Phase Mixing
6.5 Hold-Up in Continuous Vessels
7 FLOW MIXERS
7.1 Design for Turbulent Conditions
7.2 Design for Laminar Conditions
TABLES
1 REYNOLDS NUMBER RANGES
FIGURES
1 STANDARD TANK CONFIGURATION
2 EXPERIMENTAL RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN MASS
TRANSFER COEFFICIENT AND POWER DENSITY
Data Sources For Calculating Chemical Reaction EquilibriaGerard B. Hawkins
Data Sources For Calculating Chemical Reaction Equilibria
0 INTRODUCTION/PURPOSE
1 SCOPE
2 FIELD OF APPLICATION
3 DEFINITIONS
4 BACKGROUND TO THEORY
5 BIBLIOGRAPHY
Gas Mixing
0 INTRODUCTION/PURPOSE
1 SCOPE
2 FIELD OF APPLICATION
3 DEFINITIONS
4 RECOMMENDATIONS FOR GAS MIXING:
PLUG FLOW
5 RECOMMENDATIONS FOR GAS MIXING:
BACKMIXED INITIAL ZONE
6 BIBLIOGRAPHY
Fixed Bed Reactor Scale-up Checklist
The purpose of this checklist is to identify the stages and potential problems associated with the scale up of fixed bed reactors from the drawing board to the full scale plant, and to determine how they should be checked.
The checking can be done using various methods. These are:
• Literature data.
• Lab testing.
• Calculation.
• Modeling.
• Semi-tech testing.
• Piloting or Sidestream testing.
Identifying the stages that need to be addressed for a particular catalyst/reactor development will help in estimating the time needed for the development of the reactor
How to use the GBHE Reactor Technology Guides
0 INTRODUCTION / PURPOSE
1 SCOPE
2 FIELD OF APPLICATION
3 DEFINITIONS
4 BACKGROUND
5 THE DECISION TREE
6 GBHE REACTION ENGINEERING
7 GENERAL ASPECTS OF REACTOR TECHNOLOGY
7.1 Criteria of Reactor Performance
7.2 Factors of Economic Importance
7.3 Physicochemical Mechanisms
8 GENERAL GUIDE TO SELECTION OF REACTOR TYPE AND OPERATION
8.1 Choice of Reactor Type
8.2 Reaction Mechanism and Kinetics
8.3 Thermodynamics
8.4 Other Factors
9 GENERAL REFERENCES AND SOURCES OF
INFORMATION
APPENDICES
A RELATIONSHIP BEWTEEN DEFINED TERMS
FIGURES
1 DECISION TREE
2 RELATIVE YIELDS OF B FOR BATCH (OR PLUG FLOW) AND CST REACTORS
3 REACTOR SURVEY FORM
Gas-Solid-Liquid Mixing Systems
0 INTRODUCTION/PURPOSE
1 SCOPE
2 FIELD OF APPLICATION
3 DEFINITIONS
4 SELECTION OF EQUIPMENT
5 THREE-PHASE MASS TRANSFER WITH CHEMICAL REACTION
6 STIRRED VESSEL DESIGN
6.1 Agitator Design
6.2 Design for Solids Suspension
6.3 Vessel Design
6.4 Gas-Liquid Mass Transfer Coefficient and Surface Area
7 THREE-PHASE FLUIDIZED BEDS
7.1 Gas and Liquid Hold-Up
7.2 Calculation Procedure
7.3 Bubble Size
7.4 Mass Transfer
7.5 Heat Transfer
7.6 Elutriation
8 SLURRY REACTORS
8.1 Gas Rate
8.2 Mass Transfer
9 NOMENCLATURE
10 BIBLIOGRAPHY
Physical Properties for Heat Exchanger Design
0 INTRODUCTION/PURPOSE
1 SCOPE
2 FIELD OF APPLICATION
3 DEFINITIONS
4 COMPONENT PROPERTIES
4.1 General
4.2 Use of Component Properties for Mixtures
5 INPUT OF MIXTURE CURVES
5.1 General
5.2 Generation of the Mixture Curves
5.3 Selection of Temperature Points
5.4 Extrapolation
6 IMMISCIBLE CONDENSATES
FIGURES
1 TEMPERATURE POINTS SELECTED FOR EQUAL ENTHALPY CHANGE
2 TEMPERATURE POINTS SELECTED FOR GOOD
FIT TO CURVE
Shortcut Methods of Distillation Design
0 INTRODUCTION/PURPOSE
1 SCOPE
2 ESTIMATIONOF PLATEAGE AND REFLUX
REQUIREMENTS
2.1 Generalized Procedure for Nmin and Rmin
2.2 Equation based Procedure for Nmin and Rmin
3 PREDICTION OF OVERALL PLATE EFFICIENCY
4 SIZING OF MAIN PLANT ITEMS
4.1 Column Diameter
4.2 Surface Area of Condensers and Reboilers
FIGURES
1 NON-IDEAL EQUILIBRIUM CURVE
2 AT A GLANCE CHART BASED ON FENSKE,
UNDERWOOD
3 PLATE EFFICIENCY CORRELATION OF O’CONNEL
The Selection of Flocculants and other Solid-Liquid Separation AidsGerard B. Hawkins
The use of chemical additives, such as flocculants, is a common step in solid-liquid separation operations. The correct selection of agent is an essential part of the design of such processes. Many excellent reviews and guides deal with this topic, and the interested reader is referred to works such as [l-4]. In particular the Harwell-Warren Spring Report “The Use and Selection of Flocculants" provides a good overview on the application of coagulants and flocculants. This section does not attempt to reproduce a detailed treatment of that kind; instead it is our intention to state a few general rules and principles concerning methods of choosing an additive, and to illustrate briefly their application in practice.
The types of agents employed in solid-liquid separation fall into three principal classes:
Tube Wall Temperature Measurement On Steam Reformers - Best PracticesGerard B. Hawkins
Tube Wall Temperature Measurement On Steam Reformers - Best Practices
Temperature Measurement Techniques
Top – Fired Reformer
- Tube Temperature Measurement
- Background Temperature Measurement
Side – Fired and Terrace Wall Reformer
- Tube Temperature Measurement
- Background Temperature Measurement
Safety Considerations
Mixing of Solid-Liquid Systems
0 INTRODUCTION/PURPOSE
1 SCOPE
2 FIELD OF APPLICATION
3 DEFINITIONS
4 TYPICAL APPLICATIONS
5 AGITATED VESSELS
5.1 Suspension of Heavier-than-Liquid Solids
5.1.1 Dispersion
5.1.2 Agitator Speed Correlation
5.2 Floating Solids
5.3 Mass Transfer
6 JET MIXING FOR SOLID LIQUID AGITATION
6.1 Flat Bottomed Vessel
6.2 Changes in the Shape of the Vessel Base
7 NOMENCLATURE
8 BIBLIOGRAPHY
APPENDICES
A WORKED EXAMPLE
TABLES
1 VALUES OF Po AND ZWIETERING CONSTANT "S"
FOR USE IN EQUATION 1
FIGURES
1 RECOMMENDED CONFIGURATION
2 RECOMMENDED CONFIGURATION FOR DRAW-DOWN OF FLOATING SOLIDS IN AGITATED VESSEL
3 ALTERNATIVE RECOMMENDED CONFIGURATION
FOR DRAW-DOWN OF FLOATING SOLIDS IN FOR
AGITATED VESSEL
4 JET MIXING FOR SOLIDS SUSPENSION
5 ESTIMATION OF S FROM KNOWN DATA
Reactor Modeling Tools - An Overview
CONTENTS
1 SCOPE
2 OPTIONS IN REACTOR MODELING
2.1 General
2.2 Level of Complexity of Model
2.3 Mode of Operation of Model
2.4 Deterministic versus Empirical Modeling
2.5 Platforms for Model
2.6 Steady State versus Dynamic Model
2.7 Dimensions Modeled in Reactor
2.8 Scale of Modeling for Multiphase Reactors
2.9 Writing and Using the Model
APPENDICES
A CHARACTERISTICS OF DIFFERENT REACTOR MODELS
B NEEDS FOR MODELING AT DIFFERENT SCALES IN
HETEROGENEOUS CATALYTIC REACTORS
C REACTOR MODELS EMPLOYED WITHIN GBHE
DOCUMENTS REFERRED TO IN THIS PROCESS ENGINEERING GUIDE
GAS DISPERSION - A Definitive Guide to Accidental Releases of Heavy GasesGerard B. Hawkins
GAS DISPERSION - A Definitive Guide to Accidental Releases of Heavy Gases
This Process Safety Guide has been written with the aim of assisting process engineers, hazard analysts and environmental advisers in carrying out gas dispersion calculations. The Guide aims to provide assistance by:
• Improving awareness of the range of dispersion models available within GBHE, and providing guidance in choosing the most appropriate model for a particular application.
• Providing guidance to ensure that source terms and other model inputs are correctly specified, and the models are used within their range of applicability.
• Providing guidance to deal with particular topics in gas dispersion such as dense gas dispersion, complex terrain, and modeling the chemistry of oxides of nitrogen.
• Providing general background on air quality and dispersion modeling issues such as meteorology and air quality standards.
• Providing example calculations for real practical problems.
SCOPE
The gas dispersion guide contains the following Parts:
1 Fundamentals of meteorology.
2 Overview of air quality standards.
3 Comparison between different air quality models.
4 Designing a stack.
5 Dense gas dispersion.
6 Calculation of source terms.
7 Building wake effects.
8 Overview of the chemistry of the oxides of nitrogen.
9 Overview of the ADMS complex terrain module.
10 Overview of the ADMS deposition module.
11 ADMS examples.
12 Modeling odorous releases.
13 Bibliography of useful gas dispersion books and reports.
14 Glossary of gas dispersion modeling terms.
Appendix A : Modeling Wind Generation of Particulates.
APPENDIX B TABLE OF PROPERTY VALUES FOR SPECIFIC CHEMICALS
Pressure Relief Systems
BACKGROUND TO RELIEF SYSTEM DESIGN Vol.1 of 6
The Guide has been written to advise those involved in the design and engineering of pressure relief systems. It takes the user from the initial identification of potential causes of overpressure or under pressure through the process design of relief systems to the detailed mechanical design. "Hazard Studies" and quantitative hazards analysis are not described; these are seen as complementary activities. Typical users of the Guide will use some Parts in detail and others in overview.
Mechanical Constraints on Thermal Design of Shell and Tube ExchangersGerard B. Hawkins
Mechanical Constraints on Thermal Design of Shell and Tube Exchangers
0 INTRODUCTION/PURPOSE
1 SCOPE
2 FIELD OF APPLICATION
3 DEFINITIONS
4 STANDARD DIMENSIONS
4.1 Shell Diameters
4.2 Tube Lengths
4.3 Tube Diameters
4.4 Tube Wall Thicknesses
5 CLEARANCES
5.1 Tube Pitch
5.2 Pass Partition Lane Widths
5.3 Minimum 'U' Bend Clearance
5.4 Tube-to-Baffle Clearance
5.5 Baffle-to-Shell Clearance
5.6 Bundle-to-Shell Clearance
6 TUBESHEET THICKNESS
7 END ZONE LENGTHS
8 TUBE COUNTS
8.1 Program Correlations
8.2 Use of Tube count Tables
8.3 Graphical Layout
8.4 Use of Computer Programs
8.5 Tie Rods
TABLES
1 HEAT EXCHANGER SHELLS - GEOMETRICAL DATA
FOR INLET & OUTLET BRANCHES: PIPE WITH ANSI
150 FLANGE
2 HEAT EXCHANGER SHELLS - GEOMETRICAL DATA
FOR INLET & OUTLET BRANCHES: PIPE WITH ANSI
300 FLANGE
3 TEMA TIE ROD STANDARDS
FIGURES
1 DEFINITION OF TUBE PITCH, LIGAMENT THICKNESS & PASS PARTITION LANE WIDTH
2 DEFINITION OF PASS PARTITION LANE WIDTH FOR U-TUBES
3 BUNDLE TO SHELL CLEARANCES FOR DIFFERENT BUNDLE TYPES
4 ESTIMATED TUBESHEET THICKNESS FOR FIXED TUBE CONSTRUCTION
5 ESTIMATED TUBESHEET THICKNESS FOR U-TUBE CONSTRUCTION
6 END ZONE
7 EXAMPLE OF OPTU3 GRAPHICAL OUTPUT
Selection and Use of Printed Circuit Heat ExchangersGerard B. Hawkins
Selection and Use of Printed Circuit Heat Exchangers
0 INTRODUCTION/PURPOSE
1 SCOPE
2 FIELD OF APPLICATION
3 DEFINITIONS
4 CONSTRUCTION
5 HEAT TRANSFER AND PRESSURE DROP
6 FOULING
7 MECHANICAL AND MATERIALS ASPECTS
8 COMPACTNESS
9 FLEXIBILITY
10 COST
11 GBHE EXPERIENCE 5
12 BIBLIOGRAPHY
APPENDICES
A HEAT TRANSFER AND PRESSURE DROP IN
WAVY PASSAGES
Solid Catalyzed Gas Phase Reactor Selection
0 INTRODUCTION/PURPOSE
1 SCOPE
2 FIELD OF APPLICATION
3 DEFINITIONS
4 ADIABATIC REACTORS
4.1 Single Bed Reactors
4.2 Divided Bed Reactors
4.3 Moving Bed Reactors
4.4 Radial Flow Reactors
5 NON ADIABATIC REACTORS
5.1 Tubular Reactor with External Heating/Cooling
5.2 Tube Cooled Reactors
5.3 Autothermal Reactors
5.4 Hot/Cold Shot Reactors
5.5 Divided Bed Reactors with Intercooling
5.6 Radial Flow Reactors with Intercooling
5.7 Fluid Bed Reactors
6 NOTES ON USING REACTOR SELECTION
GUIDE (TABLE 1)
TABLE
1 REACTOR SELECTION GUIDE
FIGURES
1 TUBULAR REACTOR: EXAMPLE OF CATALYST IN ANNULAR TUBES COOLED BY STEAM RAISING
2 AUTOTHERMAL REACTOR: CATALYST BED COOLED BY INFLOWING GAS IN TUBES
3 COLD SHOT CONVERTER: FIXED ADIABATIC BEDS WITH INTERBED QUENCH GAS MIXING
The Design and Layout of Vertical Thermosyphon ReboilersGerard B. Hawkins
The Design and Layout of Vertical Thermosyphon Reboilers
0 INTRODUCTION/PURPOSE
1 SCOPE
2 FIELD OF APPLICATION
3 DEFINITIONS
4 THE DESIGN PROBLEM
5 COMPUTER PROGRAMS
6 GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS
6.1 Heating Medium Temperature
6.2 Fouling Resistance
7 DESIGN PARAMETERS
7.1 Overall Arrangement and Specifications
7.2 Geometry Elements
8 ANALYSIS OF COMMERCIALLY AVAILABLE
PROGRAM RESULTS
8.1 Main Results
8.2 Supplementary Results
8.3 Error Analysis
8.4 Adjustments to Design
9 OPERATING RANGE
10 CONTROL
10.1 Control of Condensing Heating Medium Pressure
10.2 Control of The Condensate Level
10.3 Control of Sensible Fluid Flow Rate
11 LAYOUT
11.1 Factors Influencing Design
11.2 A Standard Layout
12 BIBLIOGRAPHY
Air Cooled Heat Exchanger Design
0 INTRODUCTION/PURPOSE
1 SCOPE
2 FIELD OF APPLICATION
3 DEFINITIONS
4 SUITABILITY FOR AIR COOLING
4.1 Options Available For Cooling
4.2 Choice of Cooling System
5 SPECIFICATION OF AN AIR COOLED HEAT
EXCHANGER
5.1 Description and Terminology
5.2 General
5.3 Thermal Duty and Design Margins
5.4 Process Pressure Drop
5.5 Design Ambient Conditions
5.6 Process Physical Properties
5.7 Mechanical Design Constraints
5.8 Arrangement
5.9 Air Side Fouling
5.10 Economic Factors in Design
6 CONTROL
7 PRESSURE RELIEF
8 ASSESSMENT OF OFFERS
8.1 General
8.2 Manual Checking Of Designs
8.3 Computer Assessment
8.4 Bid Comparison
9 FOULING AND CORROSION
9.1 Fouling
9.2 Corrosion
10 OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE
10.1 Performance Testing
10.2 Air-Side Cleaning
10.3 Mechanical Maintenance
10.4 Tube side Access
11 REFERENCES
SMR PRE-REFORMER DESIGN
Case Study #0618416GB/H
Contents
1. SMR Pre-Reformer Design
2. Inlet Baffle Design
3. Outlet Collector
4. Hold Down Grating
5. Floating Hold Down Screen
6. Catalyst Drop Out Nozzle
7. Thermowell Detail
8. Technical Performance requirements
9. SMR Pre-Reformer Isolation
Technical Review and Commentary on Proposed Design
APPENDIX
A. Operating / Mechanical Data
B. Materials Specifications
C. Fabrication and Inspection Requirements
D. Weights
E. Nozzle Data
F. Instrument Connections
G. Manholes
GE / Texaco Gasifier Feed to a Lurgi Methanol Plant and its Effect on Methano...Gerard B. Hawkins
GE / Texaco Gasifier Feed to a Lurgi Methanol Plant and its Effect on Methanol Production
CONTENTS
0 Methanol Synthesis Introduction
1 Executive Summary
2 Design Basis
2.1.1 Train I Design Basis
2.1.2 Train II Design Basis
2.1.3 Train III Design Basis
2.2 Design Philosophy
2.2.1 Operability Review
2.3 Assumptions
2.4 Train IV Flowsheet
2.4.1 CO2 Removal
3 Discussion
3.1 Natural Gas Consumption Figures
3.1.1 Base Case
3.1.2 Case 1 – Coal Gasification in Service
3.1.3 Case 2 – Coal Gasification in Service – No CO2 Export
3.2 Methanol Production Figures
3.2.1 Base Case
3.2.2 Case 1 – Coal Gasification in Service
3.2.3 Case 2 – Coal Gasification in Service – No CO2 Export
3.3 85% Natural Gas Availability
3.4 100% Natural Gas Availability
3.5 CO2 Emissions
3.5.1 Base Case
3.5.2 Case 1 – Coal Gasification in Service
3.5.3 Case 2 – Coal Gasification in Service – No CO2 Export
3.6 Specific Consumption Figures
3.6.1 Base Case
3.6.2 Case 1 – Coal Gasification and CO2 Import
3.6.3 Case 2 – Coal Gasification and No CO2 Import
3.7 Train IV Synthesis Gas Composition
4 Further Work
5 Conclusion
APPENDIX
Important Stream Data – Material Balance Stream Data
Texaco Gasifier with HP Steam Raising Boiler
CHARACTERISTICS OF COAL
Material Balance Considerations
Electric Process Heaters
0 INTRODUCTION/PURPOSE
1 SCOPE
2 FIELD OF APPLICATION
3 DEFINITIONS
4 ADVANTAGES OF ELECTRIC HEATERS
4.1 Safety
4.2 Environment
4.3 Location of Equipment
4.4 Low Temperature Applications
4.5 Cross Contamination
4.6 Control
5 DISADVANTAGES OF ELECTRIC HEATERS
6 POTENTIAL APPLICATIONS FOR ELECTRIC
PROCESS HEATERS
7 GENERAL DESIGN AND OPERATING CONSIDERATIONS
8 TYPES OF PROCESS ELECTRIC HEATERS
8.1 Pipeline Immersion Heaters
8.2 Tank Heaters and Boilers
8.3 Indirect (Fluid Bath) Heaters
8.4 Radiant Furnaces
8.5 Induction Heaters
8.6 Hot Block Heaters
9 CONTROL
10 REFERENCES
FIGURES
1 ELECTRIC HEAT EXCHANGER CONSTRUCTION
2 SHEATHED HEATING ELEMENTS
Selection and Design of Condensers
0 INTRODUCTION/PURPOSE
1 SCOPE
2 FIELD OF APPLICATION
3 DEFINITIONS
4 CHOICE OF COOLANT
5 LAYOUT CONSIDERATIONS
5.1 Distillation Column Condensers
5.2 Other Process Condensers
6 CONTROL
6.1 Distillation Columns
6.2 Water Cooled Condensers
6.3 Refrigerant Condensers
7 GENERAL DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
7.1 Heat Transfer Resistances
7.2 Pressure Drop
7.3 Handling of Inerts
7.4 Vapor Inlet Design
7.5 Drainage of Condensate
8 SUMMARY OF TYPES AVAILABLE
8.1 Direct Contact Condensers
8.2 Shell and Tube Exchangers
8.3 Air Cooled Heat Exchangers
8.4 Spiral Plate Heat Exchangers
8.5 Internal Condensers
8.6 Plate Heat Exchangers
8.7 Plate-Fin Heat Exchangers
8.8 Other Compact Designs
9 BIBLIOGRAPHY
FIGURES
1 DIRECT CONTACT CONDENSER WITH INDIRECT COOLER FOR RECYCLED CONDENSATE
2 SPRAY CONDENSER
3 TRAY TYPE CONDENSER
4 THREE PASS TUBE SIDE CONDENSER WITH INTERPASS LUTING FOR CONDENSATE DRAINAGE
5 CROSS FLOW CONDENSER WITH SINGLE PASS COOLANT
Integration of Special Purpose Reciprocating Compressors into a ProcessGerard B. Hawkins
1 SCOPE
2 CHOICE OF COMPRESSOR TYPE
2.1 Parameters
2.2 Preliminary Choice of Machine Type
2.3 Review of Other Types of Compressor
3 CHOICE OF NUMBER OF COMPRESSORS
3.1 Influence of Reliability Classification
3.2 Driver Considerations
3.3 Deterioration of Standby Machines
4 EFFECTS OF PROCESS GAS COMPOSITION
4.1 Particulate Contamination
4.2 Droplets in Suspension
4.3 Polymer Deposit
4.4 Molecular Weight Variation
4.5 Compressibility Variation
4.6 Gas Dryness
4.7 Gas Solution in Lubricating Oil for Cylinder and Gland
5 THROUGHPUT REGULATION
5.1 Inlet Line Throttle Valve
5.2 Inlet Line Cut-off Valve
5.3 Compressor Inlet Valve Lifter
5.4 Clearance Volume Variation
5.5 Speed Variation
5.6 Bypass
5.7 Hybrid Regulation Systems
6 PRINCIPAL FEATURES
6.1 Calculate Discharge Gas Temperature
6.2 Choice of Number of Stages
6.3 Configuration
6.4 Valve Operation Limit on Piston Speed
6.5 Limits for Mean Piston Speed
6.6 Estimation of Volumetric Efficiency
6.7 Estimation of Crankshaft Rotational Speed
6.8 Calculation of Piston Diameter
6.9 Choice of Number of Cylinders
7 DRIVER TYPE
7.1 Electric Motors
7.2 Steam Turbines
7.3 Special Drivers
8 VESSELS
APPENDICES
A RELIABILITY CLASSIFICATION
B CONDITIONS FOR LUBRICATED CYLINDERS AND GLANDS
C ESTIMATE OF LUBE OIL CONTAMINATION OF PROCESS GAS
D INFLUENCE OF GAS COMPOSITION AND MACHINE CONSTRUCTION
ON FILLED PTFE PISTON RING SEALS
E LIMITS ON GAS TEMPERATURES
FIGURES
1 SELECTION CHART
2 DESIGN SEQUENCE 1 - ESTIMATE NUMBER OF STAGES
3 DESIGN SEQUENCE 2 - ESTIMATE CYLINDER SIZES
Integration of Special Purpose Centrifugal Fans into a ProcessGerard B. Hawkins
Integration of Special Purpose Centrifugal Fans into a Process
0 INTRODUCTION
1 SCOPE
2 NOTATION
3 PRELIMINARY CHOICE OF NUMBER OF FANS
3.1 Volume Flow Q o
3.2 Definitions
3.3 Estimate of Equivalent Pressure Rise Δ P e
3.4 Choice of Fan Type
3.5 Choice of Control Method
4 GAS DENSITY CONSIDERATIONS
4.1 Calculation of Inlet Pressure
4.2 Calculation of Gas Density
4.3 Atmospheric Air Conditions
5 CAPACITY AND PRESSURE RISE RATING
5.1 Calculation of Fan Capacity
5.2 Calculation of Fan Pressure Rise
5.3 Multiple Duty Points
5.4 Stability
5.5 Parallel Operation
6 GUIDE TO FAN SELECTION
6.1 Effect of Gas Contaminants
6.2 Selection of Blade Type
6.3 Selection of Rotational Speed
6.4 Wind milling and Slowroll
6.5 Estimate of Fan External Dimensions
7 POWER RATING
7.1 Estimate of Fan Efficiency
7.2 Calculation of Absorbed Power
7.3 Calculation of Driver Power Rating
7.4 Motor Power Ratings
7.5 Starting Conditions for Electric Motors
8 CASING PRESSURE RATING
8.1 Calculation of Maximum Inlet Pressure ΔP i max
8.2 Calculation of Maximum Pressure Rise Δ P s max
8.3 Calculation of Casing Test Pressure
8.4 Rating for Explosion
9 NOISE RATING
9.1 Estimate of Fan Sound Power Rating LR
9.2 Acceptable Sound Power Level LW
9.3 Acceptable Sound Pressure Level L p
9.4 Assessment of Silencing Requirements
APPENDICES
A RELIABILITY CLASSIFICATION
B FAN LAWS
FIGURES
3.4 GUIDE TO FAN TYPE
4.5 VARIATION OF AIR DENSITY WITH TEMPERATURE AND ALTITUDE
6.3.1 DUTY BOUNDARY FOR SINGLE - INLET IMPELLERS
6.3.3 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN HEAD COEFFICIENT AND SPECIFIC SIZE
6.3.6 ROTATIONAL SPEEDS FOR FAN IMPELLERS WITH BACK SWEPT VANES
6.3.7 ROTATIONAL SPEED FOR FAN IMPELLERS WITH RADIAL VANES
6.3.8 RELATIONSHIP OF IMPELLER TIP SPEED TO SHAPE
6.3.9 BOUNDARY DEFINING ARDUOUS DUTY
7.1 NOMOGRAPH FOR ESTIMATING THE EFFICIENCY OF A SINGLE STAGE FAN
7.2 GRAPH: COEFFICIENT OF COMPRESSIBILITY vs PRESSURE RATIO
7.5 GRAPH: MOMENT OF INERTIA OF FAN AND MOTOR (wR2) vs kW
Reactor and Catalyst Design
0 INTRODUCTION/PURPOSE
1 SCOPE
2 FIELD OF APPLICATION
3 DEFINITIONS
4 CATALYST DESIGN
4.1 Equivalent Pellet Diameter
4.2 Voidage
4.3 Pellet Density
5 REACTOR DESIGN
6 CATALYST SUPPORT
6.1 Choice of Support
TABLES
1 CATALYST SUPPORT SHAPES
2 SECONDARY REFORMER SPREADSHEET
FIGURES
1 GRAPH OF EFFECTIVENESS v THIELE MODULUS
2 VARIATION OF COSTS WITH CATALYST SIZE
3 VARIATION OF COSTS WITH CATALYST BED VOIDAGE
4 VARIATION OF COSTS WITH VESSEL DIAMETER
In pyrolysis gasoline hydrogenation there is a tendency to form polymeric materials on and in the catalyst bed. These are formed by condensation of gums and diolefins at local areas in the reactor .........
Shell and Tube Heat Exchangers Using Cooling Water
0 INTRODUCTION/PURPOSE
1 SCOPE
2 FIELD OF APPLICATION
3 DEFINITIONS
3.1 HTFS
3.2 TEMA
4 CHECKLIST
5 QUALITY OF COOLING WATER
6 COOLING WATER ON SHELL SIDE OR TUBE SIDE
7 COOLING WATER ON THE SHELL SIDE
7.1 Baffle Spacing
7.2 Impingement Plates
7.3 Horizontal or Vertical Shell Orientation
7.4 Baffle Cut Orientation
7.5 Sludge Blowdown
7.6 Removable Bundles
8 FOULING RESISTANCES AND LIMITING TEMPERATURES
9 PRESSURE DROP
9.1 Pressure Drop Restrictions
9.2 Fouling and Pressure Drop
9.3 Elevation of a Heat Exchanger in the Plant
10 MATERIALS OF CONSTRUCTION
11 WATER VELOCITY
11.1 Low Water Velocity
11.1.1 Tube Side Water Flow
11.1.2 Shell Side Water Flow
11.2 High Water Velocity
12 ECONOMICS
13 DIRECTION OF WATER FLOW
14 VENTS AND DRAINS
15 CONTROL
15.1 Operating Variables
15.2 Heat Load Control
15.2.1 General
15.2.2 Heat load control by varying cooling water flow
15.3 Orifice Plates
16 MAINTENANCE
Methanol Casale Advanced Reactor Concept (ARC) Converter Retrofit CASE STUDY #10231406
For older methanol plants, efficiency is worse than for a modern plant
• To maximize profit we must improve either
– Plant efficiency
– Plant production rate
This case study highlights the revamp of a Middle Eastern Methanol Plant ARC converter with part IMC internals, to improve efficiency and production; with no CO2 addition to the Synloop, and with CO2 addition to the Synloop.
- 250 TPD CO2
- 500 TPD CO2
Turbulent Heat Transfer to Non Newtonian Fluids in Circular TubesGerard B. Hawkins
Turbulent Heat Transfer to Non Newtonian Fluids in Circular Tubes
0 INTRODUCTION/PURPOSE
1 SCOPE
2 FIELD OF APPLICATION
3 DEFINITIONS
4 THE INTEGRATION OF THE ENERGY EQUATION
5 THE EDDY VISCOSITY FOR NON-NEWTONIAN AND DRAG REDUCING FLUIDS
6 THE CALCULATION OF HEAT TRANSFER
COEFFICIENTS FOR NON-NEWTONIAN AND DRAG
REDUCING FLUIDS IN TURBULENT PIPE FLOW
6.1 General
6.2 Drag Reducing Fibre Suspensions
6.3 Transition Delay
7 NOMENCLATURE
8 BIBLIOGRAPHY
Pressure Relief Systems Vol 2
Causes of Relief Situations
This Volume 2 is a guide to the qualitative identification of common causes of overpressure in process equipment. It cannot be exhaustive; the process engineer and relief systems team should look for any credible situation in addition to those given in this Part which could lead to a need for pressure relief (a relief situation).
Theory of Carbon Formation in Steam Reforming
Contents
1 Introduction
2 Underpinning Theory
2.1 Conceptualization
2.2 Reforming Reactions
2.3 Carbon Formation Chemistry
2.3.1 Natural Gas
2.3.2 Carbon Formation for Naphtha Feeds
2.3.3 Carbon Gasification
2.4 Heat Transfer
3 Causes
3.1 Effects of Carbon Formation
3.2 Types of Carbon
4 What are the Effects of Carbon Formation?
4.1 Why does Carbon Formation Get Worse?
4.1.1 So what is the Next Step?
4.2 Consequences of Carbon Formation
4.3 Why does Carbon Form where it does?
4.3.1 Effect on Process Gas Temperature
4.4 Why does Carbon Formation Propagate Down the Tube?
4.4.1 Effect on Radiation on the Fluegas Side
4.5 Why does Carbon Formation propagate Up the Tube?
5 How do we Prevent Carbon Formation
5.1 The Role of Potash
5.2 Inclusion of Pre-reformer
5.3 Primary Reformer Catalyst Parameters
5.3.1 Activity
5.3.2 Heat Transfer
5.3.3 Increased Steam to Carbon Ratio
6 Steam Out
6.1 Why does increasing the Steam to Carbon Ratio Not Work?
6.2 Why does reducing the Feed Rate not help?
6.3 Fundamental Principles of Steam Outs
TABLES
1 Heat Transfer Coefficients in a Typical Reformer
2 Typical Catalyst Loading Options
FIGURES
1 Hot Bands
2 Conceptual Pellet
3 Naphtha Carbon Formation
4 Heat Transfer within an Reformer
5 Types of Carbon Formation
6 Effect of Carbon on Nickel Crystallites
7 Absorption of Heat
8 Comparison of "Base Case" v Carbon Forming Tube
9 Carbon Formation Vicious Circle
10 Temperature Profiles
11 Carbon Pinch Point
12 Carbon Formation
13 Effect on Process Gas Temperature
14 How does Carbon Propagate into an Unaffected Zone?
15 Movement of the Carbon Forming Region
16 Effect of Hot Bands on Radiative Heat Transfer
17 Effect of Potash on Carbon Formation
18 Application of a Pre-reformer
19 Effect of Activity on Carbon Formation
Calculation of an Ammonia Plant Energy Consumption: Gerard B. Hawkins
Calculation of an Ammonia Plant Energy Consumption:
Case Study: #06023300
Plant Note Book Series: PNBS-0602
CONTENTS
0 SCOPE
1 CALCULATION OF NATURAL GAS PROCESS FEED CONSUMPTION
2 CALCULATION OF NATURAL GAS PROCESS FUEL CONSUMPTION
3 CALCULATION OF NATURAL GAS CONSUMPTION FOR PILOT BURNERS OF FLARES
4 CALCULATION OF DEMIN. WATER FROM DEMIN. UNIT
5 CALCULATION OF DEMIN. WATER TO PACKAGE BOILERS
6 CALCULATION OF MP STEAM EXPORT
7 CALCULATION OF LP STEAM IMPORT
8 DETERMINATION OF ELECTRIC POWER CONSUMPTION
9 DETERMINATION OF THE TOTAL ENERGY CONSUMPTION OF THE AMMONIA PLANT ISBL
10 ADJUSTMENT OF ELECTRIC POWER CONSUMPTION FOR TEST RUN CONDITIONS
11 CALCULATION OF AMMONIA SHARE IN MP STEAM CONSUMPTION IN UTILITIES
12 CALCULATION OF AMMONIA SHARE IN ELECTRIC POWER CONSUMPTION IN UTILITIES
13 DETERMINATION OF THE TOTAL ENERGY CONSUMPTION OF THE AMMONIA PLANT OSBL
14 DETERMINATION OF THE TOTAL ENERGY CONSUMPTION OF THE AMMONIA PLANT
Ammonia Plant Technology
Pre-Commissioning Best Practices
GBHE-APT-0102
PICKLING & PASSIVATION
CONTENTS
1 PURPOSE OF THE WORK
2 CHEMICAL CONCEPT
3 TECHNICAL CONCEPT
4 WASTES & SAFETY CONCEPT
5 TARGET RESULTS
6 THE GENERAL CLEANING SEQUENCE MANAGEMENT
6.6.1 Pre-cleaning or “Physical Cleaning
6.6.2 Pre-rinsing
6.6.3 Chemical Cleaning
6.6.4 Critical Factors in Cleaning Success
6.6.5 Rinsing
6.6.6 Inspection and Re-Cleaning, if Necessary
7 Systems to be treated by Pickling/Passivation
Ammonia Plant Technology
Pre-Commissioning Best Practices
Piping and Vessels Flushing and Cleaning Procedure
CONTENTS
1 Scope
2 Aim/purpose
3 Responsibilities
4 Procedure
4.1 Main cleaning methods
4.1.1 Mechanical cleaning
4.1.2 Cleaning with air
4.1.3 Cleaning with steam (for steam networks only)
4.1.4 Cleaning with water
4.2 Choice of the cleaning method
4.3 Cleaning preparation
4.4 Protection of the devices included in the network
4.5 Protection of devices in the vicinity of the network
4.6 Water flushing procedure
4.6.1 Specific problems of water flushing
4.6.2 Preparation for water flushing
4.6.3 Performing a water flush
4.6.4 Cleanliness criteria
4.7 Air blowing procedure
4.7.1 Specific problems of air blowing
4.7.2 Preparation for air blowing
4.7.3 Performing air blowing
4.7.4 Cleanliness checks
4.8 Steam blowing procedure
4.8.1 Specific problems of steam blowing
4.8.2 Preparation for steam blowing
4.8.3 Performing steam blowing
4.8.4 Cleanliness checks
4.9 Chemical cleaning procedure
4.9.1 Specific problems of cleaning with a chemical solution
4.9.2 Preparation for chemical cleaning
4.9.3 Performing a chemical cleaning
4.9.4 Cleanliness criteria
4.10 Re-assembly - general guideline
4.11 Preservation of flushed piping
DESIGN OF VENT GAS COLLECTION AND DESTRUCTION SYSTEMS Gerard B. Hawkins
DESIGN OF VENT GAS COLLECTION AND DESTRUCTION SYSTEMS
CONTENTS
1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Purpose
1.2 Scope of this Guide
1.3 Use of the Guide
2 ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES
2.1 Principal Concerns
2.2 Mechanisms for Ozone Formation
2.3 Photochemical Ozone Creation Potential
2.4 Health and Environmental Effects
2.5 Air Quality Standards for Ground Level Concentrations of Ozone, Targets for Reduction of VOC Discharges and Statutory Discharge Limits
3 VENTS REDUCTION PHILOSOPHY
3.1 Reduction at Source
3.2 End-of-pipe Treatment
4 METHODOLOGY FOR COLLECTION & ASSESSMENT OF PROCESS FLOW DATA
4.1 General
4.2 Identification of Vent Sources
4.3 Characterization of Vents
4.4 Quantification of Process Vent Flows
4.5 Component Flammability Data Collection
4.6 Identification of Operating Scenarios
4.7 Quantification of Flammability Characteristics for Combined Vents
4.8 Identification, Quantification and Assessment of Possibility of Air Ingress Routes
4.9 Tabulation of Data
4.10 Hazard Study and Risk Assessment
4.11 Note on Aqueous / Organic Wastes
4.12 Complexity of Systems
4.13 Summary
5 SAFE DESIGN OF VENT COLLECTION HEADER SYSTEMS
5.1 General
5.2 Process Design of Vent Headers
5.3 Liquid in Vent Headers
5.4 Materials of Construction
5.5 Static Electricity Hazard
5.6 Diversion Systems
5.7 Snuffing Systems
6 SAFE DESIGN OF THERMAL OXIDISERS
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Design Basis
6.3 Types of High Temperature Thermal Oxidizer
6.4 Refractories
6.5 Flue Gas Treatment
6.6 Control and Safety Systems
6.7 Project Program
6.8 Commissioning
6.9 Operational and Maintenance Management
APPENDICES
A GLOSSARY
B FLAMMABILITY
C EXAMPLE PROFORMA
D REFERENCES
DOCUMENTS REFERRED TO IN THIS PROCESS GUIDE
TABLE
1 PHOTOCHEMICAL OZONE CREATION POTENTIAL REFERENCED
TO ETHYLENE AS UNITY
FIGURES
1 SCHEMATIC OF TYPICAL VENT COLLECTION AND THERMAL OXIDIZER SYSTEM
2 TYPICAL KNOCK-OUT POT WITH LUTED DRAIN
3 SCHEMATIC OF DIVERSION SYSTEM
4 CONVENTIONAL VERTICAL THERMAL OXIDIZER
5 CONVENTIONAL OXIDIZER WITH INTEGRAL WATER SPARGER
6 THERMAL OXIDIZER WITH STAGED AIR INJECTION
7 DOWN-FIRED UNIT WITH WATER BATH QUENCH
8 FLAMELESS THERMAL OXIDATION UNIT
9 THERMAL OXIDIZER WITH REGENERATIVE HEAT RECOVERY
10 TYPICAL PROJECT PROGRAM
11 TYPICAL FLAMMABILITY DIAGRAM
12 EFFECT OF DILUTION WITH AIR
13 EFFECT OF DILUTION WITH AIR ON 100 Rm³ OF FLAMMABLE GAS
PRACTICAL GUIDE ON THE SELECTION OF PROCESS TECHNOLOGY FOR THE TREATMENT OF A...Gerard B. Hawkins
PRACTICAL GUIDE ON THE SELECTION OF PROCESS TECHNOLOGY FOR THE TREATMENT OF AQUEOUS ORGANIC EFFLUENT STREAMS
CONTENTS
0 INTRODUCTION/PURPOSE
1 SCOPE
2 FIELD OF APPLICATION
3 DEFINITIONS
3.1 IPU
3.2 AOS
3.3 BODs
3.4 COD
3.5 TOC
3.6 Toxicity
3.7 Refractory Organics/Hard COD
3.8 Heavy Metals
3.9 EA
3.10 Biological Treatment Terms
3.11 BATNEEC
3.12 BPEO
3.13 EQS/LV
3.14 IPC
3.15 VOC
3.16 F/M Ratio
3.17 MLSS
3.18 MLVSS
4 DESIGN/ECONOMIC GUIDELINES
5 EUROPEAN LEGISLATION
5.1 General
5.2 Integrated Pollution Control (IPC)
5.3 Best Available Techniques Not Entailing Excessive Costs (BATNEEC)
5.4 Best Practicable Environmental Option (BPEO)
5.5 Environmental Quality Standards(EQS)
6 IPU EXIT CONCENTRATION
7 SITE/LOCAL REQUIREMENTS
8 PROCESS SELECTION PROCEDURE
8.1 Waste Minimization Techniques (WMT)
8.2 AOS Stream Definition
8.3 Technical Check List
8.4 Preliminary Selection of Suitable Technologies
8.5 Process Sequences
8.6 Economic Evaluation
8.7 Process Selection
APPENDICES
A DIRECTIVE 76/464/EEC - LIST 1
B DIRECTIVE 76/464/EEC - LIST 2
C THE EUROPEAN COMMISSION PRIORITY CANDIDATE LIST
D THE UK RED LIST
E CURRENT VALUES FOR EUROPEAN COMMUNITY ENVIRONMENTAL QUALITY STANDARDS AND CORRESPONDING LIMIT VALUES
F ESTABLISHED TECHNOLOGIES
G EMERGING TECHNOLOGY
H PROPRIETARY/LESS COMMON TECHNOLOGIES
J COMPARATIVE COST DATA
PRACTICAL GUIDE ON THE REDUCTION OF DISCHARGES TO ATMOSPHERE OF VOLATILE ORGA...Gerard B. Hawkins
PRACTICAL GUIDE ON THE REDUCTION OF DISCHARGES TO ATMOSPHERE OF VOLATILE ORGANIC COMPOUNDS (VOCs)
FOREWORD
CONTENTS
1 INTRODUCTION
2 THE NEED FOR VOC CONTROL
3 CONTROL AT SOURCE
3.1 Choice or Solvent
3.2 Venting Arrangements
3.3 Nitrogen Blanketing
3.4 Pump Versus Pneumatic Transfer
3.5 Batch Charging
3.6 Reduction of Volumetric Flow
3.7 Stock Tank Design
4 DISCHARGE MEASUREMENT
4.1 By Inference or Calculation
4.2 Flow Monitoring Equipment
4.3 Analytical Instruments
4.4 Vent Emissions Database
5 ABATEMENT TECHNOLOGY
5.1 Available Options
5.2 Selection of Preferred Option
5.3 Condensation
5.4 Adsorption
5.5 Absorption
5.6 Thermal Incineration
5.7 Catalytic Oxidation
5.8 Biological Filtration
5.9 Combinations of Process technologies
5.10 Processes Under Development
6 GLOSSARY OF TERMS
7 REFERENCES
Appendix 1. Photochemical Ozone Creation Potentials
Appendix 2. Examples of Adsorption Preliminary Calculations
Appendix 3. Example of Thermal Incineration Heat and Mass Balance
Appendix 4. Cost Correlations
Getting the Most Out of Your Refinery Hydrogen PlantGerard B. Hawkins
Getting the Most Out of Your Refinery Hydrogen Plant
Contents
Summary
1 Introduction
2 "On-purpose" Hydrogen Production
3 Operational Aspects
4 Uprating Options on the Steam Reformer
4.1 Steam Reforming Catalysts and Tube Metallurgy
4.2 Oxygen-blown Secondary Reformer
4.3 Pre-reforming
4.4 Post-reforming
5 Downstream Units
6 Summary of Uprating Options
7 Conclusions
EMERGENCY ISOLATION OF CHEMICAL PLANTS
CONTENTS
1 Introduction
2 When should Emergency Isolation Valves be Installed
3 Emergency Isolation Valves and Associated Equipment
3.1 Installations on existing plant
3.2 Actuators
3.3 Power to close or power to open
3.4 The need for testing
3.5 Hand operated Emergency Valves
3.6 The need to stop pumps in an emergency
3.7 Location of Operating Buttons
3.8 Use of control valves for Isolation
4 Detection of Leaks and Fires
5 Precautions during Maintenance
6 Training Operators to use Emergency Isolation Valves
7 Emergency Isolation when no remotely operated valve is available
References
Glossary
Appendix I Some Fires or Serious Escapes of Flammable Gases or Liquids that could have been controlled by Emergency Isolation Valves
Appendix II Some typical Installations
Amine Gas Treating Unit - Best Practices - Troubleshooting Guide Gerard B. Hawkins
Amine Gas Treating Unit Best Practices - Troubleshooting Guide for H2S/CO2 Amine Systems
Contents
Process Capabilities for gas treating process
Typical Amine Treating
Typical Amine System Improvements
Primary Equipment Overview
Inlet Gas Knockout
Absorber
Three Phase Flash Tank
Lean/Rich Heat Exchanger
Regenerator
Filtration
Amine Reclaimer
Operating Difficulties Overview
Foaming
Failure to Meet Gas Specification
Solvent Losses
Corrosion
Typical Amine System Improvements
Degradation of Amines and Alkanolamines during Sour Gas Treating
APPENDIX
Best Practices - Troubleshooting Guide
Epistemic Interaction - tuning interfaces to provide information for AI supportAlan Dix
Paper presented at SYNERGY workshop at AVI 2024, Genoa, Italy. 3rd June 2024
https://alandix.com/academic/papers/synergy2024-epistemic/
As machine learning integrates deeper into human-computer interactions, the concept of epistemic interaction emerges, aiming to refine these interactions to enhance system adaptability. This approach encourages minor, intentional adjustments in user behaviour to enrich the data available for system learning. This paper introduces epistemic interaction within the context of human-system communication, illustrating how deliberate interaction design can improve system understanding and adaptation. Through concrete examples, we demonstrate the potential of epistemic interaction to significantly advance human-computer interaction by leveraging intuitive human communication strategies to inform system design and functionality, offering a novel pathway for enriching user-system engagements.
Slack (or Teams) Automation for Bonterra Impact Management (fka Social Soluti...Jeffrey Haguewood
Sidekick Solutions uses Bonterra Impact Management (fka Social Solutions Apricot) and automation solutions to integrate data for business workflows.
We believe integration and automation are essential to user experience and the promise of efficient work through technology. Automation is the critical ingredient to realizing that full vision. We develop integration products and services for Bonterra Case Management software to support the deployment of automations for a variety of use cases.
This video focuses on the notifications, alerts, and approval requests using Slack for Bonterra Impact Management. The solutions covered in this webinar can also be deployed for Microsoft Teams.
Interested in deploying notification automations for Bonterra Impact Management? Contact us at sales@sidekicksolutionsllc.com to discuss next steps.
JMeter webinar - integration with InfluxDB and GrafanaRTTS
Watch this recorded webinar about real-time monitoring of application performance. See how to integrate Apache JMeter, the open-source leader in performance testing, with InfluxDB, the open-source time-series database, and Grafana, the open-source analytics and visualization application.
In this webinar, we will review the benefits of leveraging InfluxDB and Grafana when executing load tests and demonstrate how these tools are used to visualize performance metrics.
Length: 30 minutes
Session Overview
-------------------------------------------
During this webinar, we will cover the following topics while demonstrating the integrations of JMeter, InfluxDB and Grafana:
- What out-of-the-box solutions are available for real-time monitoring JMeter tests?
- What are the benefits of integrating InfluxDB and Grafana into the load testing stack?
- Which features are provided by Grafana?
- Demonstration of InfluxDB and Grafana using a practice web application
To view the webinar recording, go to:
https://www.rttsweb.com/jmeter-integration-webinar
DevOps and Testing slides at DASA ConnectKari Kakkonen
My and Rik Marselis slides at 30.5.2024 DASA Connect conference. We discuss about what is testing, then what is agile testing and finally what is Testing in DevOps. Finally we had lovely workshop with the participants trying to find out different ways to think about quality and testing in different parts of the DevOps infinity loop.
LF Energy Webinar: Electrical Grid Modelling and Simulation Through PowSyBl -...DanBrown980551
Do you want to learn how to model and simulate an electrical network from scratch in under an hour?
Then welcome to this PowSyBl workshop, hosted by Rte, the French Transmission System Operator (TSO)!
During the webinar, you will discover the PowSyBl ecosystem as well as handle and study an electrical network through an interactive Python notebook.
PowSyBl is an open source project hosted by LF Energy, which offers a comprehensive set of features for electrical grid modelling and simulation. Among other advanced features, PowSyBl provides:
- A fully editable and extendable library for grid component modelling;
- Visualization tools to display your network;
- Grid simulation tools, such as power flows, security analyses (with or without remedial actions) and sensitivity analyses;
The framework is mostly written in Java, with a Python binding so that Python developers can access PowSyBl functionalities as well.
What you will learn during the webinar:
- For beginners: discover PowSyBl's functionalities through a quick general presentation and the notebook, without needing any expert coding skills;
- For advanced developers: master the skills to efficiently apply PowSyBl functionalities to your real-world scenarios.
Generating a custom Ruby SDK for your web service or Rails API using Smithyg2nightmarescribd
Have you ever wanted a Ruby client API to communicate with your web service? Smithy is a protocol-agnostic language for defining services and SDKs. Smithy Ruby is an implementation of Smithy that generates a Ruby SDK using a Smithy model. In this talk, we will explore Smithy and Smithy Ruby to learn how to generate custom feature-rich SDKs that can communicate with any web service, such as a Rails JSON API.
UiPath Test Automation using UiPath Test Suite series, part 4DianaGray10
Welcome to UiPath Test Automation using UiPath Test Suite series part 4. In this session, we will cover Test Manager overview along with SAP heatmap.
The UiPath Test Manager overview with SAP heatmap webinar offers a concise yet comprehensive exploration of the role of a Test Manager within SAP environments, coupled with the utilization of heatmaps for effective testing strategies.
Participants will gain insights into the responsibilities, challenges, and best practices associated with test management in SAP projects. Additionally, the webinar delves into the significance of heatmaps as a visual aid for identifying testing priorities, areas of risk, and resource allocation within SAP landscapes. Through this session, attendees can expect to enhance their understanding of test management principles while learning practical approaches to optimize testing processes in SAP environments using heatmap visualization techniques
What will you get from this session?
1. Insights into SAP testing best practices
2. Heatmap utilization for testing
3. Optimization of testing processes
4. Demo
Topics covered:
Execution from the test manager
Orchestrator execution result
Defect reporting
SAP heatmap example with demo
Speaker:
Deepak Rai, Automation Practice Lead, Boundaryless Group and UiPath MVP
The Art of the Pitch: WordPress Relationships and SalesLaura Byrne
Clients don’t know what they don’t know. What web solutions are right for them? How does WordPress come into the picture? How do you make sure you understand scope and timeline? What do you do if sometime changes?
All these questions and more will be explored as we talk about matching clients’ needs with what your agency offers without pulling teeth or pulling your hair out. Practical tips, and strategies for successful relationship building that leads to closing the deal.
Essentials of Automations: Optimizing FME Workflows with ParametersSafe Software
Are you looking to streamline your workflows and boost your projects’ efficiency? Do you find yourself searching for ways to add flexibility and control over your FME workflows? If so, you’re in the right place.
Join us for an insightful dive into the world of FME parameters, a critical element in optimizing workflow efficiency. This webinar marks the beginning of our three-part “Essentials of Automation” series. This first webinar is designed to equip you with the knowledge and skills to utilize parameters effectively: enhancing the flexibility, maintainability, and user control of your FME projects.
Here’s what you’ll gain:
- Essentials of FME Parameters: Understand the pivotal role of parameters, including Reader/Writer, Transformer, User, and FME Flow categories. Discover how they are the key to unlocking automation and optimization within your workflows.
- Practical Applications in FME Form: Delve into key user parameter types including choice, connections, and file URLs. Allow users to control how a workflow runs, making your workflows more reusable. Learn to import values and deliver the best user experience for your workflows while enhancing accuracy.
- Optimization Strategies in FME Flow: Explore the creation and strategic deployment of parameters in FME Flow, including the use of deployment and geometry parameters, to maximize workflow efficiency.
- Pro Tips for Success: Gain insights on parameterizing connections and leveraging new features like Conditional Visibility for clarity and simplicity.
We’ll wrap up with a glimpse into future webinars, followed by a Q&A session to address your specific questions surrounding this topic.
Don’t miss this opportunity to elevate your FME expertise and drive your projects to new heights of efficiency.
Connector Corner: Automate dynamic content and events by pushing a buttonDianaGray10
Here is something new! In our next Connector Corner webinar, we will demonstrate how you can use a single workflow to:
Create a campaign using Mailchimp with merge tags/fields
Send an interactive Slack channel message (using buttons)
Have the message received by managers and peers along with a test email for review
But there’s more:
In a second workflow supporting the same use case, you’ll see:
Your campaign sent to target colleagues for approval
If the “Approve” button is clicked, a Jira/Zendesk ticket is created for the marketing design team
But—if the “Reject” button is pushed, colleagues will be alerted via Slack message
Join us to learn more about this new, human-in-the-loop capability, brought to you by Integration Service connectors.
And...
Speakers:
Akshay Agnihotri, Product Manager
Charlie Greenberg, Host
Accelerate your Kubernetes clusters with Varnish CachingThijs Feryn
A presentation about the usage and availability of Varnish on Kubernetes. This talk explores the capabilities of Varnish caching and shows how to use the Varnish Helm chart to deploy it to Kubernetes.
This presentation was delivered at K8SUG Singapore. See https://feryn.eu/presentations/accelerate-your-kubernetes-clusters-with-varnish-caching-k8sug-singapore-28-2024 for more details.
Accelerate your Kubernetes clusters with Varnish Caching
Graphite Heat Exchangers
1. GBH Enterprises, Ltd.
Process Engineering Guide:
GBHE-PEG-HEA-514
Graphite Heat Exchangers
Information contained in this publication or as otherwise supplied to Users is
believed to be accurate and correct at time of going to press, and is given in
good faith, but it is for the User to satisfy itself of the suitability of the information
for its own particular purpose. GBHE gives no warranty as to the fitness of this
information for any particular purpose and any implied warranty or condition
(statutory or otherwise) is excluded except to the extent that exclusion is
prevented by law. GBHE accepts no liability resulting from reliance on this
information. Freedom under Patent, Copyright and Designs cannot be assumed.
Refinery Process Stream Purification Refinery Process Catalysts Troubleshooting Refinery Process Catalyst Start-Up / Shutdown
Activation Reduction In-situ Ex-situ Sulfiding Specializing in Refinery Process Catalyst Performance Evaluation Heat & Mass
Balance Analysis Catalyst Remaining Life Determination Catalyst Deactivation Assessment Catalyst Performance
Characterization Refining & Gas Processing & Petrochemical Industries Catalysts / Process Technology - Hydrogen Catalysts /
Process Technology – Ammonia Catalyst Process Technology - Methanol Catalysts / process Technology – Petrochemicals
Specializing in the Development & Commercialization of New Technology in the Refining & Petrochemical Industries
Web Site: www.GBHEnterprises.com
2. Process Engineering Guide:
Graphite Heat Exchangers
CONTENTS
SECTION
0
INTRODUCTION/PURPOSE
2
1
SCOPE
2
2
FIELD OF APPLICATION
2
3
DEFINITIONS
2
4
TYPES OF GRAPHITE
2
4.1
4.2
4.3
4.4
Phenolic Resin Impregnation
Furane Resin Impregnation
PTFE Impregnation
Carbon Impregnation
2
2
2
3
5
TYPES OF EXCHANGER
3
5.1
5.2
5.3
Shell and Tube
Cubic Block Exchangers
Cylindrical Graphite Block Exchangers
3
3
4
6
LIMITATIONS ON USE
4
Refinery Process Stream Purification Refinery Process Catalysts Troubleshooting Refinery Process Catalyst Start-Up / Shutdown
Activation Reduction In-situ Ex-situ Sulfiding Specializing in Refinery Process Catalyst Performance Evaluation Heat & Mass
Balance Analysis Catalyst Remaining Life Determination Catalyst Deactivation Assessment Catalyst Performance
Characterization Refining & Gas Processing & Petrochemical Industries Catalysts / Process Technology - Hydrogen Catalysts /
Process Technology – Ammonia Catalyst Process Technology - Methanol Catalysts / process Technology – Petrochemicals
Specializing in the Development & Commercialization of New Technology in the Refining & Petrochemical Industries
Web Site: www.GBHEnterprises.com
3. 7
COSTS OF GRAPHITE EXCHANGERS
6
8
RATING OF GRAPHITE EXCHANGERS
6
8.1
8.2
Rating Cylindrical Block Exchangers
Rating Cubic Block Exchangers
6
9
9
MANUFACTURERS OF GRAPHITE EXCHANGERS
10
10
REFERENCES
10
FIGURES
1
SPLIT VIEW OF A CUBIC BLOCK HEAT EXCHANGER
3
2
TYPICAL BLOCK FROM A CYLINDRICAL GRAPHITE
BLOCK HEAT EXCHANGER
5
3
GENERAL ARRANGEMENT OF A CYLINDRICAL BLOCK
GRAPHITE HEAT EXCHANGER
5
4
APPROXIMATE COSTS FOR GRAPHITE HEAT
EXCHANGERS
DOCUMENTS REFERRED TO IN THIS PROCESS
ENGINEERING GUIDE
7
11
Refinery Process Stream Purification Refinery Process Catalysts Troubleshooting Refinery Process Catalyst Start-Up / Shutdown
Activation Reduction In-situ Ex-situ Sulfiding Specializing in Refinery Process Catalyst Performance Evaluation Heat & Mass
Balance Analysis Catalyst Remaining Life Determination Catalyst Deactivation Assessment Catalyst Performance
Characterization Refining & Gas Processing & Petrochemical Industries Catalysts / Process Technology - Hydrogen Catalysts /
Process Technology – Ammonia Catalyst Process Technology - Methanol Catalysts / process Technology – Petrochemicals
Specializing in the Development & Commercialization of New Technology in the Refining & Petrochemical Industries
Web Site: www.GBHEnterprises.com
4. 0
INTRODUCTION/PURPOSE
This guide is one of a series of Heat Transfer Process Engineering Guides
produced for GBH Enterprises.
1
SCOPE
This guide discusses the material used for exchanger fabrication, describes the
types of unit available and gives guidance on how to rate thermal performance of
such units.
2
FIELD OF APPLICATION
This Guide applies to process engineers in GBH Enterprises worldwide, who
may be involved in the specification, design, rating or operation of heat transfer
equipment.
3
DEFINITIONS
For the purposes of this Guide, the following definitions apply:
Heat Transfer and Fluid Flow
Service (HTFS)
4
A cooperative research organization, with
headquarters in the UK, involved in
research into the fundamentals of heat
transfer and two phase flow and the production
of design guides and computer programs for
the design of industrial heat exchange
equipment.
TYPES OF GRAPHITE
Graphite, having a high resistance to corrosion and good thermal conductivity, is
a suitable material of construction for heat exchangers, particularly for highly
corrosive duties. The artificial graphite used for heat exchangers is manufactured
from a mixture of coke and pitch, which is first cured at 1000°C and subsequently
recrystallized at 3000°C.
Refinery Process Stream Purification Refinery Process Catalysts Troubleshooting Refinery Process Catalyst Start-Up / Shutdown
Activation Reduction In-situ Ex-situ Sulfiding Specializing in Refinery Process Catalyst Performance Evaluation Heat & Mass
Balance Analysis Catalyst Remaining Life Determination Catalyst Deactivation Assessment Catalyst Performance
Characterization Refining & Gas Processing & Petrochemical Industries Catalysts / Process Technology - Hydrogen Catalysts /
Process Technology – Ammonia Catalyst Process Technology - Methanol Catalysts / process Technology – Petrochemicals
Specializing in the Development & Commercialization of New Technology in the Refining & Petrochemical Industries
Web Site: www.GBHEnterprises.com
5. Since the volatile binders have been removed during the high temperature
treatments, the graphite produced is permeable. To overcome this, a variety of
impregnations are used. The choice of impregnation
should be decided upon after consultation with a Materials Scientist, but for initial
guidance the types are given below. Note: not all manufacturers offer all of these
types.
4.1
Phenolic Resin Impregnation
The manufacturers claim this is suitable for up to 165-185°C, depending on the
residual permeability of the starting graphite. The resin will in general have a
lower chemical resistance than the graphite. This may lead to a progressive
leaching out of the resin, eventually resulting in the material becoming
permeable.
4.2
Furane Resin Impregnation
This has a similar operational range to phenolic resin. It is not usually specified
by GBH Enterprises, the phenolic impregnation being regarded as standard.
4.3
PTFE Impregnation
This offers both higher corrosion resistance than the resins, and a higher
operating temperature (up to 230°C), but at a higher price, typically twice that of
resin impregnated graphite. Note, however, that the PTFE used for impregnation
is a relatively low molecular weight polymer and can be prone to leaching in
some conditions. PTFE impregnated graphite also has a lower mechanical
strength than the resin impregnated material.
4.4
Carbon Impregnation
This is the ultimate in corrosion resistance and operating temperature (up to
400°C in oxidizing environments, and 1000°C in reducing conditions) but costs
about three times the price of a resin impregnated exchanger.
Refinery Process Stream Purification Refinery Process Catalysts Troubleshooting Refinery Process Catalyst Start-Up / Shutdown
Activation Reduction In-situ Ex-situ Sulfiding Specializing in Refinery Process Catalyst Performance Evaluation Heat & Mass
Balance Analysis Catalyst Remaining Life Determination Catalyst Deactivation Assessment Catalyst Performance
Characterization Refining & Gas Processing & Petrochemical Industries Catalysts / Process Technology - Hydrogen Catalysts /
Process Technology – Ammonia Catalyst Process Technology - Methanol Catalysts / process Technology – Petrochemicals
Specializing in the Development & Commercialization of New Technology in the Refining & Petrochemical Industries
Web Site: www.GBHEnterprises.com
6. 5
TYPES OF EXCHANGER
There are three basic types of heat exchanger using graphite as a material of
construction.
5.1
Shell and Tube
These units are similar in general form to conventional shell and tube
exchangers, with tubes and tubesheets fabricated from graphite. The mechanical
properties of graphite require careful design of the tube-tubesheet joints and
influence the dimensions, but the manufacturers have evolved designs which,
treated with reasonable care, can give good service. It is possible to re-tube
the units.
Graphite tubular exchangers have been built with surface areas over 1000 m2
and tube lengths of 6.7 m (22 feet), although one manufacturer states that the
maximum length of their tubes without a joint is 4 m. Standard designs have shell
diameters between 200 to 1880 mm (8" to 74"). Tube diameters typically range
from 25 x 16 mm (1" x 5/8") up to 51 x 38 mm (2" x 1 ").
The design pressure of the exchangers is limited to 6 bar on both sides. This
form of construction is usually the most expensive per m2 of heat transfer area
(see Clause 7).
5.2
Cubic Block Exchangers
These exchangers consist of single cuboid blocks of graphite, (in the case of
some manufacturers, built up from thinner layers cemented together),
compressed between cast iron clamping plates, see Figure 1. There is a series of
parallel holes or slots between opposing faces of the block for the passage of
process and service fluids, the rows of holes alternating through the block.
Headers are bolted to four faces of the block for the inlet and outlet of the
fluids. The headers can be lined with graphite or PTFE. A variety of multi-pass
arrangements can be accommodated by incorporating partitions on the inside of
the headers.
Refinery Process Stream Purification Refinery Process Catalysts Troubleshooting Refinery Process Catalyst Start-Up / Shutdown
Activation Reduction In-situ Ex-situ Sulfiding Specializing in Refinery Process Catalyst Performance Evaluation Heat & Mass
Balance Analysis Catalyst Remaining Life Determination Catalyst Deactivation Assessment Catalyst Performance
Characterization Refining & Gas Processing & Petrochemical Industries Catalysts / Process Technology - Hydrogen Catalysts /
Process Technology – Ammonia Catalyst Process Technology - Methanol Catalysts / process Technology – Petrochemicals
Specializing in the Development & Commercialization of New Technology in the Refining & Petrochemical Industries
Web Site: www.GBHEnterprises.com
7. FIGURE 1
SPLIT VIEW OF A CUBIC BLOCK HEAT EXCHANGER
The exchangers come in standard size ranges. Two European manufacturers
produce two ranges which are essentially identical between the manufacturers.
In one of these, usually designated type 'A', both sets of holes are cylindrical,
with a diameter of 9.5 mm (3/8"). The surface areas on both sides are equal, the
largest units having 14 m2 of heat transfer surface. In type 'B' blocks, the service
side is similar to the type A units, but the process side consists of a series of
slots 9.5 mm by 3.2 mm (3/8" by 1/8"). This results in a surface area for that
side almost twice that of the other side, with a maximum heat transfer surface of
28 m2. The choice of which type to use will be governed by the heat transfer and
pressure drop requirements of the particular duty.
Manufacturer A also offer the designs developed by a leading USA
manufacturer. These have process holes of 5/32" and service holes of 3/8" giving
process areas of up to 93 m2 (1000 ft2) with service areas of half the process
area.
The maximum permissible operating pressure of a cubic block is usually 5 bar g.
Cubic block exchangers are significantly more compact than graphite shell and
tube units with the same heat transfer surface. They are the cheapest graphite
exchanger per m2 of heat transfer area, but are limited in maximum area (see
Clause 7). They are commonly used in the fine chemicals and pharmaceutical
industries, where their resistance to a wide range of chemicals makes them
Refinery Process Stream Purification Refinery Process Catalysts Troubleshooting Refinery Process Catalyst Start-Up / Shutdown
Activation Reduction In-situ Ex-situ Sulfiding Specializing in Refinery Process Catalyst Performance Evaluation Heat & Mass
Balance Analysis Catalyst Remaining Life Determination Catalyst Deactivation Assessment Catalyst Performance
Characterization Refining & Gas Processing & Petrochemical Industries Catalysts / Process Technology - Hydrogen Catalysts /
Process Technology – Ammonia Catalyst Process Technology - Methanol Catalysts / process Technology – Petrochemicals
Specializing in the Development & Commercialization of New Technology in the Refining & Petrochemical Industries
Web Site: www.GBHEnterprises.com
8. attractive on multi-product plants. The Works generally try to standardize on a
limited range of sizes to reduce spares holdings and allow modular
construction.
5.3
Cylindrical Graphite Block Exchangers
These units are built up in modular fashion from standard cylindrical graphite
blocks. The blocks are mounted inside a steel shell. The process fluid normally
flows through a series of holes drilled longitudinally down the blocks, successive
blocks being arranged so that the holes line up. The 'service' fluid flows through a
second set of holes or slots, drilled at right angles to, and passing between,
neighboring rows of process holes. PTFE gaskets between the blocks prevent
cross contamination. Baffles between the blocks and the shell allow several
cross passes for the service fluid. If the 'service' fluid is also corrosive, the shell
may be lined with PTFE. More than one process pass is possible. The
mechanical design, in which the blocks are held in compression by spring loaded
tie rods, requires these units to be mounted vertically. See Figures 2 and 3.
Hole sizes typically range between 8 mm and 35 mm. Blocks are available in
diameters up to 1.8 m. The largest units may have up to 1000 m2 of surface,
making them comparable with shell and tube units. The design pressure for the
process side is typically 5-6 bar; for the service side 8 bar is normal.
6
LIMITATIONS ON USE
Graphite is a relatively weak material, which can be damaged by mechanical
shock. However, treated with reasonable care, this should not cause problems.
The shell and tube types are probably the least sturdy, although several of these
units gave many years of satisfactory service on several European plants, their
life being limited by gradual leaching of the resin impregnation rather than
mechanical failure. On the other hand, a large shell and tube unit on one site
location in Europe suffered from failure early in its life. Although there was some
suspicion that this may have been damaged during installation, the unit was
replaced by a cylindrical block type.
Refinery Process Stream Purification Refinery Process Catalysts Troubleshooting Refinery Process Catalyst Start-Up / Shutdown
Activation Reduction In-situ Ex-situ Sulfiding Specializing in Refinery Process Catalyst Performance Evaluation Heat & Mass
Balance Analysis Catalyst Remaining Life Determination Catalyst Deactivation Assessment Catalyst Performance
Characterization Refining & Gas Processing & Petrochemical Industries Catalysts / Process Technology - Hydrogen Catalysts /
Process Technology – Ammonia Catalyst Process Technology - Methanol Catalysts / process Technology – Petrochemicals
Specializing in the Development & Commercialization of New Technology in the Refining & Petrochemical Industries
Web Site: www.GBHEnterprises.com
9. FIGURE 2
TYPICAL BLOCK FROM A CYLINDRICAL GRAPHITE
BLOCK HEAT EXCHANGER
Refinery Process Stream Purification Refinery Process Catalysts Troubleshooting Refinery Process Catalyst Start-Up / Shutdown
Activation Reduction In-situ Ex-situ Sulfiding Specializing in Refinery Process Catalyst Performance Evaluation Heat & Mass
Balance Analysis Catalyst Remaining Life Determination Catalyst Deactivation Assessment Catalyst Performance
Characterization Refining & Gas Processing & Petrochemical Industries Catalysts / Process Technology - Hydrogen Catalysts /
Process Technology – Ammonia Catalyst Process Technology - Methanol Catalysts / process Technology – Petrochemicals
Specializing in the Development & Commercialization of New Technology in the Refining & Petrochemical Industries
Web Site: www.GBHEnterprises.com
10. FIGURE 3
GENERAL ARRANGEMENT OF A CYLINDRICAL BLOCK
GRAPHITE HEAT EXCHANGER
Because of the brittle nature of the graphite, care must be taken in plant design
to avoid placing high loads onto the branches of the exchangers. It may also be
necessary to provide some isolation to prevent vibrations from other equipment
being transmitted to the exchanger.
Refinery Process Stream Purification Refinery Process Catalysts Troubleshooting Refinery Process Catalyst Start-Up / Shutdown
Activation Reduction In-situ Ex-situ Sulfiding Specializing in Refinery Process Catalyst Performance Evaluation Heat & Mass
Balance Analysis Catalyst Remaining Life Determination Catalyst Deactivation Assessment Catalyst Performance
Characterization Refining & Gas Processing & Petrochemical Industries Catalysts / Process Technology - Hydrogen Catalysts /
Process Technology – Ammonia Catalyst Process Technology - Methanol Catalysts / process Technology – Petrochemicals
Specializing in the Development & Commercialization of New Technology in the Refining & Petrochemical Industries
Web Site: www.GBHEnterprises.com
11. Manufacturer A states that the block types are able to handle differential
temperatures of 100 -120°C. Shell and tube units are more limited. As a result of
its high conductivity, graphite has a good tolerance to thermal shock. However,
this information is for guidance only, and the manufacturer should be consulted in
particular cases.
7
COSTS OF GRAPHITE EXCHANGERS
It is not possible to provide definitive statements on whether one type of
exchanger will be more expensive than another in general terms; each case has
to be taken on its merits. A comparison on the basis of pounds per unit area will
be misleading unless the achieved heat transfer coefficients are similar. Some
duties fit better than others into a particular exchanger type. Moreover, the
installed cost will be several times the main plant item cost, and installation
factors may differ with different exchanger types.
Figure 4 shows some data produced for the MPI cost of several exchanger types
as a function of area. The types covered are graphite tubes in a carbon steel
shell, cubic blocks with phenolic resin impregnation and cubic blocks with PTFE
impregnation. Also shown for comparison are data for shell and tube exchangers
with all carbon steel construction and with stainless steel tubes in a carbon steel
shell. It can be seen that graphite is comparable in cost with the stainless steel
units.
Note:
These costs are for guidance only. Manufacturers should be approached for firm
data.
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12. 8
RATING OF GRAPHITE EXCHANGERS
The manufacturers of graphite exchangers normally offer a range of standard
sizes. Many (but not all) of them have a thermal design capability. However,
there is still the need for GBH Enterprises to check their designs, particularly for
difficult duties such as multi-component condensation.
Graphite shell and tube units offer no thermal rating problem; the normal shell
and tube programs (commercially available) can be used with the tube
dimensions supplied by the manufacturers. Manufacturer A quote the thermal
conductivity of the graphite in the radial direction (without the resin film) as 35-64
W/m.K.
Block exchangers cannot be modeled so easily with standard computer
programs. If the fluids handled are both single phase, hand calculations should
present no real problem, as the individual heat transfer coefficients can be
estimated using modified versions of the Sieder & Tate equations (see below).
For modeling a condenser, however, hand calculations can be particularly
difficult. Nonetheless, it is possible to use normal shell and tube programs to
model the performance of block exchangers, as outlined below.
8.1
Rating Cylindrical Block Exchangers
In a cylindrical block exchanger, for most duties, the process fluid will be flowing
through the longitudinal holes, which can be regarded as the tubes of a
conventional exchanger. Shell and tube computer program methods should
apply.
The service side geometry is different from a shell and tube unit, so the program
methods for calculating shell side coefficient do not apply. Most shell and tube
rating programs, however, allow the user to specify the heat transfer coefficient
for either side. Provided that this coefficient remains reasonably constant, this
should allow the program to predict correctly the
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13. FIGURE 4
APPROXIMATE COSTS FOR GRAPHITE HEAT EXCHANGERS
overall performance. In many cases the service fluid will be a single phase liquid,
e.g. cooling water, so this is a reasonable supposition. If the service fluid is
condensing steam, although the coefficient will not be constant, it is likely not to
be controlling, so the actual value is not critical.
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14. The basic approach to the rating is as follows: (This method is based on that
given in Reference!1, modified to accommodate the use of standard shell and
tube programs.)
(a)
Equate the tube count to the number of process holes in the block, and
the tube inside diameter to the hole diameter.
(b)
Choose some nominal value for the tube wall thickness; 2 mm is
reasonable. This gives the equivalent tube outside diameter, which will be
used by the shell and tube program. Ideally, one should calculate an
equivalent ligament thickness, but as the thermal resistance of the
graphite ligament is low, (Reference 1 quotes a coefficient of 8700
W/m2.K), any errors introduced will be small.
(c)
Estimate the service side coefficient. For a single phase fluid, the modified
Sieder-Tate equation given by Reference 1 should be used. Note that this
gives the transition Reynolds number for the service side of the block
between laminar and transition flow as only 300, compared with 2100 for
normal tubes, and between transition and turbulent as 3000, compared
with 10000.
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15. For condensing steam, the service resistance is unlikely to be critical.
10000 W/m2.K is a reasonable value.
If the service side channels are slots rather than holes, see the paragraph
on 'B' type cubic blocks below.
(d)
Correct this coefficient by the ratio of the actual service side heat transfer
area to the area based on the equivalent tube od. given above. Use this
corrected coefficient in the shell and tube program.
(e)
The service pressure drop given by the shell and tube program will not be
relevant. For an exchanger from Manufacturer A, the service pressure
drop can be estimated using the method given in Reference 1.
The above approach assumes that you have details of the geometry of the
blocks. If a manufacturer has been approached for a design, they should be
asked to supply the necessary data. If you are doing a preliminary rating based
on manufacturer's literature, not all data may be available. It may be necessary to
estimate some items from others.
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16. 8.1.1
Commercially Available Programs
The method outlined above for calculating service side coefficients and
pressure drops is typically incorporated into commercially available
computer programs, including manufacturers published data, on their
standard blocks.
8.2
Rating Cubic Block Exchangers
For the type 'A' blocks, where both process and service sides have cylindrical
holes, a similar approach to the cylindrical block method described above can be
used. However, the effects of the pass arrangements in the block have to be
considered.
A unit with only one pass on each side is operating in cross flow, whereas most
of the shell and tube programs assume co- or counter current flow. Commercially
available programs can be used to model X shells.
For a multi-pass arrangement on both sides, it is probably best to consider the
unit as a single pass with the tube length equal to the path length. This ignores
the effects of the turn-round regions.
For a type 'B' unit, the problem is slightly more complex because of the noncircular nature of the slots. An equivalent (hydraulic mean) diameter approach is
necessary.
If the perimeter of a slot is P, its surface A and cross sectional area X, then the
equivalent diameter is:
A pipe of this diameter has a cross section Xe and surface area Ae given by:
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17. If we use this hydraulic mean diameter with the number of tubes equated to the
number of slots, both the surface area and the mass flux will be incorrect.
However, if the ratio of the number of tubes in the shell and tube model to the
number of slots is changed such that:
then the shell and tube model will have the correct surface area and correct
mass flux.
For the standard slot geometry of the type 'B' cubic block,
The service side coefficient will need to be adjusted for the area ratio in a similar
manner to that for the cylindrical block.
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