This document provides an overview of cyber ethics, including: - Defining cyber ethics as the study of the impact of computer technology on ethics and the design of policies for its ethical use. - Describing the evolution of cyber ethics in four phases from the 1950s to the present. - Explaining that cyber technology has unique ethical aspects due to its logical malleability and the unintentional power embedded in its design. - Outlining three perspectives that cyber ethics can be viewed from: as a field of professional ethics, philosophical ethics, or descriptive ethics. - Highlighting some key ethical issues in cyber technology like privacy, accuracy, intellectual property, and access. - Providing a strategy

1. Sample Essay Paper on Cyber Ethics
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Introduction
The global technological advancements in the past few decades have been exponentially
huge. From the inception of the abacus, the first real attempts computing technology, to the
current artificial intelligence age, computing systems have undergone massive changes.
The notion that artificial intelligence could one day surpass human intelligence only serves
to reinforce the earlier position that the technological gains so far are marvelous. Although
these gains have tremendously aided in simplifying tasks, networking individuals and
spearheading the efforts towards making the universe a global village numerous ethical
implications have followed up. Ethics in this case are the principles that define the
standards of moral conduct in society. When these ethics are viewed from the technology
point of view they are term as cyber or computer ethics. This paper partakes to highlight
cyber ethics by shedding light on some other key terminologies associated, describing its
evolutionary phases from its humble beginnings to the present complex systems. The
paper also briefly looks at the unique features of cyber ethics and the different perspectives
in which it is studied.
Definition
A large number of scholars and authors have employed the phrase “computer ethics” to
refer to the discipline that deals with moral issues associated with computing and
information technology. With increasing concerns on the ethical issues surrounding the use
of the internet, other scholars have resorted to using the phrase “Internet ethics.” Ethical
issues implied in this article, however, not only focus the internet and computers but also
on private computer networks and associated communication technologies (Tavani). In this
regard the phrase “cyber ethics” is adopted in this article as it is deemed more accurate
compared to the aforementioned two for two reasons;First, the phrase “computer ethics”
implies ethical considerations of computers and could only focus on stand-alone computers
on non-networked systems. However, computing and communication technologies have
merged in recent years and thus computer systems can no longer be viewed only as
machines.Secondly, the phrase “computer ethics” may also be used to exclusively point to
ethical concerns of computer professionals which might not be the case.
Cyber ethics therefore may be defined as the study of the nature and impact of computer
technology on social morals and ethics and the corresponding design and rationalization of
policies for the ethical use of such technology (Moor). To have a good grasp of what is
implied by cyber ethics, it is important to have a look at what is referred to as cyber
technology.
Cyber technology
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2. Cyber technology is an encompassing term that is used to denote a wide range of
communication peripherals ranging from stand-alone computers to networked computing
and communication systems. Some of the technologies implied include, but not limited to
hand-held devices, personal computers and mainframe computers. These devices can be
inter-linked through direct connection to the internet or through Local Area Networks
(LANs) and Wide area networks (WANs). LAN refers to a private networked owned by an
individual or organization that covers a limited geographic area like an office building or
school. A WAN on the other hand refers to an interconnection of LANs spanning a broader
geographic coverage (Tavani).
The evolution of cyber ethics
The inception of cyberethics can be traced back to the late 1940s when it was suggested
by a group of analysts suggested that there be no need to ever build more than six
computers (Tavani). Although the field is still relatively young, it has caught the attention of
book and journal writers. This evolution can be effectively summed up in four phases.
Phase I (1950s through 1960s)
The technological devices of this era mainly consisted of huge stand-alone mainframe
computers that were not networked. During this phase one of the major ethical concerns
focused on the impact of computers as giant brains. Most of the questions during this era
can be associated to today’s artificial intelligence. Some of the questions raised include; do
machines have thinking capacities? Should thinking machines be invented? If machines
could possess intelligence, what are the implications on humans?
The second set of ethical and social concerns arising in this period dealt with privacy
issues. For instance, it was feared that with increasing popularity of computing technology,
the federal government would collect and store large figures of personalized citizen
information of its citizens in a centralized database. This data would then be used in
monitoring and controlling the actions of individual citizens. It was during this phase that
pioneer works towards computer networks were formalized by works on ARPANET which
is considered the mother of the internet.
Phase II (1970s through 1980s)
During this period, the convergence of computers and computing devices lead to the
development of computer networks. Stand-alone computers could then be networked
through one or more private networks such as Local Area Networks (LANs) and Wide Area
Networks (WANs). This simplified the sharing and exchange of information between
computers. The arising ethical issues of the period centered on personal privacy,
intellectual property and computer crime. The ease of exchanging electronic records of
personal and confidential information between networked databases raised fears on privacy
issues. A second ethical concern was on intellectual property due to the ability of personal
computers being used to duplicate proprietary software programs. Computer crime was
also an issue as individuals were now able to access organizational computer systems
through personal computing devices and disrupt them.
Phase III (1990 to present)
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3. This is often termed as the internet era following the exponential growth of the internet and
increased access by the general public. This was spearheaded by the remarkable growth
of the World Wide Web and this has contributed to further ethical issues pertaining
computing technology. The hot ethical concerns of this era pertain; issues of free speech,
anonymity, jurisdiction and trust.
Phase IV
This is the present era of cyberethics that is associated with an unprecedented level of
convergence of technologies. In this era, computers are becoming more and more a part of
human beings. For instance, the convergence of cyber technology with biotechnology and
the developments in genome research could raise many ethical concerns. The advent of
electronic agents with artificial intelligence capable of making decisions and the recent
introduction of biochip implant technology points to an era where computers will soon be
part of humans and the social and ethical implications of such developments could be
massive.
The special nature of cyber ethics
It is indisputable to claim that the embracement of cyber technology has impacted
profoundly on societal moral, legal and socials systems. It is also argued that cyber
technology has brought up new and unique moral hitches
Logic malleability
James Moor points out that the fact that computers are logically malleable makes them
revolutionary and are thus accompanied by unique ethical issues. Logic malleability implies
that cyber technology can be shaped and molded to do any activity that can be
characterized in terms of inputs, outputs, and connecting logical operations. Non-computer
technologies are typically programmed to undertake specific functions or tasks and as such
lack the universal properties that of performing a variety of tasks that follow computing
technologies. For instance if we consider microwaves and videocassettes, both are
technological tools that performing specific function; cooking or warming food and viewing
videotapes respectively. They cannot be used interchangeably unlike computers which can
be programmed to perform a variety of tasks such as word processing as well as sending
and receiving emails over the internet.
Due its logical malleability, cyber technology has the potential of breeding new possibilities
for human action which could be without limits(Moor). These new possibilities according to
Moor can create what he terms as “policy vacuums,” to refer to the lack of explicit polies or
laws that govern the new actions generated by cyber technology. Due to the potential
creation of policy vacuums, it is important to give cyber ethics special consideration since
as results from cyber technology which is significantly different from other technologies.
Following this argument which resonates with Moor’s point of view, an independent field of
applied ethics that tackles ethical considerations of cyber technology is needed.
Unintentional power in design
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4. A second factor that contributes to the unique nature of cyber ethics is the unintentional
power vested in the design of cyber technology. In the design of software by software
engineers, intentional and unintentional decisions are made (Huff). Intentional decisions
are aimed at making the product work faster, easy to maintain and possess increased
capability. Some decisions are, however, unintentional such as the product being difficult to
maintain and harming the users. The problem of unintentional power is that the designers
are usually far removed from effects that would result from the use of the technology. The
unintentional power in the design of cyber technology makes it difficult to institute policies
regarding the use of the technology and once again a policy vacuum occurs. The use of
software for purposes other than the intended could bring about ethical concerns that are
unprecedented and as such making cyber ethics a unique field of applied ethics.
Cyber ethics as a branch of applied ethics
Cyber ethics can be viewed as a branch applied ethics that examines practical ethical
issues rather than theoretical ethics. Scholars and researchers in the field of cyber ethics
have focused on one of three distinct perspectives, professional ethics, philosophical ethics
and descriptive ethics
Cyber ethics as a field of professional ethics
According to the proponents of this school of thought, the field involves analyzing issues of
ethical responsibility for computer professionals. Issues considered from this perspective
range from professional’s part in design, developing and maintenance of computer
hardware and software systems. Proponents of this perspective allude to other professional
fields like law and medicine. They argue that just the principles of analysis, medical and
legal ethics should as well be applied to cyber ethics (Gotterbam). Therefore this
perspective is of the view that cyber ethics should exclusively focus on the moral
responsibility that touch computer professionals and not on the wider moral and social
impacts of that technology.
Cyber ethics as a field of philosophical ethics
The philosophical aspect of cyber ethics focuses on social polies and personal character
that affect almost everyone in society. These include ethical and moral issues to do with
privacy, security, property and free speech, these are issues with potential to affect anyone
including people who have no access to computers.
Methodology used by philosophic ethics
The method that is employed by philosophers to undertake research in applied ethics
consists of three discrete stages.
1. Identification of a given controversial action as being related to morals and ethics
2. Description and follow up analysis of the problem. This involves clarifying concepts
and inspecting the realistic statistics that accompany the issue at hand
3. Application of moral theories and principles in a deliberative criteria in an attempt to
attain a stand concerning the given moral predicament.
Cyber ethics as a field descriptive ethics
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5. Descriptive ethics is a branch of study that describes features of a chosen moral system
and reports the way members of different cultural organization look at the chosen moral
aspect. From this point of view, cyber ethics is viewed in terms of the sociological aspects
of a given moral value. This may include analyzing the social effects of a given technology
on a given community. For instance, analysis of morals issues pertaining the “digital divide”
will involve initially describing the issue in terms of its impact on socio-demographic groups
such as social class, race and gender.
Advantages of using descriptive ethics in cyber ethics.
It is believed that initial focus on the descriptive aspects of a problem could aid one to
effectively comprehend some normative features and implications. Some scholars believe
that understanding the social impacts of technology from a descriptive perspective
simplifies and clarifies the normative ethical questions.
Descriptive analysis of cyber technology impacts is important in informing analysts in two
ways;
1. Descriptive approach to a question effectively prepares the researcher for
succeeding analysis of the practical ethical issues impacting a systems policies and
laws.
2. Descriptive approach is important to professionals in designing systems that are
devoid of social and ethical struggles of previous versions.
The table below shows a summary of cyber ethics perspectives
Type of
perspective
Associated
disciplines
Issues examined
Professional Computer science
Engineering
Library/information
science
Professional responsibility
System reliability and safety
Codes of conduct
Philosophical Philosophy
Law
Privacy and anonymity
Intellectual property
Free speech
Descriptive Sociology
Behavioral
sciences
Impact of cyber technology on government/ financial/ educational
institutions and sociodemographic groups
Table adopted from (Tavani).
Are cyber ethics neutral?
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6. It is argued that cyber technology is not neutral as it possess certain in-built values and
biases that usually are not open thus difficult to detect. Corlann Gee Bush argues this
concept in line with the guns metaphor, “guns don’t kill people, people kill people.” This
metaphor is used to suggest that guns without human intervention cannot harm people. It is
argued that cyber technology just like other technologies have entrenched values and
biases. The mere presence of computing technology does not harm others, however it
polarizes the environment and influences action by human and hence cyber technology is
not inherently neutral. This argument is in agreement with Deborah Johnson’s stand that
computers are moral entities but not moral agents. She argues that computer systems lack
mental states and even if they were constructed to possess this aspect, they lack the
intention to act that could arise from their own freedom.
Ethical issues of cyber
There are numerous ethical issues that are associated wit cyber technology, this article will
however shed light on only four of these issues.
Privacy
Privacy regards the type of information about oneself that an individual is required to
disclose to others, the conditions for disclosure and the information that one is not
supposed to disclose. There are two major forces that threaten an individual or
organizational privacy. The advancements in cyber technology and increased capacity for
surveillance, computation, storage and retrieval is the first. The second threat to privacy is
the value attached to information in decision making. Information has become more
valuable decision and policy makers and will do everything to gain access even if this
acquisition would breach others privacy. Unauthorized access to personal and privileged
information constitutes a breach of cyber ethics.
Accuracy
As an ethical concern, accuracy focuses on the responsibility for authentication of
information, fidelity and accuracy of information provided. Misinformation can foul people’s
lives and can adversely affect their livelihoods.
Intellectual property
Intellectual property refers to the intangible property that are owned by individuals or
corporations. There are numerous ethical concerns that surround the issue of intellectual
property. Software piracy and duplication violates intellectual property rights and is a matter
of ethical concern as could result to economic losses to the owner of the information or
property.
Access
The late 1980s and early 1990s witnessed increased cases of unauthorized computer
intrusions which brought about numerous debates concerning their ethical implications.
Some people argue that computer break-ins play a significant role as long as they cause no
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7. damage (Spafford). Another section argues that whether or not significant damage is
caused, computer hacker-break-ins are harmful and unethical. Hacker break-ins have
previously served to unearth some ills propagated by governments and organizations.
Strategy for approaching cyber ethics
This is a methodological scheme that is aimed at aiding individuals to identify and analyze
cyber ethics issues.
Step 1. Identification of a component of cyber technology that seems controversial from an
ethical point of view
1a. disclosure of any invisible aspects that possess moral implications
1b. assess the sociological impacts of the issue to relevant institutions and socio-
demographic groups if the issue satisfies a descriptive ethics perspective.
1c. terminate analysis if the issue has no ethical effects
1d. assess the issue to determine is it satisfies a professional ethics perspective. If it does,
analyze it in line with the existing codes of conduct/ ethics to ascertain any professional
associations.
1e. if there are still other ethical concerns, move to step 2.
Step 2. Assess the issue by expounding the concepts and placing it contextually
2a. if a policy vacuum is in existence, move to step 2b, else move to step 3.
2b. resolve any existing conceptual hurdles associated with the policy vacuum and move to
step 3
Step 3. Closely analyze the issue at hand. This process of analysis calls for two stages:
3a. analyze the ethical issue in line with one or more ethical theories
3b. justify the position taken by assessing it in line with the rules of logic
Works Cited
Bush, Corlann Gee.“Women and Assessment of Technology.” In A. H. Teich ed,
Technology and the future. 7 Ed. New York: St. Martin’s Press. (1997). 157-159
Huff, Chuck. “Unintentional power in the design of computer systems.” ACM SIGCAS
Computers and Society 26.4 (1996): 6-9.
Gotterbam, Don. “Computer Ethics: Responsibility Regained,” National forum: The Phi
kappa Phi Journal, 73.3 (1991): 26-31.
Johson, Deborar G. “Computer systems: Moral Entities but not Moral Agents.”Ethics and
Information technology (2006): 195-204.
th
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8. Moor, James H. “Reason, relativity, and responsibility in computer ethics.” Readings in
CyberEthics, 2nd edition. Jones and Bartlett, Sudbury, MA (2004): 40-54.
Moor, James H. “What is Computer Ethics.” Metaphilosophy 16.4 (1985): 266-275.
Spafford, Eugene H. “Are computer hacker break-ins ethical?.” Journal of Systems and
Software 17.1 (1992): 41-47.
Tavani, Herman T. “Introduction to Cyberethics: concepts, Perspectives and methodological
Frameworks.” Tavani, Herman T. Ethics and technology : controversies, questions, and
strategies for ethical computing. Wiley: Hoboken, N.J., 2011. 1-25.
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