This document compares the pathways of glycolysis and gluconeogenesis. Glycolysis breaks down glucose to pyruvate, producing ATP. Gluconeogenesis is the opposite process that requires energy to convert pyruvate back to glucose. Key differences are that glycolysis produces net ATP while gluconeogenesis requires net ATP hydrolysis. Gluconeogenesis obtains the necessary NADH through lactate dehydrogenase in the cytosol or through malate shuttling between mitochondria and cytosol. The document also lists important enzymes involved in each pathway.
1. Carbohydrates in the diet are broken down and absorbed in the small intestine. Enzymes like amylase break down starches and sugars into glucose, fructose, and galactose which are absorbed into the bloodstream.
2. Glucose and amino acid absorption is an active process that uses sodium-glucose transporters and sodium-potassium ATPase to create a sodium gradient, allowing for absorption against the concentration gradient.
3. Glucose is transported across the intestinal mucosa and enters circulation, after which it is used for energy production, glycogen and fat synthesis, or other metabolic processes in various tissues like liver, muscle and brain.
Examville.com provides online educational resources like practice tests, live classes, tutoring, study guides, and premium content to help students prepare for exams. The document then reviews carbohydrates, including their classification, structures, functions, examples like monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides. It also discusses topics like glycolysis, the citric acid cycle, and the biogenic roles of these metabolic pathways.
1) The document summarizes key steps in glycolysis, beginning with the breakdown of glucose and ending with the production of pyruvate.
2) Glucose is phosphorylated by hexokinase to produce glucose-6-phosphate, then isomerized to fructose-6-phosphate and phosphorylated again to produce fructose-1,6-bisphosphate.
3) Fructose-1,6-bisphosphate is cleaved by aldolase into two trioses - glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate and dihydroxyacetone phosphate - with the release of energy in the form of ATP.
Glycolysis is the first stage of cellular respiration where glucose is broken down. It occurs in the cytosol and involves 10 enzyme-catalyzed reactions that convert glucose into two pyruvate molecules, ATP, and NADH. Glycolysis harvests a small amount of energy by producing two ATP and two NADH but requires an initial investment of two ATP. It is an ancient pathway that was the earliest form of energy transfer from organic molecules to ATP.
Ammonia assimilation and transaminationCharu Sharma
This document discusses ammonia assimilation and transamination in plants. It describes two pathways for ammonia assimilation - the primary pathway involving glutamine synthetase and glutamate synthase, and the alternative pathway using glutamate dehydrogenase. The primary pathway converts ammonia into amino acids using glutamine synthetase to produce glutamine, which is then acted on by glutamate synthase to form two molecules of glutamate. Transamination reactions transfer amino groups between amino acids and alpha-keto acids using transaminases and pyridoxal phosphate as a cofactor. Transamination is important for forming non-essential amino acids and recycling carbon skeletons.
Protégé Education Center provides educational programs and tutoring in various subjects. Their career development program offers tutoring and test preparation for high school and college students. They provide certificates in areas like biology research lab assistant, medical laboratory scientist preparation, and computer science. Protégé also gives tutoring in biochemistry, biology, microbiology, immunology, chemistry, physics and other STEM fields to pre-med and undergraduate students.
BIOSYNTHESIS OF NUCLEOTIDE COENZYMES AND THEIR ROLE IN METABOLISMNaba Kalita
Nucleotide coenzymes are compounds that contain a simple nucleotide moiety and function in association with specific apoenzymes or proteins. Historically, the first nucleotide coenzyme discovered was diphosphopyridine nucleotide or cozymase. Nucleotide coenzymes like NAD+, NADP+, FAD, FMN, CoA, and PAPS play important roles in metabolism as electron carriers and substrates for enzymatic reactions involved in oxidation-reduction, biosynthesis, and other metabolic pathways. Their biosynthesis involves the attachment of nucleotides like AMP to organic molecules through phosphorylation or other reactions.
This document provides information on vitamins, lipids, and fatty acids. It discusses the structures and roles of various fat-soluble and water-soluble vitamins. Key points include that vitamin A is involved in vision, vitamin D aids calcium absorption, vitamin E is antioxidant, and vitamin K is needed for blood clotting. Fatty acids are described by carbon chain length and number of double bonds. Saturated and unsaturated fatty acids like oleic and linoleic acids are outlined. Triacylglycerols are the main form for storing fatty acids and serve as energy reserves.
1. Carbohydrates in the diet are broken down and absorbed in the small intestine. Enzymes like amylase break down starches and sugars into glucose, fructose, and galactose which are absorbed into the bloodstream.
2. Glucose and amino acid absorption is an active process that uses sodium-glucose transporters and sodium-potassium ATPase to create a sodium gradient, allowing for absorption against the concentration gradient.
3. Glucose is transported across the intestinal mucosa and enters circulation, after which it is used for energy production, glycogen and fat synthesis, or other metabolic processes in various tissues like liver, muscle and brain.
Examville.com provides online educational resources like practice tests, live classes, tutoring, study guides, and premium content to help students prepare for exams. The document then reviews carbohydrates, including their classification, structures, functions, examples like monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides. It also discusses topics like glycolysis, the citric acid cycle, and the biogenic roles of these metabolic pathways.
1) The document summarizes key steps in glycolysis, beginning with the breakdown of glucose and ending with the production of pyruvate.
2) Glucose is phosphorylated by hexokinase to produce glucose-6-phosphate, then isomerized to fructose-6-phosphate and phosphorylated again to produce fructose-1,6-bisphosphate.
3) Fructose-1,6-bisphosphate is cleaved by aldolase into two trioses - glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate and dihydroxyacetone phosphate - with the release of energy in the form of ATP.
Glycolysis is the first stage of cellular respiration where glucose is broken down. It occurs in the cytosol and involves 10 enzyme-catalyzed reactions that convert glucose into two pyruvate molecules, ATP, and NADH. Glycolysis harvests a small amount of energy by producing two ATP and two NADH but requires an initial investment of two ATP. It is an ancient pathway that was the earliest form of energy transfer from organic molecules to ATP.
Ammonia assimilation and transaminationCharu Sharma
This document discusses ammonia assimilation and transamination in plants. It describes two pathways for ammonia assimilation - the primary pathway involving glutamine synthetase and glutamate synthase, and the alternative pathway using glutamate dehydrogenase. The primary pathway converts ammonia into amino acids using glutamine synthetase to produce glutamine, which is then acted on by glutamate synthase to form two molecules of glutamate. Transamination reactions transfer amino groups between amino acids and alpha-keto acids using transaminases and pyridoxal phosphate as a cofactor. Transamination is important for forming non-essential amino acids and recycling carbon skeletons.
Protégé Education Center provides educational programs and tutoring in various subjects. Their career development program offers tutoring and test preparation for high school and college students. They provide certificates in areas like biology research lab assistant, medical laboratory scientist preparation, and computer science. Protégé also gives tutoring in biochemistry, biology, microbiology, immunology, chemistry, physics and other STEM fields to pre-med and undergraduate students.
BIOSYNTHESIS OF NUCLEOTIDE COENZYMES AND THEIR ROLE IN METABOLISMNaba Kalita
Nucleotide coenzymes are compounds that contain a simple nucleotide moiety and function in association with specific apoenzymes or proteins. Historically, the first nucleotide coenzyme discovered was diphosphopyridine nucleotide or cozymase. Nucleotide coenzymes like NAD+, NADP+, FAD, FMN, CoA, and PAPS play important roles in metabolism as electron carriers and substrates for enzymatic reactions involved in oxidation-reduction, biosynthesis, and other metabolic pathways. Their biosynthesis involves the attachment of nucleotides like AMP to organic molecules through phosphorylation or other reactions.
This document provides information on vitamins, lipids, and fatty acids. It discusses the structures and roles of various fat-soluble and water-soluble vitamins. Key points include that vitamin A is involved in vision, vitamin D aids calcium absorption, vitamin E is antioxidant, and vitamin K is needed for blood clotting. Fatty acids are described by carbon chain length and number of double bonds. Saturated and unsaturated fatty acids like oleic and linoleic acids are outlined. Triacylglycerols are the main form for storing fatty acids and serve as energy reserves.
This is the glycolysis component of Bioc (chem) 361 at UAE University. Some from Campbell 6th ed and the rest from General, Organic, and Biochemistry, 5th edition (2007), by K.J.Denniston, J.J.Topping, and R.L.Caret.
1. Cellular respiration comprises of glycolysis, the citric acid cycle, and oxidative phosphorylation. Glycolysis breaks down glucose into pyruvate, producing a small amount of ATP.
2. Pyruvate then enters the citric acid cycle in the mitochondria, where it is oxidized and decarboxylated, producing more ATP and electron carriers.
3. The electron carriers establish an electrochemical gradient through the electron transport chain that drives ATP synthesis through oxidative phosphorylation, producing the majority of ATP from glucose breakdown.
This document discusses purine and pyrimidine metabolism. It covers the biosynthesis of purines through 11 steps, degradation of purines to uric acid, medical conditions related to purine metabolism like Lesch-Nyhan and ADA deficiency, the causes and treatment of gout, and drugs used to treat gout like colchicine, probenecid, and allopurinol.
The slide has some brief introduction to nucleotide chemistry, History, General features of nucleotides, Nomenclature, Individual properties of bases, Classification
and Synthetic analogues of biomedical importance.
Assimilation of ammonium ions is the ultimate aim of nitrogen metabolism in plants. this is the source of nitrogen for various organic compounds of structural and functional importance for the living world
Citric acid cycle extensive and for more understanding Stanz Ng
Five coenzymes are required for the oxidative decarboxylation of pyruvate: thiamine pyrophosphate, flavin adenine dinucleotide, coenzyme A, nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide, and lipoate. Vitamins like thiamine, riboflavin, niacin, and pantothenate are components of these coenzymes. The pyruvate dehydrogenase complex converts pyruvate to acetyl-CoA through a multi-step process involving the transfer of acetyl and hydride groups between the coenzymes and enzymes.
The pyruvate dehydrogenase complex (PDC) catalyzes the oxidative decarboxylation of pyruvate to form acetyl-CoA and consists of multiple enzymes and cofactors. Pyruvate dehydrogenase (E1) uses thiamine pyrophosphate to decarboxylate pyruvate. Dihydrolipoyl transacetylase (E2) transfers the acetyl group to coenzyme A with help from lipoic acid. Dihydrolipoyl dehydrogenase (E3) regenerates the oxidized cofactors using NAD+ and FAD, generating NADH to fuel the electron transport chain. PDC is regulated by product inhibition and phosphorylation/dephosphorylation of E1 by
Pyruvate Dehydrogenase and Tricarboxylic Acid Cycle - PDH and TCAChetan Ganteppanavar
1. The document discusses the pyruvate dehydrogenase complex (PDC) which transforms pyruvate into acetyl-CoA, linking glycolysis to the citric acid cycle.
2. PDC is a multienzyme complex located in the mitochondrial matrix consisting of three enzymes and 60 subunits.
3. The citric acid cycle (TCA cycle) is the final common pathway for the oxidation of acetyl-CoA derived from carbohydrates, fatty acids, and amino acids. It operates under aerobic conditions.
Carbohydrates are the sugars, starches and fibers found in fruits, grains, vegetables and milk products. Though often maligned in trendy diets, carbohydrates — one of the basic food groups — are important to a healthy diet.
The pentose phosphate pathway (PPP; also called the phosphogluconate pathway and the hexose monophosphate shunt) is a process that breaks down glucose-6-phosphate into NADPH and pentoses (5-carbon sugars) for use in downstream biological processes. There are two distinct phases in the pathway: the oxidative phase and the non-oxidative phase.
The document summarizes the pentose phosphate pathway (PPP), also known as the phosphogluconate pathway or hexose monophosphate shunt. It has two main functions: providing NADPH and producing pentoses. The PPP occurs mainly in the liver, lactating mammary glands, and other tissues. It has an oxidative and non-oxidative phase and involves enzymes that oxidize glucose-6-phosphate to produce NADPH and pentose phosphates through a series of reactions. Deficiencies in enzymes in this pathway can cause hemolytic anemia, neurological disorders, and other conditions.
The document discusses several alternative pathways for the utilization and metabolism of hexose sugars besides the main Embden-Meyerhof-Parnas pathway. It describes three main alternative pathways: the fructose bisphosphate aldolase pathway, the Entner-Doudoroff pathway, and the phosphoketolase pathway. Each pathway is found in different types of bacteria and has distinguishing reactions and end products.
These are major source of energy for living organisms.
Supplying a huge array of metabolic intermediates for biosynthetic reactions.
The structural elements in cell coat or connective tissues.
The document provides a detailed review and overview of carbohydrates, including their classification, structures, functions, examples of specific carbohydrates like monosaccharides and disaccharides, glycogen, starch, cellulose, acidic polysaccharides, glycolysis, the citric acid cycle, and notes on key aspects.
The document discusses two shuttles - the malate-aspartate shuttle and glycerol-phosphate shuttle - that balance redox potential between the cytosol and mitochondria during gluconeogenesis. The malate-aspartate shuttle transports metabolites and NADH between compartments, while the glycerol-phosphate shuttle transports only NADH. Both shuttles are required to balance redox states and transport metabolites lacking dedicated transporters between subcellular locations during gluconeogenesis.
The hexose monophosphate (HMP) shunt is an alternative pathway to glycolysis for oxidizing glucose. Unlike glycolysis, it has selective tissue distribution and produces reducing equivalents like NADPH and pentose phosphates that are used for anabolic reactions rather than ATP. NADPH produced is used for biosynthesis of fatty acids, cholesterol, and other compounds. Ribose-5-phosphate produced is used for nucleotide and nucleic acid synthesis. The HMP shunt provides reducing power and pentose phosphates essential for biosynthesis in various tissues.
Metabolism of Glutamate ,Aspartate ,Glutamine &Asparaginerohini sane
A lucid presentation on Metabolism of Glutamate , Glutamine ,Aspartate & Asparagine for MBBS, BDS , B. Pharm & Biotechnology students to facilitate self-study.
The document discusses the tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle, also known as the Krebs cycle or citric acid cycle. It provides three key points:
1. The TCA cycle involves the oxidation of acetyl-CoA to carbon dioxide and water and is the final common pathway for carbohydrates, fats, and amino acids.
2. The cycle generates energy in the form of ATP, NADH, and FADH2 and provides precursors for biosynthesis.
3. The cycle occurs in the mitochondrial matrix and is tightly regulated by enzymes and cellular energy levels to integrate major metabolic pathways.
Glycolysis is a ten step pathway that converts glucose into pyruvate, generating ATP and NADH. It occurs in the cytosol of cells and consists of two phases: the first phase converts glucose to two molecules of glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate (G3P) and the second phase converts G3P to two pyruvates while producing ATP and NADH. Glycolysis generates two ATP per glucose during substrate-level phosphorylation. In aerobic conditions, pyruvate enters the citric acid cycle and NADH is oxidized through oxidative phosphorylation to generate additional ATP. In anaerobic conditions, NADH is regenerated by converting pyruvate to lactate through fermentation
The document discusses the pentose phosphate pathway and the roles of NADH and NADPH in catabolic and anabolic reactions. NADH provides energy for catabolic reactions while NADPH provides energy for anabolic reactions. The phosphate group on NADPH allows enzymes to discriminate between NADH and NADPH, regulating them independently. NADPH is mainly used in anabolic reactions as a reducing agent, while NADH is mainly used in catabolic reactions as an oxidizing agent. The document also defines intermediary metabolism as the intracellular process by which nutrients are converted into cellular components through consecutive enzymatic reactions in metabolic pathways.
Hans Adolf Krebs was a German-British biochemist who discovered the citric acid cycle (also known as the Krebs cycle) in 1937 while working in Britain. The Krebs cycle is a series of chemical reactions that is critical for cell metabolism and the production of energy in cells. It involves the oxidation of acetyl-CoA derived from carbohydrates, fats, and proteins to produce carbon dioxide, water, and energy in the form of ATP. Krebs' discovery of this cycle was pivotal to understanding how cells generate energy and earned him the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine.
This is the glycolysis component of Bioc (chem) 361 at UAE University. Some from Campbell 6th ed and the rest from General, Organic, and Biochemistry, 5th edition (2007), by K.J.Denniston, J.J.Topping, and R.L.Caret.
1. Cellular respiration comprises of glycolysis, the citric acid cycle, and oxidative phosphorylation. Glycolysis breaks down glucose into pyruvate, producing a small amount of ATP.
2. Pyruvate then enters the citric acid cycle in the mitochondria, where it is oxidized and decarboxylated, producing more ATP and electron carriers.
3. The electron carriers establish an electrochemical gradient through the electron transport chain that drives ATP synthesis through oxidative phosphorylation, producing the majority of ATP from glucose breakdown.
This document discusses purine and pyrimidine metabolism. It covers the biosynthesis of purines through 11 steps, degradation of purines to uric acid, medical conditions related to purine metabolism like Lesch-Nyhan and ADA deficiency, the causes and treatment of gout, and drugs used to treat gout like colchicine, probenecid, and allopurinol.
The slide has some brief introduction to nucleotide chemistry, History, General features of nucleotides, Nomenclature, Individual properties of bases, Classification
and Synthetic analogues of biomedical importance.
Assimilation of ammonium ions is the ultimate aim of nitrogen metabolism in plants. this is the source of nitrogen for various organic compounds of structural and functional importance for the living world
Citric acid cycle extensive and for more understanding Stanz Ng
Five coenzymes are required for the oxidative decarboxylation of pyruvate: thiamine pyrophosphate, flavin adenine dinucleotide, coenzyme A, nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide, and lipoate. Vitamins like thiamine, riboflavin, niacin, and pantothenate are components of these coenzymes. The pyruvate dehydrogenase complex converts pyruvate to acetyl-CoA through a multi-step process involving the transfer of acetyl and hydride groups between the coenzymes and enzymes.
The pyruvate dehydrogenase complex (PDC) catalyzes the oxidative decarboxylation of pyruvate to form acetyl-CoA and consists of multiple enzymes and cofactors. Pyruvate dehydrogenase (E1) uses thiamine pyrophosphate to decarboxylate pyruvate. Dihydrolipoyl transacetylase (E2) transfers the acetyl group to coenzyme A with help from lipoic acid. Dihydrolipoyl dehydrogenase (E3) regenerates the oxidized cofactors using NAD+ and FAD, generating NADH to fuel the electron transport chain. PDC is regulated by product inhibition and phosphorylation/dephosphorylation of E1 by
Pyruvate Dehydrogenase and Tricarboxylic Acid Cycle - PDH and TCAChetan Ganteppanavar
1. The document discusses the pyruvate dehydrogenase complex (PDC) which transforms pyruvate into acetyl-CoA, linking glycolysis to the citric acid cycle.
2. PDC is a multienzyme complex located in the mitochondrial matrix consisting of three enzymes and 60 subunits.
3. The citric acid cycle (TCA cycle) is the final common pathway for the oxidation of acetyl-CoA derived from carbohydrates, fatty acids, and amino acids. It operates under aerobic conditions.
Carbohydrates are the sugars, starches and fibers found in fruits, grains, vegetables and milk products. Though often maligned in trendy diets, carbohydrates — one of the basic food groups — are important to a healthy diet.
The pentose phosphate pathway (PPP; also called the phosphogluconate pathway and the hexose monophosphate shunt) is a process that breaks down glucose-6-phosphate into NADPH and pentoses (5-carbon sugars) for use in downstream biological processes. There are two distinct phases in the pathway: the oxidative phase and the non-oxidative phase.
The document summarizes the pentose phosphate pathway (PPP), also known as the phosphogluconate pathway or hexose monophosphate shunt. It has two main functions: providing NADPH and producing pentoses. The PPP occurs mainly in the liver, lactating mammary glands, and other tissues. It has an oxidative and non-oxidative phase and involves enzymes that oxidize glucose-6-phosphate to produce NADPH and pentose phosphates through a series of reactions. Deficiencies in enzymes in this pathway can cause hemolytic anemia, neurological disorders, and other conditions.
The document discusses several alternative pathways for the utilization and metabolism of hexose sugars besides the main Embden-Meyerhof-Parnas pathway. It describes three main alternative pathways: the fructose bisphosphate aldolase pathway, the Entner-Doudoroff pathway, and the phosphoketolase pathway. Each pathway is found in different types of bacteria and has distinguishing reactions and end products.
These are major source of energy for living organisms.
Supplying a huge array of metabolic intermediates for biosynthetic reactions.
The structural elements in cell coat or connective tissues.
The document provides a detailed review and overview of carbohydrates, including their classification, structures, functions, examples of specific carbohydrates like monosaccharides and disaccharides, glycogen, starch, cellulose, acidic polysaccharides, glycolysis, the citric acid cycle, and notes on key aspects.
The document discusses two shuttles - the malate-aspartate shuttle and glycerol-phosphate shuttle - that balance redox potential between the cytosol and mitochondria during gluconeogenesis. The malate-aspartate shuttle transports metabolites and NADH between compartments, while the glycerol-phosphate shuttle transports only NADH. Both shuttles are required to balance redox states and transport metabolites lacking dedicated transporters between subcellular locations during gluconeogenesis.
The hexose monophosphate (HMP) shunt is an alternative pathway to glycolysis for oxidizing glucose. Unlike glycolysis, it has selective tissue distribution and produces reducing equivalents like NADPH and pentose phosphates that are used for anabolic reactions rather than ATP. NADPH produced is used for biosynthesis of fatty acids, cholesterol, and other compounds. Ribose-5-phosphate produced is used for nucleotide and nucleic acid synthesis. The HMP shunt provides reducing power and pentose phosphates essential for biosynthesis in various tissues.
Metabolism of Glutamate ,Aspartate ,Glutamine &Asparaginerohini sane
A lucid presentation on Metabolism of Glutamate , Glutamine ,Aspartate & Asparagine for MBBS, BDS , B. Pharm & Biotechnology students to facilitate self-study.
The document discusses the tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle, also known as the Krebs cycle or citric acid cycle. It provides three key points:
1. The TCA cycle involves the oxidation of acetyl-CoA to carbon dioxide and water and is the final common pathway for carbohydrates, fats, and amino acids.
2. The cycle generates energy in the form of ATP, NADH, and FADH2 and provides precursors for biosynthesis.
3. The cycle occurs in the mitochondrial matrix and is tightly regulated by enzymes and cellular energy levels to integrate major metabolic pathways.
Glycolysis is a ten step pathway that converts glucose into pyruvate, generating ATP and NADH. It occurs in the cytosol of cells and consists of two phases: the first phase converts glucose to two molecules of glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate (G3P) and the second phase converts G3P to two pyruvates while producing ATP and NADH. Glycolysis generates two ATP per glucose during substrate-level phosphorylation. In aerobic conditions, pyruvate enters the citric acid cycle and NADH is oxidized through oxidative phosphorylation to generate additional ATP. In anaerobic conditions, NADH is regenerated by converting pyruvate to lactate through fermentation
The document discusses the pentose phosphate pathway and the roles of NADH and NADPH in catabolic and anabolic reactions. NADH provides energy for catabolic reactions while NADPH provides energy for anabolic reactions. The phosphate group on NADPH allows enzymes to discriminate between NADH and NADPH, regulating them independently. NADPH is mainly used in anabolic reactions as a reducing agent, while NADH is mainly used in catabolic reactions as an oxidizing agent. The document also defines intermediary metabolism as the intracellular process by which nutrients are converted into cellular components through consecutive enzymatic reactions in metabolic pathways.
Hans Adolf Krebs was a German-British biochemist who discovered the citric acid cycle (also known as the Krebs cycle) in 1937 while working in Britain. The Krebs cycle is a series of chemical reactions that is critical for cell metabolism and the production of energy in cells. It involves the oxidation of acetyl-CoA derived from carbohydrates, fats, and proteins to produce carbon dioxide, water, and energy in the form of ATP. Krebs' discovery of this cycle was pivotal to understanding how cells generate energy and earned him the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine.
The citric acid cycle, also known as the Krebs cycle or TCA cycle, is the final pathway for the metabolism of carbohydrates, proteins and fats. It occurs in the mitochondria and plays a central role in energy production, gluconeogenesis, lipogenesis, and amino acid conversion. Defects in the enzymes of the TCA cycle have been linked to severe neurological diseases due to impaired ATP production. The cycle generates ATP, NADH, FADH2, and GTP through a series of 8 reactions that oxidize acetyl-CoA derived from carbohydrates, fats, and proteins.
The document discusses the citric acid (TCA) cycle, which occurs in the mitochondria and involves 8 steps to completely oxidize acetyl-CoA derived from carbohydrates, fats, and proteins, producing carbon dioxide and reducing equivalents in the form of NADH and FADH2. These reducing equivalents are used to generate ATP through oxidative phosphorylation. The TCA cycle also serves as a hub to integrate various metabolic pathways and provides precursors for many biosynthetic processes. Regulation of the cycle occurs through feedback inhibition by products of high energy states like ATP and NADH.
Glycogenesis is the formation of glycogen from glucose, which occurs when glucose and ATP levels are high. Glycogenolysis is the breakdown of glycogen into glucose, which is stimulated by glucagon and epinephrine when blood glucose levels drop. Together, glycogenesis and glycogenolysis regulate glucose concentrations by converting excess glucose to glycogen for storage and releasing glucose from glycogen as needed.
Gluconeogenesis is the process by which glucose is synthesized from non-carbohydrate precursors in the liver and kidneys. It occurs mainly during periods of fasting and involves converting substrates like lactate, glycerol, and certain amino acids into glucose. The pathway overcomes three thermodynamic barriers of glycolysis through smaller successive steps. Regulation occurs through allosteric control of enzymes, hormonal control of fructose 2,6-bisphosphate levels, and transcriptional control of key genes like PEPCK and FOXO1. Together these mechanisms help direct carbon fluxes towards gluconeogenesis or glycolysis based on energy demands.
Glycogenolysis is the breakdown of glycogen into glucose-1-phosphate. It occurs in three steps:
1) Phosphorolysis by glycogen phosphorylase cleaves α-1,4 glycosidic linkages, producing glucose-1-phosphate until four glucose residues remain.
2) A debranching enzyme removes these four residue branches through two activities, producing linear chains of glucose residues.
3) Phosphoglucomutase converts glucose-1-phosphate to glucose-6-phosphate, which can then enter glycolysis to produce energy or be released as free glucose from the liver. Glycogenolysis is regulated by allosteric effectors, hormones like glucagon and
Complete Set of Metabolism of Carbohydrate in that second chapter, glycolysis.
This presentation covers complete glycolysis pathway with step wise animated reactions and it includes clinical aspects also. This presentation is good for MBBS students.
The document summarizes the process of glycolysis. It discusses how glycolysis involves 10 steps divided into 3 stages. The first stage converts glucose to fructose 1,6-bisphosphate. The second stage cleaves this molecule into two 3-carbon fragments. The third stage oxidizes these fragments to pyruvate, producing ATP through substrate-level phosphorylation. Key intermediates like glucose-6-phosphate and 1,3-bisphosphoglycerate have properties that allow harvesting of energy to produce ATP. The document also notes how glycolysis traps glucose within cells and provides building blocks for biosynthesis.
GLYCOGENOLYSIS & REGULATION OF GLYCOGEN METABOLISMYESANNA
- Glycogenolysis is the degradation of glycogen stores in the liver and muscle into glucose. It is carried out by independent cytosolic enzymes.
- Glycogen phosphorylase breaks alpha-1,4 glycosidic bonds in glycogen, producing glucose-1-phosphate. A debranching enzyme then breaks alpha-1,6 bonds to fully degrade glycogen.
- Glucose-1-phosphate is converted to glucose-6-phosphate which can be further converted to glucose by glucose-6-phosphatase in the liver, releasing it into circulation. Muscle lacks this enzyme and uses its glucose-6-phosphate in glycolysis.
- Glycogen metabolism is regulated by hormones like
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Glycogen is a branched polymer of glucose residues that serves as a storage form of glucose. It is composed mainly of α-1,4 glycosidic linkages with branches every tenth residue by α-1,6 linkages. Glycogen is found primarily in liver and muscle cells bound in granules and provides a readily available source of glucose through breakdown. Glycogen synthesis utilizes UDP-glucose and glycogenin to initiate polymer formation, while breakdown is catalyzed by phosphorylase releasing glucose-1-phosphate and other enzymes are needed to further process the glucose for energy production.
Exploiting Artificial Intelligence for Empowering Researchers and Faculty, In...Dr. Vinod Kumar Kanvaria
Exploiting Artificial Intelligence for Empowering Researchers and Faculty,
International FDP on Fundamentals of Research in Social Sciences
at Integral University, Lucknow, 06.06.2024
By Dr. Vinod Kumar Kanvaria
How to Setup Warehouse & Location in Odoo 17 InventoryCeline George
In this slide, we'll explore how to set up warehouses and locations in Odoo 17 Inventory. This will help us manage our stock effectively, track inventory levels, and streamline warehouse operations.
How to Build a Module in Odoo 17 Using the Scaffold MethodCeline George
Odoo provides an option for creating a module by using a single line command. By using this command the user can make a whole structure of a module. It is very easy for a beginner to make a module. There is no need to make each file manually. This slide will show how to create a module using the scaffold method.
Strategies for Effective Upskilling is a presentation by Chinwendu Peace in a Your Skill Boost Masterclass organisation by the Excellence Foundation for South Sudan on 08th and 09th June 2024 from 1 PM to 3 PM on each day.
A workshop hosted by the South African Journal of Science aimed at postgraduate students and early career researchers with little or no experience in writing and publishing journal articles.
This slide is special for master students (MIBS & MIFB) in UUM. Also useful for readers who are interested in the topic of contemporary Islamic banking.
The simplified electron and muon model, Oscillating Spacetime: The Foundation...RitikBhardwaj56
Discover the Simplified Electron and Muon Model: A New Wave-Based Approach to Understanding Particles delves into a groundbreaking theory that presents electrons and muons as rotating soliton waves within oscillating spacetime. Geared towards students, researchers, and science buffs, this book breaks down complex ideas into simple explanations. It covers topics such as electron waves, temporal dynamics, and the implications of this model on particle physics. With clear illustrations and easy-to-follow explanations, readers will gain a new outlook on the universe's fundamental nature.
This presentation was provided by Steph Pollock of The American Psychological Association’s Journals Program, and Damita Snow, of The American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE), for the initial session of NISO's 2024 Training Series "DEIA in the Scholarly Landscape." Session One: 'Setting Expectations: a DEIA Primer,' was held June 6, 2024.
How to Make a Field Mandatory in Odoo 17Celine George
In Odoo, making a field required can be done through both Python code and XML views. When you set the required attribute to True in Python code, it makes the field required across all views where it's used. Conversely, when you set the required attribute in XML views, it makes the field required only in the context of that particular view.
বাংলাদেশের অর্থনৈতিক সমীক্ষা ২০২৪ [Bangladesh Economic Review 2024 Bangla.pdf] কম্পিউটার , ট্যাব ও স্মার্ট ফোন ভার্সন সহ সম্পূর্ণ বাংলা ই-বুক বা pdf বই " সুচিপত্র ...বুকমার্ক মেনু 🔖 ও হাইপার লিংক মেনু 📝👆 যুক্ত ..
আমাদের সবার জন্য খুব খুব গুরুত্বপূর্ণ একটি বই ..বিসিএস, ব্যাংক, ইউনিভার্সিটি ভর্তি ও যে কোন প্রতিযোগিতা মূলক পরীক্ষার জন্য এর খুব ইম্পরট্যান্ট একটি বিষয় ...তাছাড়া বাংলাদেশের সাম্প্রতিক যে কোন ডাটা বা তথ্য এই বইতে পাবেন ...
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How to Add Chatter in the odoo 17 ERP ModuleCeline George
In Odoo, the chatter is like a chat tool that helps you work together on records. You can leave notes and track things, making it easier to talk with your team and partners. Inside chatter, all communication history, activity, and changes will be displayed.
1. GLUCONEOGENESIS & GLYCOLYSIS
High Blood Glucose
INSULIN
REACTANTS PRODUCTS REACTANTS PRODUCTS
Glucose GLUCOSE LIVER GLUCOSE Glucose
Pi Endoplasmic ATP
3.1.3.9 Reticulum 2.7.1.1
H2 O
Glucose-6-P Glucose-6-P ADP
GLUCAGON 5.3.1.9 5.3.1.9
Fructose-6-P Fructose-6-P
Low Blood Glucose
Pi ATP
3.1.3.11 2.7.1.11
H2 O ADP
Fructose-1,6-bis-P Fructose-1,6-bis-P
3P-Glyce G
E ROL rol
L
YC 4.1.2.13 4.1.2.13 SCLE
GL U MU
Di-OH-acetone-P G Di-OH-acetone-P
C (Glycerone-P)
5.3.1.1 (Glycerone-P) O L
Y GLUCOSE
N C
2Pi 3-P-Glyceraldehyde E 3-P-Glyceraldehyde
2 NAD+ O 2 NAD+
1.2.1.12 O L 1.2.1.12 2 Pi
2NADH+2H+ G 2NADH+2H+
2x 1,3-bis-P-Glycerate Y
2 ADP
E S 2x 1,3-bis-P-Glycerate 2 ADP
2.7.2.3 N I 2.7.2.3
2 ATP E S 2 ATP
2x 3-P-Glycerate S 2x 3-P-Glycerate
I
5.4.2.1 S 5.4.2.1
2x 2-P-Glycerate 2x 2-P-Glycerate
4.2.1.11 4.2.1.11 2H2O
2H2O
2CO2 2x P-enolpyruvate 2x P-Enolpyruvate PYRUVATE
2 ADP
2 GDP
2.7.1.40
NADH+H+
4.1.1.32 2 ATP
2 GTP
2x Oxaloacetate 2x PYRUVATE 1.1.1.27
Glutamate 2NADH+2H+
2NADH+2H+ 2.6.1.21
1.1.1.27
1.1.1.37 2-Oxoglutarate
2 NAD+ NAD+
2 Aspartate 2 PEP LACTATE
2x Malate 2x LACTATE
2 Aspartate 2 PEP 2x PYRUVATE
2x Malate
Mitochondrial Outer Membrane
Mitochondrial Inner Membrane
2-Oxoglutarate 2 CO2
2NAD+ ACETYL-CoA
Cytoplasmic Membrane
2GDP
Mitochondrial Matrix
2.6.1.21
1.1.1.37 4.1.1.32
Glutamate
2NADH+2H+ 2GTP Citrate
Low Blood Glucose
Cytosol
Amino acid Oxaloacetate
2 ADP 2x Oxaloacetate 2x Oxaloacetate Malate
2 ATP 2 Pi Succinyl-CoA
2H2O
** 6.4.1.1
** ** 6.4.1.1 **
2CO2
ATP
2 PYRUVATE 2x PYRUVATE 2x Succinyl-CoA 2x PYRUVATE
2x PYRUVATE 2x Succinyl-CoA 2x PYRUVATE
Glutamate
5.4.99.2
2.6.1.21
2-Oxoglutarate 2 (S)-Methyl-
malonyl-CoA GL
2NADH+2H+ UC
5.1.99.1 1.1.1.27 AG
2NAD+ ON
2 (R)-Methyl-
malonyl-CoA ATP+CO2
VALINE 6.4.1.3 2x LACTATE
ADP+Pi CO
ISOLEUCINE RI C Y CLE
2x ALANINE METHIONINE 2x PROPIONYL-CoA
Low Blood Glucose
+ +
GLYCOLYSIS Glucose + 2ADP + 2Pi + 2NAD 2 Pyruvate + 2ATP + 2NADH + 2H + 2H2O
+
GLUCONEOGENESIS 2 Pyruvate + 4ATP + 2GTP + 2NADH + 2H++ 6H2O Glucose + 4ADP + 2GDP + 6Pi + 2NAD
Comparison of the two equations shows that:
OXIDATION of 1 GLUCOSE to 2 PYRUVATE produces 2ATP whereas REDUCTION of 2 PYRUVATE to 1 GLUCOSE requires 4ATP + 2GTP
To make GLUCONEOGENESIS thermodynamically possible requires the hydrolysis of the equivalent of 6ATP
Gluconeogenesis needs NADH for the reduction of 1,3-bis-P-glycerate to triose-P. For most precursors this is formed in the mitochondria and
transported across the mitochondrial membrane via malate. Lactate is unique in that lactate dehydrogenase only occurs in the cytosol so that
NADH is directly available in the cytosol for gluconeogenesis. However, the resulting pyruvate can only be converted into oxaloacetate within
mitochondria since this is the only site of pyruvate carboxylase. The oxaloacetate so formed can then be transported into the cytosol by direct
carboxylation to PEP or by transamination to aspartate in the mitochondria and then reverse transamination to oxaloacetate in the cytosol
ENZYMES
1.1.1.27 Lactate dehydrogenase (only in cytosol) 2.7.1.40 Pyruvate kinase 5.1.99.1 Methylmalonyl-CoA epimerase
1.1.1.37 Malate dehydrogenase 2.7.2.3 Phosphoglycerate kinase 5.3.1.1 Triosephosphate isomerase
1.2.1.12 Glyceraldehyde-3-P dehydrogenase 3.1.3.9 Glucose-6-phosphatase 5.4.2.1 Phosphoglycerate mutase
2.7.1.1 Hexokinase 3.1.3.11 Fructose-bisphosphatase
2.7.1.30 Glycerolkinase 5.4.99.2 Methylmalonyl-Co mutase
4.1.1.32 Phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase
2.7.1.11 6-Phosphofructokinase 4.1.2.13 Fructose-bisphosphatealdolase 6.2.1.17 Propionate-CoA ligase
Liver Hexokinase is Hexokinase D (or IV)
(Often called Glucokinase)
4.2.1.11 Phosphopyruvate hydratase
6.4.1.1
6.4.1.3 ** Pyruvate carboxylase (only in matrix)
Propionyl-CoA carboxylase