This document summarizes information about three herbal drugs that contain glycosides: senna, aloes, and bitter almond. It provides details on the biological source, cultivation, chemical constituents, identification tests, uses, and adulterants of each drug. For senna, it describes two main varieties - Indian senna and Alexandrian senna. It outlines the macroscopic and microscopic characteristics used to identify these drugs. Chemical tests described include Borntrager's test and modified Borntrager's test for senna, as well as tests to distinguish between varieties of aloes. The main uses of these drugs are as purgatives.

1. Glycosides Containing Drugs:
Senna, Aloes, Bitter Almond
By:
Dr. Rakesh Barik
GITAM School of Pharmacy, GITAM Deemed to be University,
Hyderabad

2. Indian senna

3. Senna
Synonyms
Senai- ki- patti, Tinnevelley senna, Cassia senna
Biological Source
It consist of dried leaflets of Cassia angustifolia known
as Indian senna or Cassia senna Vahl.
Family: Leguminosae
It should contain not less than 1 % of sennoside A
and B on dried basis.

4. GEOGRAPHICAL SOURCES
Indian senna cultivated in Tinnevelley, Madurai,
Ramnathpuram districts in Tamilnadu, Kaddapa
dist in Andhrapradesh, Kutch in Gujarat and
Rajasthan.

5. Cultivation, Collection and Preparation
.
Sowing is done by seed broadcasting method .For earlier germination seed surface
is triturated with sand .
Red loamy or coarse gravelly soil( high proportion of small stones).
First sowing done in Feb - March.
Second sowing done in Oct- November.
It requires semi irrigation or light irrigation..
Once flowers are grown cutting given to flower stalk for further branching to occur.
Leaves are harvested after 2-3 months of planting.

6. First plucking done when leaflets fully grown, second plucking after
one month of first
plucking. Last plucking done after 4-6 weeks of second.
Plant is uprooted after third plucking.
Leaflets are dried in shade for 7-10 days.
leaves are tossed( move from side to side or back and forth) to separate
pods.
Then packed in to large bundles under hydraulic pressure.
Pressing produce transverse line on Indian senna witch are absent on
Alexandrian senna leaves.

7. Macroscopic characteristics
Colour- yellowish green
Odour- slight
Taste- mucilaginous, bitter and
characterstic
Size- 7-8 mm width, 25-60 mm length
Shape- lanceolate, apex acute with
spine at top. Trichomes present on
both surfaces.

8. Microscopic characterstics

9. Isobilateral leaf.( divided into symmetrical halves )
Trichomes present on both surfaces.
Trichomes are unicellular, conical, thick walled warty,
slightly curved at base
Palisade tissue present on upper and lower surface,
they contain cluster crystals of cal oxalate
Pericyclic fibers present towards upper epidermis
and above xylem

10. Chemical constituents
Sennoside A , Sennoside B
Rhein( cassic acid) dianthrone as aglycone.
Other anthraquinones
Sennoside C,D, rhein , kaempferol, aloe- emodin,
isorhamnetin, mucilase , resin,
myricyl alcohol, salicylic acid, crysophagic acid, Cal.
oxalate. tinnevelley glucoside

12. USES
Purgative
•Anthraquinone glycosides get absorbed first in intestinal
tract, then aglycone is separated and excreted in colon.
This causes irritation and stimulation of colon, so movement
( peristalsis) of colon increases, peristalsis also reduce water
absorption hence soft and bulky faeces are formed.
•Due to resin and emodin content griping occurs hence drug
is given with carminatives.
•Contraindicated in lactating women. Excreted in breast milk
and causes infantile diarrhea.

13. ADULTERANTS AND SUBSTITUTES
Dog senna (c. obovata)- shape of leaves is
obovate(ovate with the narrower end at the
base.) with tapering apex. Papillose( nipple-like
structure)
Palthe senna- anthraquinone glycosides
absent.Leaflets have long hairs and when boiled with
chloral hydrate solution crimson colour occurs.
Bombay senna, Mecca senna, Arabian senna
Leaflets brownish green colour and more elongated
and narrower in shape.

14. Alexandrian Senna
Synonyms: Folia sennae alexandrina, Egyptian
senna, Cassia senna
Biological Source . It consists of dried leaflets of
Cassia acutifolia Delile, belonging to family
Leguminosae.
Macroscopic and microscopic characters:
Same like Indian Senna. colour is pale
greyish green. Base is more symmetrical,
more pubescent.
Chemical constituents and adulterants are same like
Indian Senna.

15. Borntrager’s test
1 gm of drug + 5–10 ml dil. HCl, boil on water bath for 10 min, filter.
extract filterate with CCl4/ benzene. Add equal amount of NH3, shake. Pink or
red colour in ammonical layer due to anthraquinone moiety.
Modified Borntrager’s test
1 gm of drug +5 ml dil. HCl + 5 ml FeCl3 (5% w/v). Boil for 10 min on
water bath, cool and filter, extract filterate with CCl4/ benzene, add equal
volume of NH3 solution→ formation of pink to red colour due to
anthraquinone moiety. This is used C-type of anthraquinone glycosides.
Chemical Tests

16. Aloes

17. Aloes
Synonyms: Aloe, Gwarphata, Ghritkumari, Kumari
Biological Source:
It is dried juice of leaves of Aloe barbadensis Miller known as
Curacao Aloe or
Aloe perryi Baker known as socotrine aloes or
Aloe ferox Miller, and hybrids of this species Aloe africana
(Zanzibar Aloe) Miller and
Aloe spicatya Baker known as cape aloes.
Family: Liliaceae
Geographical source:
Indigenous to Eastern and Southern Africa. Cultivated in
Caribbean Island, Europe and India

18. Cultivation and Collection
Propagation is done from root suckers.
Root suckers planted in rows about 50 cm apart.
Plant grow in dry climate and poor grade soil.
Roots do not penetrate much in soil.
Manure is provided.
Leaves are cut first time after second year of planting and drug is obtained from
leaves for 12 years.
After 12 years plant is uprooted and new crop is taken.
during collection cut is given at base of leaves so juice located in parenchymatous cells
of pericycle exudes out.

19. Preparation of Aloes
Barbados or Curacao Aloes:
It is obtained by giving cut on leaves of Aloe barbadensis.
Because of spines on leaves it is put in to kerosene tins immediately
after cutting .
Then kept in tilted position on V- shaped wooden troughs to drain out
juice.
Juice is boiled in copper pans for evaporation to obtain thick
concentrated product.
Then it is poured it to metal containers , where it hardens.

20. Cape Aloes
Obtained from Aloe ferox and its hybrid species.
Leaves are cut transversely and kept in circular manner in basin shaped
depression lined with goat skin or canvas.
They are kept in this position for 5-6 hours till all juice exudes out and
collected in goat skin.
juice is boiled in iron kettle with continuous stirring with wooden
paddle.
Once juice is thick it is poured in to wooden cases where it solidify.

21. Socotrine Aloes
It is obtained from Aloe perryi in east Africa.
Juice is collected in goat skin and allowed to become semisolid in
nature. It is exported in paste like consistency.
Zanzibar Aloes
it is a variety of socotrine aloe.
Juice is placed in skin of small carnivorous animals, where it
solidifies. Then packed in wooden boxes.
It is also called monkey skin aloe, although skin is not of monkey.

22. Description
1 curacao aloes
Odour-strong odour resembling to iodoform.
Taste is bitter.
Colour is brownish black, opaque mass.
Fracture-uneven fractured surface
2 cape aloes
colour- dark brown or greenish brown to olive brown mass.
Taste – nauseating and bitter.
Odour - sour but distinct.
Fracture - glassy

23. 3 socotrine aloes
colour- brownish yellow, opaque mass with pasty consistency.
Taste- extremely bitter, nauseous.
Odour –unpleasant
4 zanziber aloes
colour- liver brown.
Odour- characteristic but not disagreeable.
taste bitter.
Fracture – dull, waxy, smooth, even

24. Characteristics of Aloe powder
Curacao aloes:
fragments consist of large number of very small needle or slender
prisms
Cape aloes
transparent, brown, angular or irregular fragments.
Socotrine aloes
fragments consist of large prisms in group or dispersed form.
Zanzibar aloes
irregular lumps in with modular masses are embedded.

25. Chemical constituents
Anthraquinone glycosides.
Main active constituents are Aloin and Barbaloin.
Other constituents include isobarbaloin, beta barbaloin,
aloe-emodin, resin, aloetic acid, homonataloin, aloesone,
aponins, mucopolysccharides, glucosamines, hexuronic
acid. Aloe resin contains aloesin ( purgative action).
Aloin

26. Barbaloin( aloin)
Aloesin

27. Chemical tests
General chemical tests
1 gm aloe is powder boiled with 10 ml water, filtered. Filtrate
used for bromine test and schoenteten,s reaction.
1Bromine test- filtrate+ freshly prepared bromin solution=
pale yellow ppt of tetrabromalin
2 Schoentetens test- filtrate+ borax shake well until borax
dissolves.few drop of this soluition added in test tube filled
with water= green fluorescence appears.

28. Special test
These test are to distinguish between varieties of aloe
1 Nitrous acid test-
aqueous solution of aloe + sodium nitrate crystals + acetic
acid
curacao aloes-sharp pink to carmine colour
cape aloes- faint pink colour
socotrine and zanzibar aloes- very less change in colour

29. 2-Nitric acid test-
nitric acid applied to drug or its aqueous solution
curacao aloes- deep brownish red colour
cape aloe- brownish colour changes to green
socotrine aloes- pale brownish- yellow colour
zanzibar aloes- yellowish brown colour

30. 3. Kupraloin test ( Klunge's isobarbaloin test)
Dil. aqueous solution of aloe+ drop of copper
sulphate+ sodium chloride + excess 90% alcohol
Curacao aloes-wine red colour persist for 4 hours
Cape aloes- faint colour rapidly changes to yellow
Socotrine aloes-no colour
Zanzibar aloes- no colour

31. Uses
Purgative.
Stronger purgative among all anthraquinone glycosides.
Toprevent gripping action carminative can be given.
It is ingredient of compound tincture of benzoin( friar's
balsam)
Aloe gel is used for topical application and many
cosmetic uses.

32. Adulterants and substitutes
Natal aloes-it contains natalion, homonatalion, resin,
it is weak purgative
Mocha aloes- brittle, black and glossy with strong
odour
Aloe can be adulterated with black catechu.
Alcoholic extract of aloe gives deep brown colour
while black catechu gives black colour.

33. Bitter almond

34. Bitter Almond
Synonym- Amygdala amara
Biological Source: Bitter almond comprises of the
dried ripe kernels of Prunus amygdalus Batsch. Var
amara (DC) Focke; Prunus communis Arcang., P.
amygdalus Bail; and Amygdalus communis Linn.,
belonging to family Rosaceae.
Geographical Source Bitter almond trees are mostly
native of Persia and Asia Minor. They are also
cultivated in the cooler parts of Punjab and Kashmir,
Italy, Sicily, Portugal, Spain, Southern France and
Morocco.

35. Macroscopic characterstics
colour- brown
odour- odourless
taste- bitter
size- 20mm length, 125mm width,10 mm thickness
shape- flattened, oblong, ovoid shape with marking
on testa

37. Chemical constituents
40-50% bland fixed oil,
20% proteins,
bitter glycoside -amygdalin(1-3%),
0.5% volatile oil
Amygdalin hydrolyzed to produce benzaldehyde+ hydrocyanic
acid.
Hydrocyanic acid is very poisonous hence it is not used
internally.
sweet almond do not contain amygdalin

38. 1. Ferriferrocyanide Test: Macerate 1 g of the powdered drug with 5 ml of alcoholic KOH
(5% w/v) for five minutes. Transfer it to an aqueous solution containing FeSO4 (2.5 %w/v)
and FeCl3 (1% w/v) and maintain at 60-70°C for 10 minutes. Now, transfer the contents to
HCl (20%) when the appearance of a distinct prussian blue colour confirms the presence
of HCN.
2. Precipitation of Hg from HgNO3: The reduction of aqueous mercurous nitrate solution
(3% w/v) to metallic Hg by HCN being observed by an instant formation of black metallic
Hg in the cells.
3. Grignard Reaction Test: First of all, dip a strip of white filter paper into a solution of
picric acid (1 % w/v in water) drain and then dip into a solution of sodium carbonate (10%
w/v in water) and drain. Now, place the crushed and moistened drug material in a small
Erlenmeyer flask, and subsequently suspend the strip of the prepared sodium picrate
paper above the material and stopper the flask with an air tight cork. Maintain the flask in
a warm place for 1 hour when the liberated HCN would turn the sodium picrate paper
from its original yellow colour to brick red colour due to the formation of sodium
isopurpurate (Grignard’s Reaction).
4. Cuprocyanate Test: First of all, saturate pieces of filter paper in a freshly prepared
solution of guaic resin dissolved in absolute ethanol and allow them to dry completely in
air. Now, carefully moisten a piece of the above paper with a very dilute solution of
CuSO4 and place it into contact with a freshly exposed surface of the drug. In case, HCN is
generated, it will give rise to a distinct stain on the paper.
Chemical Tests

39. Uses
Oil is used as demulcent .
In perfumery.
Preparation of bitter almond water,
Sedative due to HCN content.