This document discusses glycolysis, the metabolic pathway that breaks down glucose to produce energy. It begins with an introduction and overview of glycolysis. It then describes the two phases of glycolysis as well as providing a schematic of the pathway and outlining the 10 stepwise enzyme-catalyzed reactions. It discusses the fate of pyruvate and energetics of glycolysis. Regulation of the pathway by enzymes and hormones is covered as well as a conclusion summarizing the key reactions and outcomes of glycolysis.
Glycolysis is the metabolic pathway that converts glucose into pyruvate and produces a small amount of ATP. It occurs in the cytoplasm of cells and can function aerobically or anaerobically. During aerobic glycolysis, pyruvate is further oxidized to produce more ATP. During anaerobic glycolysis, pyruvate is converted to lactate, producing less ATP. The citric acid cycle is a series of chemical reactions in the mitochondria that completes the oxidation of acetyl-CoA derived from carbohydrates, fats, and proteins to produce carbon dioxide, water, and ATP through oxidative phosphorylation. It is also known as the Krebs cycle or TCA cycle. It is a key step
Glycolysis is the metabolic pathway that converts glucose into pyruvate, producing a small amount of ATP. It occurs in the cytosol of cells and is the first step in extracting energy from glucose under both aerobic and anaerobic conditions. The pathway involves a series of 10 enzyme-catalyzed reactions that ultimately yield 2 molecules of pyruvate, 2 ATP, and 2 NADH. Glycolysis is tightly regulated by enzymes such as hexokinase, phosphofructokinase, and pyruvate kinase to control the rate of glucose breakdown.
The document discusses glycolysis, which is the breakdown of glucose to pyruvate with production of ATP. It occurs in the cytosol of cells and can proceed with or without oxygen present. Under anaerobic conditions, pyruvate is reduced to lactate, while in aerobic conditions pyruvate enters the citric acid cycle in mitochondria to be fully oxidized to CO2 and H2O. Glycolysis is tightly regulated by feedback inhibition and is a key energy producing process, especially under low oxygen conditions like in muscle during exercise. The citric acid cycle further oxidizes acetyl-CoA produced from pyruvate to generate more ATP through oxidative phosphorylation.
This document summarizes key aspects of carbohydrate metabolism. It discusses the classification of carbohydrates including monosaccharides, oligosaccharides, and polysaccharides. It then focuses on glycolysis, describing the 10 step process by which glucose is broken down to pyruvate while producing ATP. The document next examines the three fates of pyruvate - being oxidized to acetyl-CoA, undergoing lactic acid fermentation, or ethanol fermentation. It concludes by outlining the aerobic pathway where pyruvate is converted to acetyl-CoA by the pyruvate dehydrogenase complex.
Glycolysis and the citric acid cycle are the main pathways for glucose metabolism and energy production in cells. Glycolysis breaks down glucose into pyruvate, generating a small amount of ATP. Pyruvate can then enter the citric acid cycle in mitochondria to be further oxidized, with electrons being transferred to oxygen through the electron transport chain. This generates a proton gradient that is used by ATP synthase to produce the majority of ATP through oxidative phosphorylation. Various pathways like gluconeogenesis, the pentose phosphate pathway, and glycogen metabolism also interact with glycolysis and the citric acid cycle to regulate glucose and energy homeostasis in the body.
intro of glycolysis there cycle and step - function-significance-defination-glucogenesis cycle-significance of gluconeogenesis-function of gluconeogenesis-conclusion
This document provides information on various aspects of carbohydrate and energy metabolism, including the Krebs cycle, cellular respiration, glycolysis, gluconeogenesis, glycogen metabolism, the hexose monophosphate shunt, electron transport chain, and diabetes. It describes the key steps and functions of these metabolic pathways, emphasizing that they work together to break down glucose and other fuels to generate energy in the form of ATP through oxidative phosphorylation in the mitochondria. Diabetes results from deficiencies in insulin production or action that disrupt the normal regulation of blood glucose levels.
This document discusses glycolysis, the metabolic pathway that breaks down glucose to produce energy. It begins with an introduction and overview of glycolysis. It then describes the two phases of glycolysis as well as providing a schematic of the pathway and outlining the 10 stepwise enzyme-catalyzed reactions. It discusses the fate of pyruvate and energetics of glycolysis. Regulation of the pathway by enzymes and hormones is covered as well as a conclusion summarizing the key reactions and outcomes of glycolysis.
Glycolysis is the metabolic pathway that converts glucose into pyruvate and produces a small amount of ATP. It occurs in the cytoplasm of cells and can function aerobically or anaerobically. During aerobic glycolysis, pyruvate is further oxidized to produce more ATP. During anaerobic glycolysis, pyruvate is converted to lactate, producing less ATP. The citric acid cycle is a series of chemical reactions in the mitochondria that completes the oxidation of acetyl-CoA derived from carbohydrates, fats, and proteins to produce carbon dioxide, water, and ATP through oxidative phosphorylation. It is also known as the Krebs cycle or TCA cycle. It is a key step
Glycolysis is the metabolic pathway that converts glucose into pyruvate, producing a small amount of ATP. It occurs in the cytosol of cells and is the first step in extracting energy from glucose under both aerobic and anaerobic conditions. The pathway involves a series of 10 enzyme-catalyzed reactions that ultimately yield 2 molecules of pyruvate, 2 ATP, and 2 NADH. Glycolysis is tightly regulated by enzymes such as hexokinase, phosphofructokinase, and pyruvate kinase to control the rate of glucose breakdown.
The document discusses glycolysis, which is the breakdown of glucose to pyruvate with production of ATP. It occurs in the cytosol of cells and can proceed with or without oxygen present. Under anaerobic conditions, pyruvate is reduced to lactate, while in aerobic conditions pyruvate enters the citric acid cycle in mitochondria to be fully oxidized to CO2 and H2O. Glycolysis is tightly regulated by feedback inhibition and is a key energy producing process, especially under low oxygen conditions like in muscle during exercise. The citric acid cycle further oxidizes acetyl-CoA produced from pyruvate to generate more ATP through oxidative phosphorylation.
This document summarizes key aspects of carbohydrate metabolism. It discusses the classification of carbohydrates including monosaccharides, oligosaccharides, and polysaccharides. It then focuses on glycolysis, describing the 10 step process by which glucose is broken down to pyruvate while producing ATP. The document next examines the three fates of pyruvate - being oxidized to acetyl-CoA, undergoing lactic acid fermentation, or ethanol fermentation. It concludes by outlining the aerobic pathway where pyruvate is converted to acetyl-CoA by the pyruvate dehydrogenase complex.
Glycolysis and the citric acid cycle are the main pathways for glucose metabolism and energy production in cells. Glycolysis breaks down glucose into pyruvate, generating a small amount of ATP. Pyruvate can then enter the citric acid cycle in mitochondria to be further oxidized, with electrons being transferred to oxygen through the electron transport chain. This generates a proton gradient that is used by ATP synthase to produce the majority of ATP through oxidative phosphorylation. Various pathways like gluconeogenesis, the pentose phosphate pathway, and glycogen metabolism also interact with glycolysis and the citric acid cycle to regulate glucose and energy homeostasis in the body.
intro of glycolysis there cycle and step - function-significance-defination-glucogenesis cycle-significance of gluconeogenesis-function of gluconeogenesis-conclusion
This document provides information on various aspects of carbohydrate and energy metabolism, including the Krebs cycle, cellular respiration, glycolysis, gluconeogenesis, glycogen metabolism, the hexose monophosphate shunt, electron transport chain, and diabetes. It describes the key steps and functions of these metabolic pathways, emphasizing that they work together to break down glucose and other fuels to generate energy in the form of ATP through oxidative phosphorylation in the mitochondria. Diabetes results from deficiencies in insulin production or action that disrupt the normal regulation of blood glucose levels.
This document provides information on various aspects of carbohydrate and energy metabolism, including the Krebs cycle, cellular respiration, glycolysis, gluconeogenesis, glycogen metabolism, the hexose monophosphate shunt, electron transport chain, and hormonal regulation of blood glucose levels and diabetes mellitus. It describes the key steps and functions of these metabolic pathways, discusses their clinical significance, and explains how insulin and glucagon work to regulate blood glucose homeostasis and the complications that can arise from diabetes.
1. The document discusses carbohydrate metabolism, including glycolysis, the citric acid cycle (TCA cycle), gluconeogenesis, glycogenesis, and glycogenolysis.
2. Glycolysis converts glucose to pyruvate, producing ATP and NADH. The TCA cycle further oxidizes pyruvate, producing more ATP, NADH, and FADH2.
3. Gluconeogenesis produces glucose from non-carbohydrate sources. Glycogenesis and glycogenolysis involve the synthesis and breakdown of glycogen for glucose storage and mobilization.
Glycolysis is a universal pathway that converts glucose into pyruvate, generating ATP through a series of 10 enzyme-catalyzed reactions. Under aerobic conditions, pyruvate enters mitochondria and is further oxidized through the citric acid cycle and electron transport chain to harvest most energy. If oxygen is insufficient, pyruvate is reduced to lactate. Glycolysis is regulated by three irreversible reactions controlled by hexokinase, phosphofructokinase, and pyruvate kinase. Cholesterol synthesis begins with acetyl-CoA and involves 13 enzymatic steps producing isoprenoid units that ultimately form cholesterol through squalene and lanosterol intermediates.
Metabolism is the network of chemical reactions that take place in living cells. It performs four main functions: obtaining energy, converting nutrients into macromolecules, assembling macromolecules, and degrading macromolecules. Metabolic pathways can be catabolic, anabolic, or amphibolic. Glycolysis converts glucose into pyruvate, generating a small amount of ATP. Pyruvate then undergoes oxidative decarboxylation to form acetyl-CoA, the entry point into the citric acid cycle. Diseases can impair glycolysis through deficiencies in enzymes like pyruvate kinase or disorders that cause lactic acidosis.
This document summarizes cellular respiration and the three main stages: glycolysis, the Krebs cycle, and oxidative phosphorylation. Glycolysis involves the breakdown of glucose to pyruvate in the cytoplasm and generates a small amount of ATP. Pyruvate can then enter the mitochondria and be further oxidized through the Krebs cycle or fermented to lactate or ethanol. The overall goal is to extract energy from glucose and use it to produce ATP through the three stages of cellular respiration.
The document discusses 10 key metabolic pathways in the human body:
(1) Glycolysis, (2) Conversion of pyruvate to acetyl-CoA, (3) The citric acid cycle, (4) Gluconeogenesis, (5) Glycogen metabolism, (6) Glycogenesis, (7) Glycogenolysis, (8) The hexose monophosphate shunt, (9) The glyoxylate cycle, and (10) Photosynthesis. It provides overview information and details on the process, location, and importance of each pathway.
The document provides an overview of carbohydrate metabolism. It discusses the major pathways involved, including glycolysis, the citric acid cycle, and the hexose monophosphate shunt. Glycolysis converts glucose to pyruvate, producing a small amount of ATP. The citric acid cycle further oxidizes pyruvate and acetyl-CoA, generating the majority of the cell's ATP through oxidative phosphorylation. The hexose monophosphate shunt provides an alternative pathway for glucose oxidation and generates NADPH.
This document summarizes the process of glycolysis. Glycolysis involves 10 enzyme-catalyzed reactions that converts glucose into pyruvate with simultaneous ATP production. It occurs in the cytosol of cells and does not require oxygen. Glycolysis is divided into three phases: 1) the energy investment phase, 2) the splitting phase, and 3) the energy generation phase. It ultimately generates 2 ATP, 2 NADH, and produces pyruvate which can then enter the citric acid cycle or be converted to lactate under anaerobic conditions.
Gluconeogenesis and glycolysis share many enzymes but differ in directionality. Three irreversible glycolysis reactions - involving hexokinase, phosphofructokinase, and pyruvate kinase - are bypassed in gluconeogenesis through different enzymes. Gluconeogenesis is regulated by substrates, enzymes, and hormones to prevent wasteful cycling between the two pathways.
The document summarizes carbohydrate metabolism and its disorders. It describes the steps of glycolysis which converts glucose to pyruvate, generating ATP. In anaerobic conditions pyruvate is reduced to lactate. Glycolysis occurs in all tissues to produce energy. The TCA cycle further oxidizes pyruvate to carbon dioxide, generating more ATP. Glycogen is the stored form of glucose in the liver and muscle. Glycogenesis and glycogenolysis describe the synthesis and breakdown of glycogen to glucose. Key enzymes and regulation of these pathways are also discussed.
Glycolysis is the pathway by which glucose is broken down to pyruvate, generating ATP and intermediates used in other pathways. It occurs both aerobically, using oxygen to generate more ATP, and anaerobically, producing lactate when oxygen is absent. Aerobic glycolysis yields more ATP as pyruvate enters the citric acid cycle, while anaerobic glycolysis yields less ATP but allows ATP production without oxygen in tissues like red blood cells. Glycolysis is essential in red blood cells due to their lack of mitochondria.
The document provides information on metabolic pathways including glycolysis, the citric acid cycle, and the electron transport chain. It begins with an overview of glycolysis, including its two phases and location in the cytoplasm. Key details are provided on the regulation of three glycolytic enzymes: hexokinase, PFK-1, and pyruvate kinase. The document then discusses the fates of pyruvate, including its conversion to acetyl-CoA and entry into the citric acid cycle or fermentation pathways. An overview of the citric acid cycle follows, along with its regulation and role in ATP production. The electron transport chain is then introduced, along with the structures and functions of its four complexes. In summary
1) The document discusses various pathways of carbohydrate metabolism including glycolysis, the TCA cycle, gluconeogenesis, and glycogenolysis.
2) Glycolysis converts glucose to pyruvate, producing a small amount of ATP either aerobically or anaerobically. The TCA cycle is the main pathway for complete oxidation of acetyl CoA to CO2, generating more ATP.
3) Gluconeogenesis synthesizes glucose from non-carbohydrate precursors in the liver and kidneys, with pyruvate and certain amino acids and glycerol being major substrates.
Supplying a huge array of metabolic intermediates for biosynthetic reactions. Normally carbohydrate metabolism supplies more than half of the energy requirements of the body. In fact the brain largely depends upon carbohydrate
Carbohydrate metabolism comprises glycolysis, HMP shunt, Gluconeogenesis, Glycogenolysis, TCA cycle, with Glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase deficiency disorder.
1. Glycolysis is a metabolic pathway that converts glucose into pyruvate, producing ATP. It takes place in the cytosol of cells and is the first step in extracting energy from glucose under both aerobic and anaerobic conditions.
2. Glycolysis is regulated by three key enzymes - hexokinase, phosphofructokinase, and pyruvate kinase. Phosphofructokinase is usually the rate-limiting step and is regulated by various allosteric effectors.
3. Glycolysis connects to many feeder pathways allowing other sugars like fructose, galactose, and glycogen to enter at various points and ultimately be broken down into py
Complete Set of Metabolism of Carbohydrate in that second chapter, glycolysis.
This presentation covers complete glycolysis pathway with step wise animated reactions and it includes clinical aspects also. This presentation is good for MBBS students.
The document discusses glycolysis and the citric acid cycle. Glycolysis involves 10 steps that break down glucose and generate a small amount of ATP without oxygen. The citric acid cycle is a series of chemical reactions in the mitochondria that further oxidizes pyruvate from glycolysis to extract more chemical energy. It involves 8 steps that produce carbon dioxide, NADH, and FADH2 to fuel the electron transport chain for oxidative phosphorylation to generate large amounts of ATP. Both pathways are tightly regulated and provide precursors for other biological processes.
Metabolism includes all chemical processes within cells related to building up and breaking down molecules and functional operations. Energy metabolism deals with overall energy production, while anabolism involves forming larger molecules and catabolism breaking down larger molecules. Carbohydrate metabolism centers around glucose and related molecules. Glycolysis and the fate of pyruvate are described. Glycolysis generates ATP and NADH. Gluconeogenesis forms glucose from non-carbohydrates like lactate and pyruvate in the liver. Glycogen is synthesized from glucose for storage. Protein metabolism involves amino acid breakdown and synthesis, as well as protein biosynthesis and degradation. Lipid metabolism describes fatty acid types and oxidation through beta-oxidation within
Glycolysis is the metabolic pathway that converts glucose into pyruvate and produces ATP. It occurs in ten steps and involves the conversion of glucose into two three-carbon molecules. The first five steps are the preparatory phase where ATP is consumed, and the last five steps are the payoff phase where ATP is produced, resulting in a net production of two ATP per glucose molecule. Glycolysis also produces two NADH molecules. Disruptions to glycolysis can lead to diseases like diabetes or genetic disorders impacting cellular respiration.
Gluconeogenesis occurs mainly in the liver to synthesize glucose from non-carbohydrate precursors like lactate, glycerol, and glucogenic amino acids. It utilizes the same enzymes as glycolysis but must bypass three irreversible steps. The bypass reactions include glucose-6-phosphatase and fructose-1,6-bisphosphatase hydrolyzing high-energy intermediates, and a two-step process involving pyruvate carboxylase and PEP carboxykinase to bypass pyruvate kinase. Gluconeogenesis and glycolysis are reciprocally regulated to prevent a wasteful futile cycle between the two pathways.
বাংলাদেশের অর্থনৈতিক সমীক্ষা ২০২৪ [Bangladesh Economic Review 2024 Bangla.pdf] কম্পিউটার , ট্যাব ও স্মার্ট ফোন ভার্সন সহ সম্পূর্ণ বাংলা ই-বুক বা pdf বই " সুচিপত্র ...বুকমার্ক মেনু 🔖 ও হাইপার লিংক মেনু 📝👆 যুক্ত ..
আমাদের সবার জন্য খুব খুব গুরুত্বপূর্ণ একটি বই ..বিসিএস, ব্যাংক, ইউনিভার্সিটি ভর্তি ও যে কোন প্রতিযোগিতা মূলক পরীক্ষার জন্য এর খুব ইম্পরট্যান্ট একটি বিষয় ...তাছাড়া বাংলাদেশের সাম্প্রতিক যে কোন ডাটা বা তথ্য এই বইতে পাবেন ...
তাই একজন নাগরিক হিসাবে এই তথ্য গুলো আপনার জানা প্রয়োজন ...।
বিসিএস ও ব্যাংক এর লিখিত পরীক্ষা ...+এছাড়া মাধ্যমিক ও উচ্চমাধ্যমিকের স্টুডেন্টদের জন্য অনেক কাজে আসবে ...
Thinking of getting a dog? Be aware that breeds like Pit Bulls, Rottweilers, and German Shepherds can be loyal and dangerous. Proper training and socialization are crucial to preventing aggressive behaviors. Ensure safety by understanding their needs and always supervising interactions. Stay safe, and enjoy your furry friends!
This document provides information on various aspects of carbohydrate and energy metabolism, including the Krebs cycle, cellular respiration, glycolysis, gluconeogenesis, glycogen metabolism, the hexose monophosphate shunt, electron transport chain, and hormonal regulation of blood glucose levels and diabetes mellitus. It describes the key steps and functions of these metabolic pathways, discusses their clinical significance, and explains how insulin and glucagon work to regulate blood glucose homeostasis and the complications that can arise from diabetes.
1. The document discusses carbohydrate metabolism, including glycolysis, the citric acid cycle (TCA cycle), gluconeogenesis, glycogenesis, and glycogenolysis.
2. Glycolysis converts glucose to pyruvate, producing ATP and NADH. The TCA cycle further oxidizes pyruvate, producing more ATP, NADH, and FADH2.
3. Gluconeogenesis produces glucose from non-carbohydrate sources. Glycogenesis and glycogenolysis involve the synthesis and breakdown of glycogen for glucose storage and mobilization.
Glycolysis is a universal pathway that converts glucose into pyruvate, generating ATP through a series of 10 enzyme-catalyzed reactions. Under aerobic conditions, pyruvate enters mitochondria and is further oxidized through the citric acid cycle and electron transport chain to harvest most energy. If oxygen is insufficient, pyruvate is reduced to lactate. Glycolysis is regulated by three irreversible reactions controlled by hexokinase, phosphofructokinase, and pyruvate kinase. Cholesterol synthesis begins with acetyl-CoA and involves 13 enzymatic steps producing isoprenoid units that ultimately form cholesterol through squalene and lanosterol intermediates.
Metabolism is the network of chemical reactions that take place in living cells. It performs four main functions: obtaining energy, converting nutrients into macromolecules, assembling macromolecules, and degrading macromolecules. Metabolic pathways can be catabolic, anabolic, or amphibolic. Glycolysis converts glucose into pyruvate, generating a small amount of ATP. Pyruvate then undergoes oxidative decarboxylation to form acetyl-CoA, the entry point into the citric acid cycle. Diseases can impair glycolysis through deficiencies in enzymes like pyruvate kinase or disorders that cause lactic acidosis.
This document summarizes cellular respiration and the three main stages: glycolysis, the Krebs cycle, and oxidative phosphorylation. Glycolysis involves the breakdown of glucose to pyruvate in the cytoplasm and generates a small amount of ATP. Pyruvate can then enter the mitochondria and be further oxidized through the Krebs cycle or fermented to lactate or ethanol. The overall goal is to extract energy from glucose and use it to produce ATP through the three stages of cellular respiration.
The document discusses 10 key metabolic pathways in the human body:
(1) Glycolysis, (2) Conversion of pyruvate to acetyl-CoA, (3) The citric acid cycle, (4) Gluconeogenesis, (5) Glycogen metabolism, (6) Glycogenesis, (7) Glycogenolysis, (8) The hexose monophosphate shunt, (9) The glyoxylate cycle, and (10) Photosynthesis. It provides overview information and details on the process, location, and importance of each pathway.
The document provides an overview of carbohydrate metabolism. It discusses the major pathways involved, including glycolysis, the citric acid cycle, and the hexose monophosphate shunt. Glycolysis converts glucose to pyruvate, producing a small amount of ATP. The citric acid cycle further oxidizes pyruvate and acetyl-CoA, generating the majority of the cell's ATP through oxidative phosphorylation. The hexose monophosphate shunt provides an alternative pathway for glucose oxidation and generates NADPH.
This document summarizes the process of glycolysis. Glycolysis involves 10 enzyme-catalyzed reactions that converts glucose into pyruvate with simultaneous ATP production. It occurs in the cytosol of cells and does not require oxygen. Glycolysis is divided into three phases: 1) the energy investment phase, 2) the splitting phase, and 3) the energy generation phase. It ultimately generates 2 ATP, 2 NADH, and produces pyruvate which can then enter the citric acid cycle or be converted to lactate under anaerobic conditions.
Gluconeogenesis and glycolysis share many enzymes but differ in directionality. Three irreversible glycolysis reactions - involving hexokinase, phosphofructokinase, and pyruvate kinase - are bypassed in gluconeogenesis through different enzymes. Gluconeogenesis is regulated by substrates, enzymes, and hormones to prevent wasteful cycling between the two pathways.
The document summarizes carbohydrate metabolism and its disorders. It describes the steps of glycolysis which converts glucose to pyruvate, generating ATP. In anaerobic conditions pyruvate is reduced to lactate. Glycolysis occurs in all tissues to produce energy. The TCA cycle further oxidizes pyruvate to carbon dioxide, generating more ATP. Glycogen is the stored form of glucose in the liver and muscle. Glycogenesis and glycogenolysis describe the synthesis and breakdown of glycogen to glucose. Key enzymes and regulation of these pathways are also discussed.
Glycolysis is the pathway by which glucose is broken down to pyruvate, generating ATP and intermediates used in other pathways. It occurs both aerobically, using oxygen to generate more ATP, and anaerobically, producing lactate when oxygen is absent. Aerobic glycolysis yields more ATP as pyruvate enters the citric acid cycle, while anaerobic glycolysis yields less ATP but allows ATP production without oxygen in tissues like red blood cells. Glycolysis is essential in red blood cells due to their lack of mitochondria.
The document provides information on metabolic pathways including glycolysis, the citric acid cycle, and the electron transport chain. It begins with an overview of glycolysis, including its two phases and location in the cytoplasm. Key details are provided on the regulation of three glycolytic enzymes: hexokinase, PFK-1, and pyruvate kinase. The document then discusses the fates of pyruvate, including its conversion to acetyl-CoA and entry into the citric acid cycle or fermentation pathways. An overview of the citric acid cycle follows, along with its regulation and role in ATP production. The electron transport chain is then introduced, along with the structures and functions of its four complexes. In summary
1) The document discusses various pathways of carbohydrate metabolism including glycolysis, the TCA cycle, gluconeogenesis, and glycogenolysis.
2) Glycolysis converts glucose to pyruvate, producing a small amount of ATP either aerobically or anaerobically. The TCA cycle is the main pathway for complete oxidation of acetyl CoA to CO2, generating more ATP.
3) Gluconeogenesis synthesizes glucose from non-carbohydrate precursors in the liver and kidneys, with pyruvate and certain amino acids and glycerol being major substrates.
Supplying a huge array of metabolic intermediates for biosynthetic reactions. Normally carbohydrate metabolism supplies more than half of the energy requirements of the body. In fact the brain largely depends upon carbohydrate
Carbohydrate metabolism comprises glycolysis, HMP shunt, Gluconeogenesis, Glycogenolysis, TCA cycle, with Glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase deficiency disorder.
1. Glycolysis is a metabolic pathway that converts glucose into pyruvate, producing ATP. It takes place in the cytosol of cells and is the first step in extracting energy from glucose under both aerobic and anaerobic conditions.
2. Glycolysis is regulated by three key enzymes - hexokinase, phosphofructokinase, and pyruvate kinase. Phosphofructokinase is usually the rate-limiting step and is regulated by various allosteric effectors.
3. Glycolysis connects to many feeder pathways allowing other sugars like fructose, galactose, and glycogen to enter at various points and ultimately be broken down into py
Complete Set of Metabolism of Carbohydrate in that second chapter, glycolysis.
This presentation covers complete glycolysis pathway with step wise animated reactions and it includes clinical aspects also. This presentation is good for MBBS students.
The document discusses glycolysis and the citric acid cycle. Glycolysis involves 10 steps that break down glucose and generate a small amount of ATP without oxygen. The citric acid cycle is a series of chemical reactions in the mitochondria that further oxidizes pyruvate from glycolysis to extract more chemical energy. It involves 8 steps that produce carbon dioxide, NADH, and FADH2 to fuel the electron transport chain for oxidative phosphorylation to generate large amounts of ATP. Both pathways are tightly regulated and provide precursors for other biological processes.
Metabolism includes all chemical processes within cells related to building up and breaking down molecules and functional operations. Energy metabolism deals with overall energy production, while anabolism involves forming larger molecules and catabolism breaking down larger molecules. Carbohydrate metabolism centers around glucose and related molecules. Glycolysis and the fate of pyruvate are described. Glycolysis generates ATP and NADH. Gluconeogenesis forms glucose from non-carbohydrates like lactate and pyruvate in the liver. Glycogen is synthesized from glucose for storage. Protein metabolism involves amino acid breakdown and synthesis, as well as protein biosynthesis and degradation. Lipid metabolism describes fatty acid types and oxidation through beta-oxidation within
Glycolysis is the metabolic pathway that converts glucose into pyruvate and produces ATP. It occurs in ten steps and involves the conversion of glucose into two three-carbon molecules. The first five steps are the preparatory phase where ATP is consumed, and the last five steps are the payoff phase where ATP is produced, resulting in a net production of two ATP per glucose molecule. Glycolysis also produces two NADH molecules. Disruptions to glycolysis can lead to diseases like diabetes or genetic disorders impacting cellular respiration.
Gluconeogenesis occurs mainly in the liver to synthesize glucose from non-carbohydrate precursors like lactate, glycerol, and glucogenic amino acids. It utilizes the same enzymes as glycolysis but must bypass three irreversible steps. The bypass reactions include glucose-6-phosphatase and fructose-1,6-bisphosphatase hydrolyzing high-energy intermediates, and a two-step process involving pyruvate carboxylase and PEP carboxykinase to bypass pyruvate kinase. Gluconeogenesis and glycolysis are reciprocally regulated to prevent a wasteful futile cycle between the two pathways.
বাংলাদেশের অর্থনৈতিক সমীক্ষা ২০২৪ [Bangladesh Economic Review 2024 Bangla.pdf] কম্পিউটার , ট্যাব ও স্মার্ট ফোন ভার্সন সহ সম্পূর্ণ বাংলা ই-বুক বা pdf বই " সুচিপত্র ...বুকমার্ক মেনু 🔖 ও হাইপার লিংক মেনু 📝👆 যুক্ত ..
আমাদের সবার জন্য খুব খুব গুরুত্বপূর্ণ একটি বই ..বিসিএস, ব্যাংক, ইউনিভার্সিটি ভর্তি ও যে কোন প্রতিযোগিতা মূলক পরীক্ষার জন্য এর খুব ইম্পরট্যান্ট একটি বিষয় ...তাছাড়া বাংলাদেশের সাম্প্রতিক যে কোন ডাটা বা তথ্য এই বইতে পাবেন ...
তাই একজন নাগরিক হিসাবে এই তথ্য গুলো আপনার জানা প্রয়োজন ...।
বিসিএস ও ব্যাংক এর লিখিত পরীক্ষা ...+এছাড়া মাধ্যমিক ও উচ্চমাধ্যমিকের স্টুডেন্টদের জন্য অনেক কাজে আসবে ...
Thinking of getting a dog? Be aware that breeds like Pit Bulls, Rottweilers, and German Shepherds can be loyal and dangerous. Proper training and socialization are crucial to preventing aggressive behaviors. Ensure safety by understanding their needs and always supervising interactions. Stay safe, and enjoy your furry friends!
How to Manage Your Lost Opportunities in Odoo 17 CRMCeline George
Odoo 17 CRM allows us to track why we lose sales opportunities with "Lost Reasons." This helps analyze our sales process and identify areas for improvement. Here's how to configure lost reasons in Odoo 17 CRM
How to Fix the Import Error in the Odoo 17Celine George
An import error occurs when a program fails to import a module or library, disrupting its execution. In languages like Python, this issue arises when the specified module cannot be found or accessed, hindering the program's functionality. Resolving import errors is crucial for maintaining smooth software operation and uninterrupted development processes.
Macroeconomics- Movie Location
This will be used as part of your Personal Professional Portfolio once graded.
Objective:
Prepare a presentation or a paper using research, basic comparative analysis, data organization and application of economic information. You will make an informed assessment of an economic climate outside of the United States to accomplish an entertainment industry objective.
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A workshop hosted by the South African Journal of Science aimed at postgraduate students and early career researchers with little or no experience in writing and publishing journal articles.
A review of the growth of the Israel Genealogy Research Association Database Collection for the last 12 months. Our collection is now passed the 3 million mark and still growing. See which archives have contributed the most. See the different types of records we have, and which years have had records added. You can also see what we have for the future.
Main Java[All of the Base Concepts}.docxadhitya5119
This is part 1 of my Java Learning Journey. This Contains Custom methods, classes, constructors, packages, multithreading , try- catch block, finally block and more.
2. CONTENTS
Introduction
Phases of the Glycolysis
Schematic pathway of the Glycolysis
Stepwise reactions of the Glycolysis
Fate of the Pyruvate
Energetics
Regulation
Conclusion
Bibliography
3. INTRODUCTION
The term ‘GLYCOLYSIS’ has originated from the Greek words, ‘glykys’ for
sugar and ‘lysis’ for splitting or breakdown.
Glycolysis is the sequence of 10 enzyme-catalyzed reactions, in which one
molecule of glucose is partially oxidized to form two molecules of Pyruvic acid.
It occurs in the cytoplasm of the cell and present in all living organism.
This pathway occurs aerobically as well as anaerobically and common pathway
for all the organism. In case of anaerobic organism, it includes formation of
Lactate from Pyruvate. In aerobic organism, glycolysis is the prelude to TCA
Cycle and ETC.
Glycolysis is the principal route for carbohydrate metabolism.
The scheme of glycolysis was given by Gustav Embden, Otto Meyerhof, and J.
Parnas, and is often referred as EMP Pathway.
4. PHASES OF THE GLYCOLYSIS
Glycolysis leads to breakdown of 6-C glucose into two molecules of 3-C pyruvate with
the enzyme catalyzed reactions that can be divided into 2 phases:- 1) Phase 1-
Preparatory Phase. 2) Phase 2- Payoff Phase.
Preparatory Phase Payoff Phase
6. STEPWISE REACTIONS OF GLYCOLYSIS
Glucose Glucose-6-phosphate
Hexokinase/Glucokinase
AT
P
ADP+P
i
Phosphohexose
Isomerase
Fructose 6-phosphate
Fructose 1,6-
bisphosphate
Phosphofructokinase
AT
P
ADP
+Pi
Glyceraldehyde 3-
Phosphate
Dihydroxyacetone
Phosphate
Triosephosphate Isomerase
Aldolase
7. STEPWISE REACTIONS OF GLYCOLYSIS
(2) x Glyceraldehyde 3-
Phosphate
(2) x 1,3-
bisphosphoglycerate
Glyceraldehyde 3-
Phosphate dehydrogenase
2 NAD+
2 NADH
+ H+
(2) x 3-
phosphoglycerate
Phosphoglycerate kinase
2 x
AT
P
2 x
ADP+P
i
(2) x 2-
phosphoglycerate
Mutase
(2) x
Phosphoenolpyruvate
H2O
(2) x Pyruvate
Enolase
Pyruvate kinase
2 x
AT
P
2 x
ADP+P
i
8. FATE OF THE PYRUVATE
After the formation of Pyruvate, there are two pathways based on the availability of
oxygen:-
Under anaerobic condition pyruvate is reduced to lactate by lactate dehydrogenase. It is
also reduced to Ethanol (along with CO2) by pyruvate decarboxylase and alcohol
dehydrogenase.
Under aerobic condition, pyruvate is transported to mitochondria and undergoes
oxidative decarboxylation by pyruvate dehydrogenase to form Acetyl-CoA, then
oxidation to CO2 in the TCA Cycle.
9. ENERGETICS
STEP NO. REACTION CONSUMPTION OF
ATP
GAIN OF ATP
1 Glucose Glucose 6-phosphate 1 -
2 Fructose 6-phosphate Fructose 1,6-
phosphate
1 -
6 Glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate 1,3-
bisphosphoglycerate
- (2.5x2)=5
[by respiratory chain
oxidation of 2 NADH]
7 1,3-bisphosphoglycerate 3-
Phosphoglycerate
- (1x2)=2
[by substrate-level
phosphorylation]
10 Phosphoenolpyruvate Pyruvate - (1x2)=2
[by substrate-level
phosphorylation]
TOTAL 2 9
*Net gain of ATP = (9-2) = 7
**In case of anaerobic condition, produced NADH is utilized and hence the net gain of
ATP turns out to be only 2.
10. REGULATION
Glycolysis is mainly regulated b:- i) Enzymatic regulation ii) Hormonal regulation.
i) Enzymatic regulation: Three enzymes regulates the glycolysis majorly. They are
Hexokinase/Glucokinase, Phosphofructokinase & Pyruvate kinase. Hexokinase is
allosterically inhibited by Fructose 6-phosphate whereas, Glucokinase is activated by insulin
and inhibited by glucagon. Similarly Pyruvate kinase is also activated by insulin and inhibited
by glucagon.
ii) Hormonal regulation: Glycolysis is stimulated by insulin whereas, it is inhibited by
glucagon & epinephrine.
11. CONCLUSION
The overall reactions of Glycolysis can be summarized as:
Glucose + 2Pi + 2ADP + 2NAD+ 2Pyruvate + 2NADH + 2ATP + 2H+ + 2H2O
Thus, the simultaneous reactions involved in Glycolysis are:
Glucose is oxidized to Pyruvate.
NAD+ is reduced to NADH.
ADP is phosphorylated to ATP.
12. BIBLIOGRAPHY
HARPER’S ILLUSTRATED BIOCHEMISTRY(30TH EDTION)- Victor W.
RODWELL, David A. BENDER, Kathleen M. BOTHAM, Peter J. KENNELLY, P.
Anthony WEIL.
LEHNINGER PRINCIPLES OF BIOCHEMISTRY(5TH EDITION)- David L.
Nelson, Michael M. Cox.