Genetic Testing Is A Class Of Medical Testing That...

Genetic testing is a class of medical testing that...
Genetic testing is a class of medical testing that recognize changes in chromosomes, gene or proteins. This type of test look for abnormalities in DNA
or RNA that is collected from a person's blood, body fluids or tissues. Genetic testing scans the genes looking for large or small change that occur to
gene. These changes to the genes could have missing or addition parts that could change the chemical base within the DNA strand. Abnormal genes
could be the result of other mistakes like the genes are too active, they are turned off, or those that are lost entirely. Having abnormal results on genetic
testing could mean that a person is prone in having a genetic disorder. There are different types of genetic testing for adults and embryos ... Show more
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oFISH analysis (fluorescent in situ hybridization) uses fluorescent DNA probes to recognize certain areas on chromosomes. This test can be used to
find small mistakes that was overlooked by the karyotype test. A great example in the use of this test would be discovering missing fragments of DNA
on chromosome 22 which has features of velocardiofacial syndrome.
DNA sequencing is a genetic testing that was mentioned in the movie it is used to figure out the right sequences of bases (nucleotides C, A, T, and G)
in the gene of the person being tested. This test is used in the detection of the breast cancer genes BRCA1 and BRCA2.
Pre–implantation testing is a used on embryos which is also called pre–implantation genetic diagnosis (PGD). PGD detects genetic abnormalities in
embryos that were created by a method called in–vitro fertilization (IVF). This method consisted of removing egg cells from a woman ovaries and then
unite it with sperm cells outside the body. Pre–implantation is then tested by taking a small number of cells from the embryos and testing them for
certain genetic disorders. To achieve a healthy pregnancy only the embryos without the genetic disorders are inserted back into the uterus.
Prenatal testing is a test used to recognize changes in a baby's genes before birth. If it is detected that a baby will have an increased risk for a genetic
or chromosomal disorder this test will be
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Compare and Contrast Mitosis and Meiosis Essay
Compare and Contrast Mitosis and Meiosis
Meiosis and mitosis describes the process by which cells divide, either by asexual or sexual reproduction to produce a new organism.
Meiosis is a form of cell division that produces gametes in humans these are egg cells and sperms, each with reduced or halved number of
chromosomes. The number of chromosomes is restored when two gametes fuse together to form a zygote. A cell with two copies of each
chromosome is called diploid cell and a cell with one copy of each chromosome is called a haploid cell. Meioses produces haploid daughter cells that
are genetically different from each other and from the parent cell. However, mitosis is a form of cell division that produces daughter cells ... Show more
These bivalents line up along the equator during metaphase I, the arrangement of the bivalent is completely random and relative to the orientation of the
other bivalents, this is known as the independent assortment of chromosomes. This is followed by anaphase I where the homologous chromosomes
separate and move to the opposite poles of the cell.
At telophase I the cell divides into two, each cell contains one chromosome from each homologous pair. The second stage of meiosis is similar to
mitosis. These centrioles replicate and the chromosomes line along the equator at metaphase II and spilt at the centromeres causing the chromatids to
move to opposite sides at anaphase II. At telophase II the cell divides to form four haploid cells, these are not identical to each other because the cells
contains chromosomes from two different parent gametes therefore differ genetically.
However, during mitotic division the cells produced are genetically identical to each other because they are produced from the same parent cell. The
cell begins to replicate during interphase to produce two identical sister chromatids. At prophase the chromosomes become condense to become visible
and the membrane begins to break down. The chromosomes line up along the centre of the equator during metaphase.
The chromatids separate and are pulled to opposite poles during anaphase. In telophase these separate chromatids

Chromosomes Vs Dna Of Apple And Banana
Chromosomes vs DNA of an Apple and Banana
Introduction
The genetic blueprint of all living thing is Deoxyribonucleic Acid or DNA. The chromosomes are thread like structures located inside the nucleus of
plant cells and are up of protein and a single molecule of DNA. An apple contains 34 chromosomes and a banana contains 22 chromosomes. The
purpose of this experiment was to see if the number of chromosomes effect the amount of DNA in an apple and a banana. DNA is extracted from the
apple and banana. The type of fruit was the only thing not changed in the experiment making it the independent variable. The amount of DNA is what
is being measured, making it the dependent variable. Any living thing contains DNA, however, the skin of the fruit must be removed as it does not
contain DNA because it is mostly dead.
Discussion ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The apple and banana were cut into equal portions, weighed and put in separate bags. Next, we crushed the apple and banana in each bag using
our hands to mush the fruit into a pudding like mixture. Then we added equal amounts of salt water to each bag and again mixed the mixture by
kneading each bag with our hands for one minute. Now, we added equal amounts of soap to each bag and again kneaded each bag for one minute.
We let the mixture stand for five minute. Next, we placed a coffee filter on each of the two beakers. Carefully, we poured the mixture into the coffee
filters being sure not to drop any of the mixture directly into the beaker. After, we poured equal amounts of rubbing alcohol into the mixture and let
stand for five minutes. The DNA will form in each beaker as it is filtered down through the coffee

The Replication Of Y Chromosomes And How They Have Evolved...
When fertilization occurs within mammals, the sex is immediately determined. Each parent will contribute one or more chromosomes during the
fertilization process, depending on the species. In the male heterogametic (XY) system, the absence of the Y chromosome results in a female offspring
and the presence of the Y chromosome results in a male. The evolution of the sex determination system consists of the rise and development of sex
chromosomes and concurrently the emergence and evolution of genes that guarantee the formation of equivalent traits and functions. This paper will
examine three studies: the replication of Y chromosomes and how they have evolved overtime (Cortez et al. 2014), the structural variation found in Y
chromosomes ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
2014).
The purpose of the experiment was to understand how reproductive cells can divide and reproduce and what is being reproduced in the duplication
process. This process will assist researchers in understanding the role of the Y chromosome and its evolution over time. An experiment was conducted
where RNA–sequence data for 166 tissue samples from nine mammals and two birds were observed (Cortez et al. 2014). Cortez et al. (2014)
sequenced genomic DNA from two individuals and then assembled the Y and W linked transcripts. Next, the Y/W transcripts were validated by
aligning the male and female Illumina genomic readings. In order to validate this, a large–scale subtraction approach was used. Next, Cortez et al.
(2014) reconstructed the Y–linked genes using genomic data and then defined the Y gene names and the X gametologues. Experimenters predicted the
multi–copy genes and the characterization of x–linked contigs and genes in platypus. A phylogenetic analysis was used to align the coding sequences
for phylogenetic tree reconstructions based on amino acid sequences. All trees were inspected for evidence of gene conversion but could not find any.
Thus, it is not frequent in the evolution of sex chromosomes (Cortez et al. 2014). Cortez et al. (2014) have concluded that the XY system is not only
unique to males, but similar to the ZW system found in female birds.

Mitosis Research Paper
Mitosis is when nuclear division plus cytokinesis, and produces two identical daughter cells during prophase,metaphase,anaphase,telophase,and
cytokinesis. Which a cell duplicates into two genetically alike daughter cells. In mitosis, chromosomes in the cell nucleus are separated into two
identical sets of chromosomes, each in its own nucleus. Interphase is included in mitosis discussions,but it is not technically part of mitosis but rather
ecompasses stages G1,S,and G2 of the cell cycle. The process of mitosis is slow and simple. In stage G1 is where the organelles is copied. Stage S in
mitosis is means synthesis. Stage S is where produce two similar daughter cells, the complete DNA instructions in the cell must be duplicated. In stage
... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
As the cell grows in size, it's more difficult for the cell to move needed material in and waste products out. Mitosis regulated by cyclins types of
proteins. 1 parent cell equals 2 genetically identical daughter cells after cell division. Mitosis is separated into three parts.
Interphase,mitosis,and cytokinesis. In interphase there is G1,S, and G2. In mitosis there is prophase,metaphase,anaphase,and telophase. And
cytokinesis is by itself. Which is the longest in mitosis. The easy way to remember what is in mitosis is by the phrase PMAT the initial of every
first letter. DNA is the process of producing two identical replicas from one original DNA molecule. In a cell DNA replication begins at specific
locations, or origins of replications, in the genome. DNA usually exists as a double–stranded structure, with both strands coiled together to form the
characteristic double–helix. DNA polymerases are a family of enzymes that carry out all forms of DNA replication. DNA polymerases is general
cannot initiate synthesis of new strands, but can only extend an existing DNA or RNA strand paired with a template strand. In general, DNA
polymerases are highly accurate with an intrinsic error rate of less than one mistake for every 10.7 nucleotides

Down Syndrome: A Genetic Disease
Down Syndrome, also known as trisomy 21, is a genetic disorder caused when there is three copies of the genes on chromosome 21 rather than two.
This is a common disorder that affects many people. About one in every 691 babies is born with Down Syndrome in the United States. That means
about 6,000 babies are born with Down Syndrome every year. This disorder causes many harmful effects that interfere with daily life. It can't be cured,
but treatment is available in many different ways. People affected by this disorder face many physical and mental symptoms. These include delayed
development, learning disability, short stature, or speech delay in a child. This can make them have a hard time in social situations and things like

How Do Condensins Construct Chromosomes During Interphase
Abstract
Condensins are chromosomal architectural proteins that control levels of chromatin compaction during interphase and mitosis. In addition to their role
in mitosis condensins function during interphase, and have recently emerged as important regulators of genome organization and gene expression. We
discuss recent findings on how condensins construct chromosomes during interphase.
Introduction
The discovery by Walter Flemming in the 1800s of thread like structures once visible only duringcell division sparked the investigation into the
contents and purpose of what was later coined as chromosomes. Although much of the specifics of the chromosomal components have been teased
apart, many questions still remain about higher order chromosomal ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Two central complexes have been identified, the first being condensin I from Xenopus egg extracts and later, condensin II in HeLa cells [1,2,3 and 4].
These complexes contain two highly conserved core subunits and three regulatory elements, one from the kleisin family and two with HEAT repeat
motifs (Figure 1)[2]. The two core subunits: SMC2 and SMC4 are part of the structural maintenance chromosomes (SMC) family of proteins that
dimerize at one end to create a 'hinge' and branch apart. At the opposite end of each SMC is an ATP 'head' binding domain that interacts with regulatory
subunits [5and 6]. The regulatory subunits can differ across organisms and differentiates the two condensin complexes. For example, condensin I,
found in most prokaryotes and eukaryotes, is composed of the regulatory subunits: Cap–D2, Cap–G, and Cap–H [7]. Found widely in eukaryotes,
condensin II is composed of Cap–D3, Cap–G2, and Cap–H2 [3]. The Chromosome Associated Proteins or Cap–D2/Cap–D3 and Cap–G/Cap–G2 are
similar in that they both possess HEAT repeat domains, known to facilitateprotein–protein interactions [7]. The Cap–H/Cap–H2 subunits are part of the
kleisin family of proteins [4]. It is worth noting that in Caenorhabditis elegans a third complex, condensin IDC, has also been identified and is
structurally similar to condensin I except with the subunit DPY–27 which takes

The Process Of Mitosis And The Function Of Chromosomes,...
By: Cole Kaicher, Michael Grabel, Benjamin Finkel
Period Four Garand
9/24/15–9/30/15
The process of mitosis is one performed millions of times a day by every living thing. Each of these cells contains the blueprints of our bodies, which
are scientifically known as chromosomes, genes, and DNA. The purpose of this paper is to inform people about the process of mitosis, and to teach
people about the function of chromosomes, genes and DNA, and the relation between one another.
The process of mitosis is a five step process that starts from just a single cell. Every minute of everyday, cells are dying, and in order for us to stay
alive and functioning they must be replaced. For example, if you get a cut on your hand, cells die. In order ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Half of the chromosomes go to one side and half go to the other. When the chromosomes are on either side telophase begins. Telophase is when the
division is almost done. The cell membrane closes and splits in two. From this you get two different cells. The process is complete... for now.
Interphase is when a cell is in it's resting state. The cell is just going about its normal business and getting ready for another cell division that is soon to
come.
The process of mitosis is a fascinating process which occurs when a cell needs to split into two child cells. The process happens all the time as we
grow, get injured, and need cells to repair our body, or just to replace cells that have died.
Chromosomes, genes, and DNA are all connected. Each goes into each other like russian nesting dolls. You start with the human body, inside the
human body you have trillions of cells, which all contain nuclei. Inside the nuclei are twenty three pairs of chromosomes, forty six total. Coiled inside
each of these chromosomes is DNA, and the DNA is made up of genes.
Every cell has different organelles, and these organelles eliminate waste and produce energy. The cell nucleus is an organelle, and it is here that we
find chromosomes. Imagine chromosomes like a briefcase carrying the blueprints of life. Chromosomes are an outer casing for DNA, and they are the
ones who carry all of the information related to our bodies composition

8p23 Chromosomal Deletion Case Study
Genetic Disorders and 8p23 Chromosomal Deletion
Abstract: The Deletion in the distal region of chromosome 8p23 is associated with major manifestation of congenital heart defect, diaphragmatic defect,
developmental delay, low muscle tone, and behavioral difficulties. Haploinsufficincy of genes GATA4, SOX7, TNKS, MCPH1, NEIL2, and ZFMPM2
have a strong correlation to the array of health complications. To better define the genotype and phenotype relationships associated with this unique
chromosome mutation, we review the complex arrangements of the genes located in the segment of chromosome 8p23.
The human genome is composed of the DNA in chromosomes, that contains the complete genetic material of a human. Genes, information that is stored
Numerical abnormalities, or aneuploidy, is when an individual is missing a chromosome or has an extra chromosome. Monosomy is when there is
only one chromosome present from a pair due to nondisjunction at the second division of meiosis. The only known viable case of monosomy, is
Turner's syndrome, where an individual only have one sex chromosome . Trisomy are cases where there are three of a particular chromosome when
there should only be two present. Cases of an additional chromosome are seen in both autosomal and sex chromosomes. Majority of cases are not
viable, however there are common types that do survive. The most notable cases are trisomy 21 and Klinefelter syndrome. Trisomy 21 is a genetic
disorder of chromosome 21 having three copies, causing intellectual and physical growth delays. The four types of structural abnormalities are
chromosomal deletions, duplications, translocations, inversions, and rings. When chromosome mutations are created, either through a mistake in cell
division or by a mutagen, protein synthesis is affected. The structural changes can produce a varying degree of developmental difficulties in an
individual, depending on which genes experiences the structural change. Chromosome changes are often damaging to an individual causing
developmental difficulties and in some cases death can be an outcome. A deleted section of a chromosome can result in developmental delay, heart
problems, behavioral problems, delayed muscle development, and

Chromosome 15 Deletion
Chromosomes are identified to be found within the nucleus as long thin strands of DNA compiled together, and arranged from largest to smallest
based off their sizes [2]. In addition to this, a typical chromosome usually contains a short and long arm. However, in a Chromosome 15 deletion, the
focus is within the long arm of the strand where the genetic material becomes lost. A variety of detrimental effects can arise depending on which
portion of the long arm is deleted as well. One type of deletion called the proximal deletion that arises when the proximal portion which is directly
connected to the centromere, loses genetic material.
Usually when deletions include the centromere, the chromosome becomes handicapped and can no longer segregate ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
As a result, the missing chromosome can cause over 50 abnormalities that include: Anderman syndrome, Angelman syndrome, ataxia neuropathy
spectrum, Bloom syndrome, breast cancer, Marfan syndrome, Prada–Willis syndrome, Tay–Sachs disease, and a lot more, depending on which gene is
affected. Generally, the most common observable behaviors are: intellectual disability, seizures, psychiatric disorders, distinctive facial features and
moodiness. Of particular interest is Angelman syndrome which is also a sex–linked disorder. But regardless of the source of inheritance, this disorder
can be observed as any of the above listed behaviors or medical

A Genetic Review Of Schizophreni Research Progress Of...
December 1, 2014
A Genetic Review of Schizophrenia: Research progress of chromosomes 22 and 8
Present to: Geraldine Boyden
By: Quiana Jones
Core Articles:
Gill M, Vallada H, Collier D et al: A combined analysis of D22S278 marker alleles in affected sib
–pairs: support for a susceptibility locus for
schizophrenia at chromosome 22q12. Am J Med Genet Neuropsychiatr Genet 1996; 67: 40–45.
Polymeropoulos MH, Coon H, Byerley W, et al: Search for schizophrenia susceptibility locus on human chromosome 22. Am J Med Genet 54:93–99,
1994
Pulver AE, Karayiorgou M, Wolyniec PS et al: Sequential strategy to identify a susceptibilitygene for schizophrenia: Report of potential linkage on
chromosome 22q12–q13.1: Part 1. Am J Med Genet ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The risk of being affected by schizophrenia is increased by a factor of 10 for siblings or offspring of a patient (Schizophrenia). The risk for second
and third degree relatives is increased by less than siblings and offspring (Gottesman et. al.). Figure 1 shows a relative break down of lifetime morbid
risks for different family relations from studies conducted between 1921 and 1987 (Gottesman et. al.).
Common symptoms include hallucinations, reduction of social interactions, and a decrease amount of emotional expression; hearing voices that others
do not and believing that others are able to read and control ones thoughts have also be observed in schizophrenic patients (Mayo Clinic Staff). Early
symptoms of schizophrenia may be hard to recognize because they are often similar to those of teenagers and young adults; these symptoms include
withdrawing from friends and family, preforming poorly in school, trouble sleeping, irritability or depression, and lack of motivation (Schizophrenia).
Treatment for schizophrenia usually includes a combination of medication and therapy. Medications are most commonly prescribed are antipsychotics.
These affect the release of neurotransmitters in the brain such as dopamine and serotonin, which are thought to control symptoms of schizophrenia

(Mayo Clinic Staff). Medications can often cause side effects that render patients unwilling to continue taking them. In these cases, treatment has

Factors Affecting The Infection Of Chromosome 16
Of the above variations, there are a few particular cases to be noted. Firstly, on locus RFWD3 there is a nonsynonymous SNV on position 74670458
of chromosome 16 (rs4888262) where C is changed to T. A GWAS study has associated this variation with testicular germ cell cancer, a disease that
has a strong genetic association – genetics is responsible for 25% of susceptibility. The disease varies by population; testicular germ cell cancer affects
European men far more than African (Chung et al., par. 2). RFWD3 is important ligase that protects theDNA from damage (Chung et al., par. 9). The
RDH12 locus on chromosome 14 at position 68191838 shows a frameshift insertion in which a C is placed in the genome, spanning rs4901408 to
rs4902610. Unfortunately frameshift mutations tend to have dramatic effects because deleting or inserting a single base disrupts the subsequent
reading frame; codons may no longer code for the correct protein, leading to drastically different function. For this particular case a GWAS study has
associated this mutation with autosomal dominant retinitis pigmentosa. This means that if offspring has only one inherited mutated copy of the allele
from a parent, then the offspring is affected by the disease despite also having a normal copy of the allele from the other parent (Medline Plus). Retinal
dehydrogenase 12 is expressed in the retina's photoreceptor cells; disrupting this locus is extremely harmful (Fingert et al., 1304). The frameshift

Chromosome 6 Debate
Have you ever thought about having a clone of yourself? What it would be like to have second chances with every organ and tissue in your body?
Well in Chromosome 6, written by Robin Cook, that is exactly how their lives worked. The clones were grown to benefit the individuals who worked
around the idea, envisioning a new technique to help all individuals in the world.Yet with new testing and ideas cause different opinions and ethical
views on the topic.
While reading the book, it becomes clear that the main plot involves individuals working together to create new opportunities with humans. In one
setting, New York City, characters Laurie and Jack investigate deceased bodies down to the tissues to understand how they died. Within the book, there
The issues begin to arise when the body of one of the customers was killed and went into the autopsy room. This was a huge issue because it was in
America and no one knew about the practice that was happening in Guinea. "'The polymarker test shows that Franconi's DNA and DNA of the liver
tissue they found inside of him could not be anymore different.'"(248). This is when Jack finally put the situation together to find out that the organ
had to be the body's own and decided on a trip to get to the bottom of it. Also, since there were a large number of Bonobos, they all had tracking
within them which monitored their movement. In one part of the novel, Kevin was nervous due to seeing smoke coming from the island. He feared
for the worst trying to get help to get to the bottom of it, but was shut down due to his boss not believing him. Tracking the Bonobos activity, it was
clear that they were starting to act different than the typical Bonobo. This involved them separating into two social groups, leaving the island to live in
a cave, and killing a man who normally fed them. As curiosity arose they began to think that the experiment was not working and becoming a negative
factor. From the information provided about the behavior of the bonobos, and the actions the members involved took, I feel as though it was not

Crossing Over Research Paper
Paper chromosomes and die can be used to simulate crossing over during meiosis in anaphase 1. The die were rolled randomly to determine where a
crossover would occur. This procedure was repeated 100 times to collect data about the probability of crossovers. The percentage of times "a" was on
the same chromosome as b, c, d, e, f, and g was calculated by dividing each result in the first column of the data table by the total number of times "a"
was on the same chromosome as b, c, d, e, f and g.
The site of crossing over occurred most often on chromosomes a, b, c, and d, while crossing over occurred less often on chromosomes e, f, and g.
This is shown by the data, because chromosomes a, b, c, and d had the highest numbers and percentages of being on the same chromosome as "a",
while the opposite is shown for chromosomes e, f, and g. The lab results also showed that the recessive allele "a" appeared most often with "a" because
in order for any crossing over to occur, the recessive allele "a" must be present. This is shown in the die because the die is guaranteed to roll at least a 1.
If the genes are farther apart, the genes are more likely to cross over. The lab reports show this because the closer the numbers were to 1, the higher
percentage of chromosomes crossed over with "a". The recessive allele that most often remains with "a" is "a" and the allele that if mostly separated
from "a" would be g. If a crossover occurred at point 2, the order of the alleles would be either abCDEFG, or ABcdefg, depending if the crossover
occurred in chromosome 1 or chromosome 2. If a cross–over occurred at chiasmata 4, the gene sequence for chromosome 1 would be ABCDefg.
Crossing over occurs in gametes, or reproductive cells. Crossing over causes genetic recombination, because it causes paired chromosomes to break,
and then reform with new genetic material from each of the paired

Using P-Element Induced Male Recombination to Generate a...
Using P–element Induced Male Recombination to Generate a Deletion in the DMAP1 Gene on Chromosome Two in Drosophila melanogaster
Abstract: The goal of this study was to induce a deletion in the DMAP1 gene on chromosome two in Drosophila melanogaster through P–element
mobilization. The DMAP1 gene may be an essential gene, however not much is known about it. We attempted to uncover the function of DMAP1 by
creating a series of genetic crosses and selecting for brown–eyed non–stubble male flies that may have the deletion. To test whether these flies had the
deletion, we produced PCR products and ran them on an agarose gel, which resulted as inconclusive. We created a balanced stock of flies homozygous
for the deletion to see if the ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
For example, wings–clipped P–elements that lack the inverted repeats (not able to be mobilized themselves), which are not internally deleted and can
produce a transposase source, can be introduced to the internally–deleted P–element to provide transposase and therefore allow transposition to occur.
The provided transposase recognizes and binds to inverted repeats on the internally–deleted P–element, which introduces nicks in the DNA beside the
inverted repeats. This allows the element to excise and insert into a new location. If it excises neatly out of the DNA, a deletion will not occur.
However, if it excises to a homologue towards the right or the left, due to an error in the excision process, a deletion will occur through this
pre–meiotic recombination event. This process of P–element mobilization is the basis of how we directed recombination in male flies, and therefore
the basis of generating deletions in the DMAP1 gene. We made several crosses that allowed P–element mobilization to occur in male flies by crossing
P–element strains (non–autonomous) to a transposase source, producing heterozygous flies containing a P–element and a transposase source, and
therefore allowing us to induce and detect male recombination events in progeny. The specific recombination event of interest is when the P–element
is mobilized towards the right onto a homologue, which may have induced a deletion in

Classify Genetic Diseases
There are three categories that can classify genetic diseases. They are single gene disorders, chromosome disorders, and multifactorial disorder or
complex disease. Each of these categories are different with and affect people in certain ways. Single gene disorders, also called Mendelian disorders,
are caused by a modification that occurs in one specific gene. An autosomal dominant defect occurs when there is an altered gene and a healthy gene
that are inherited. An example of this type of defect would be Huntington's disease, an individual only needs one copy of this defective gene on
chromosome four to have the disorder. Autosomal recessive defect, is another type of single gene disorders that occurs when there is two altered
variations of

The Calcutta Chromosome Character Analysis
In The Calcutta Chromosome, Ghosh provides a multi–pronged exploration of the issue of identity. In this novel, he is concerned with the contrast
between the Western and Eastern cultural mind set of the people, the economic and political vulnerability of women minorities and other marginalized
people. He is concerned with identity at its most basic level that is a whole human being replicated from a single sample of DNA. The malarial
protozoan is self–replicating when it has exhausted its food source. When it has devoured a blood cell, it dies and its offspring's flood out into the
blood stream. Most of them also die into the point, uptight search for a new host. But a few of them manage to insert themselves into other blood cells.
When an... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
He claims to be the only expert on the Ronald Ross story in the world. The one and only aim of Murugan's life is to observe and bring out the medical
history of Malaria to the world. We could see how Ghosh had given recognition to the less known and less fortunate people. Everyone in this world
gives priority to success. It became a fate that real talented ones were not noticed by the society mostly. Murugan's had guts to disagree things though
the crowd accepts and believes it completely. Murugan could stand alone to prove the fact without depending anyone but himself. Thomas Grey's
words suit Murugan's character in this novel. Thomas Grey says, Let not Ambition mock their useful toil, Their homely joys and destiny obscure; Nor
Grandeur hear with a disdainful smile The short and simple annals of the poor.... Perhaps in this neglected spot is laid some heart once pregnant with
celestial fire; Hands that the rod of empire might have swayed, or waked to ecstasy the living

Process Of Dividing Body Cells And Their Nuclei Essay
Yahya Bello
Homework 1
Mitosis: can be defined as the process of dividing body cells and their nuclei. The body continually produced new cells by splitting from the ones that
has already existed.
Meiosis: can be defined as a particular form of cell splitting that generates reproductive cells, such as sperm and egg cells, plant and fungal spores.
Steps involves in Mitosis
Mitosis consists of four basic phases and they include prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase.
Figure 1 shows the process that occurs in mitosis
During the early phase of prophase, the cells are able to be divided into some structures and also build others up, this leads into setting the stage for
their division of the chromosomes that is present. For the chromosomes to be easily pulled apart later on they start o condense during this early stage.
The mitotic spindle then begins to form. This spindle is a structure that is made of microtubules, strong fibers that are considered to be the part of the
cell's skeleton. The purpose of the spindle is to organize the chromosomes and to have the ability in moving them around during mitosis. The growth of
the spindle occurs between the centrosomes as they move apart (https://www.khanacademy.org/science/biology/cellular–molecular–biology/mitosis/a
/phases–of–mitosis).
.
Once the early prophase has been completed then late prophase which can also be referred to as prometaphase takes off. During the late prophase,
mitotic spindle starts by

How The Staining Of The Centromere Sequences Using Fish
How the staining of the centromere sequences using FISH can be used to determine the sex of metaphase chromosomes and how immunostaining of
the synaptomenal complex of meiotic cells can show the stages involved in prophase.
Abstract
Fluorescence in situ hybridisation (FISH) and immunostaining are both processes that allow for specific features within a chromosome to be observed.
FISH is when a DNA probe that is fluorescently tagged complementary binds to a specific sequence in the chromosome, in this case, the sex
chromosome centromeres. Immunostaining is the process where a primary antibody specifically binds to a protein of interest, then a fluorescently
tagged secondary antibody complementary binds to the primary antibody, thus ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
This is because X chromosomes display a red signal, whereas the Y chromosome presents a green signal. Therefore, since females have two X
chromosomes and males have a single X and Y chromosome, the sex of the cell donor can be identified (Moers & et al 1995).
Meiosis is a form of cell division that halves the amount of chromosomes in sexually reproducing organisms (Bernstein et al 2011) to form
gametes. In meiotic cell division, DNA replication is followed by two rounds of cell division to create four daughter cells, each with half the
amount of chromosomes as the parent. Meiosis is split into two round called Meiosis I and Meiosis II and each round of meiosis is made up of four
stages called prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase. The longest, most complex stage of meiosis is Prophase I as it is split into 5 phases called
lepotene, zygotene, pachytene, diplotene, and diakinesis (Tworzydlo & et al 2016). In these stages of prophase, chromosome pairing, synaptomenal
complex formation, and recombination occur. The formation of the synaptomenal complex allows for the chromosomes to know if they have
successfully paired. This complex can be stained by SPC3 as it binds to the lateral elements of the synaptomenal complex. In this practical,
immunostaining process allows for it to be confirmed which proteins are associated with the meiotic chromosomes. This immunostaining process

The Evolution Of Human Chromosomes
Introduction
Human chromosomes are incredibly complex, containing a variety of different structures necessary to maintain its function; one of these is called a
Telomere and is found at the ends of the chromosomes. Telomeres contain thousands of repeats of the repetitive TTAGGG DNA sequence; this is
combined with a complex enzyme known as telomerase. Furthermore, the function of this ribonucleoprotein enzyme complex is to maintain telomere
length in cancer cells by adding TTAGGG repeats onto the telomeric ends of the chromosomes; this compensates for the normal expected shortening of
telomeres which occurs in all dividing cells.
Predominantly human cancers emerge during ageing or during the end stage of disease are caused by the increased rate of chromosomal instability,
thus inducing lesions responsible for apoptosis within cells altering them into immortal cells, i.e. cancer cells. Telomere shortening has very strong ties
to the increased risk of immortal cells occurring within ageing and chronic disease, showing a very strong indication that the shortening of sequence
affects cell division; this directly contributes to the chromosomal instability and cancer initiation processes.
Telomere biology is increasing our understanding of where ageing and chronic disease cancers occur from, this is directly linked to the understanding
of telomerase and how it appears within immortal cells but not somatic cells. Furthermore, there are proving a number of theories to suggest

Heredity: A Vital Biological Process
Life is a continuous cycle; its lineage can be traced back to DNA which makes up genes that are the composition of chromosomes. The final
commodity, chromosomes, is what engages in reproduction of offspring. This is done by fertilization, in eukaryotic cells, when they are in a haploid
state as fertilization occurs after the process of meiosis. Meiosis is what aids the uniqueness of individuals and, "ensures variation from parent cell
when the two gametes are combined to form a diploid zygote (daughter cell) which has genes from both the paternal and maternal sides" (banninghs,
1997), in chromosomes that have a different combination of those genes. However, this daughter cell needs to grow and this is done by replication
during mitosis. Heredity is the main basis of life and variation that leads to new discoveries on how to make living smooth, it is however caused by
various specialised processes, as mentioned, that are maintained throughout a whole lifetime.
DNA is composed of nucleotides that are made up of only four nitrogen bases; A, T, G, C, adenine, thymine, guanine and cytosine respectively. The
engagement of these nucleotides in a particular sequence forms a gene. Interaction of genes forms chromosomes, which are the form in which
hereditary information will be passed from generation to generation. However, depending on the type of species hereditary information is passed in
either reproducing sexually or asexually. Both these types of reproduction yield offspring

The Cell Cycle : Chapter Review
The cell cycle
Chapter review
Cell division creates duplicate offspring in unicellular organisms & provides for growth, development , & repair in multicellular organisms
The cell cycle extends from the creation of a new cell by the division of its parent cell to its own division into 2 cells
12.1 Cell division results in genetically identical daughter cells
The process of recreating a structure as intricate as a cell necessitates the exact duplication & equal division of the DNA containing the cell's genetic
program
Cellular organization of the genetic material
Genome – A cell's complete complement of DNA
Each diploid eukaryotic species has a characteristic # of chromosomes in each somatic cell; reproductive cells, or gametes (egg & sperm), have half
that # of chromosomes
Each chromosome is a very long DNA molecule with associated proteins that help to structure the chromosome & control the activity of the genes This
DNA–protein complex is chromatin
Distribution of chromosomes during eukaryotic cell division
Prior to cell division, a cell copies its DNA & each chromosome densely coils & shortens
Duplicated chromosomes consists of 2 identical sister chromatids, initially attached by proteins called cohesins, which hold them together in sister
chromatid cohesion
A duplicated chromosome has a centromere where the chromatids are most closely attached
The 2 sister chromatids separate during mitosis (the division of the nucleus), & then the cytoplasm divides during cytokinesis,

The Sex Chromosome ( X And Y ) Originates From A Pair Of...
INTRODUCTION:
The Sex chromosome(X and Y) originates from a pair of autosomes (H.J. Muller, 1914) about 350million years ago in reptile–like ancestors
(Charlesworth, 1991; Graves, 1995). Environmental factor like temperature determines sex in some species e.g. crocodiles and turtles (Bull et al,
1975). In humans, there are 22 pairs of chromosomes called the Autosomes and one pair of sex chromosome (X–Y) which makes a total of 23pairs of
chromosomes. These 23pairs (46) chromosomes are contributed by female and male gamete. Females have 22pairs of autosomes and one sex
chromosome (X) while males have Y sex chromosome in addition to the 22pairs of autosomes. This means that, the Y chromosome can only be
inherited paternally (Lahn & Page, 1999).
The X–chromosome is about a 165mega base in size and contains about 1000 functional genes (Ross et al, 2005) while Y chromosome is about
65mega base in size with about 178genes (Skalestsky et al; 2003).The Mammalian Y–chromosome contains 86 genes which code for specific proteins
with peculiar functions in sex fertility (Lahn & Page, 1997). The Y chromosome is the most evolving part of the human and chimpanzee genome. ''The
Y chromosome is far superior in the evolutionary progress than the entire human genetic code combined'' (Dr Page, 2001). The Y chromosome is said
to be the smallest chromosome in humans and contain more genes with mutation (Heinkchen, 2005).
"The Primitive Y chromosome was found in Papaya" (Liu et al, 2004) and the Y

Cell Division Writing Outline
Writing Outline
Cell division is the process in which one cell, called the parent cell, divides to form two new cells, referred to as daughter cells. How this happens
depends on whether the cell is prokaryotic or eukaryotic. There are differences of cell division for prokaryotes and eukaryotes cells. Cell division is
simpler in prokaryotes than eukaryotes because prokaryotic cells themselves are simpler. Prokaryotic cells have a single circular chromosome, no
nucleus, and a few other organelles. Eukaryotic cells, in contrast, have multiple chromosomes which are contained within their nucleus, and many other
organelles. In eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells, all of these cell parts must be duplicated and then separated when the cell divides. ... Show more content
on Helpwriting.net ...
Mitosis is the process in which the duplicated genome in a cell is separated into halves that are identical, which results in the growth and development
of new cells. Mitosis can occur without cytokinesis, forming single cells with multiple nuclei (Ex: certain fungi and slime moulds). Mitosis occurs in
four phases, one of which is Cytokinesis. Cytokinesis is the process where the cytoplasm of the cell divides to form two daughter cells and ensures
that the chromosome numbers are maintained in the cell. During Cytokinesis, the cytoplasm of a cell is divided into two. The result is the formation of
two daughter cells, each having a nucleus. Apart from the nuclei, Cytokinesis also results in the passing of cellular organelles equally between the two
daughter cells. Since some of the molecules bind to the chromosomes, each daughter cell receives an equal share of the cytoplasmic components.
Mitosis involves the division and duplication of the cell's nucleus or separation of duplicated chromosomes whereas cytokinesis involves the division of
the cytoplasm to form two distinct, new daughter cells. Mitosis also takes more time to complete than cytokinesis

The Philadelphia Chromosome Report
The book The Philadelphia Chromosome by Jessica Wapner follows the story of how a fatal disease called Chronic Myeloid Leukemia became one
of the first targets of kinase inhibitors for targeted cancer therapies. Chronic Myeloid Leukemia (CML) affects only a small number of people (an
estimated 8,500 diagnoses this year), but was until recently considered a fatal disease. Gleevec, a drug created by Novartis (mostly) that targeted the
BCR/ABL protein in CML patients. This protein causes a tyrosine kinase to uncontrollably phosphorylate myeloid cells inbone marrow. The BCR/ABL
protein is caused by a gene mutation known as The Philadelphia Chromosome, which is an abnormality in chromosome 22. This abnormality is caused
by a gene translocation ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
His goal is to find out how this gene leads to CML in patients, and hopefully, find a way to stop it. The bcr/abl protein constantly tells cells, specially
myeloid cells, that it is time to divide, causing uncontrollable replication, and these cells have a mutation in them, they don't die like normal cells do,
causing the body to overflow with these useless cancer cells. Researches at Ciba–Giegy began working on a way to inhibit the bcr/abl tyrosine kinases
from signaling to cells. This work resulted in a compound known as STI–571, which was a targeted kinase inhibitor. One of the fears this team faced
was, if you inhibit a kinase, do you inhibit them all? Causing the patient to die, or can you manage to only inhibit a single type of kinase, leaving the
rest alone to do their jobs. By 1996, Gleevec (STI–571) was shown to kill cancer cells, while leaving normal cells healthy. In 1998, Ciba–Giegy (now
Novartis) was ready to start phase 1 clinical trials in patients. By 2001, the FDA approved the drug for used in the treatment of

Examination Of Cell Division And Dna Replication
The experiments of the past week allowed examination of cell division and DNA replication, the processes by which cells carry out important
functions. It is important to have an understanding of these processes in order to have an understanding of biology. These most small occurrences are
the basis for life in all cells. Without division and DNA replication, organism could not grow and carry out complex tasks, such as metabolism. In
addition, natural selection can only occur where genetic variation does. This makes division of cells and the recombination of their DNA essential to
the continuance of human life.
Cells that are diploid have two sets of chromosomes, one coming from each parent. This kind of cell is most familiar to us because this is the way
humans are genetically formed. However, the process of replicating and packaging those genes is more complex than most people realize. The process
begins in the nucleus. The nucleus is the epicenter of control for the cell. In every nucleus there is a set of chromosomes with our genetic makeup
attached to them. These chromosomes are essential to the life of the cell. Therefore, when cell division, or mitosis, or occurs, each cell gets a copy of
the entire set of chromosomes, rather than just a part of them. Each phase of mitosis carries out a very specific task.
Interphase is the beginning of this process. In this stage, you cannot yet discern chromosomes in the nucleus. The nucleolus, however, will be visible at
this time.

Down Syndrome Research Paper
Once upon a time, two completely healthy adults loved each other very much and had a little baby. Unfortunately, the baby had an extra copy of
Chromosome 21. Your chromosomes hold your genetic information, so having an extra Chromosome 21; it can affect your physical and mental health.
That baby had Down Syndrome. Down Syndrome is where the child has an extra copy of Chromosome 21, as explained in the second sentence. This
essay will explain all about the symptoms of Down Syndrome, detailed explanation of what exactly Down Syndrome is, people most susceptible to
have a Down Syndrome child, and the causes of Down Syndrome. There are different names for Down Syndrome. These names include 47, XX, +21
because of there being a +1 Chromosome 21 in ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
There are three forms of Down Syndrome. These three are Trisomy 21, Mosaicism, and Translocation. Trisomy 21 is where there is an extra copy of
Chromosome 21 in every cell. Mosaicism is where only some of the child's cells have an extra copy of Chromosome 21. Translocation is where only
one of the 46 total chromosomes has an extra Chromosome 21 where part of Chromosome 21 gets attacked to another chromosome during the
formation eggs and sperm, or early in the development of the fetus. Mosaicism and Translocation usually have less symptoms that Trisomy 21. Only
translocation Down Syndrome can be inherited by an unaffected parent. Trisomy 21 is because of an abnormality in the reproductive cells, and
mosaic Down Syndrome is just a random event that occurs early in fetal development. A baby receives 23 chromosomes from each parent, but with a
Down Syndrome child, they receive extra chromosomes. When the Chromosome 21 is supposed to split into two chromosomes, the chromosome
does not separate properly and they get three Chromosome 21. So as the brain and physical features develop, problems occur. Down Syndrome affects
1 in 800 newborns. Each year in the United States, 5,300 babies with Down Syndrome are born, and 250,000 people have this condition in

Why Does Meiosis Lead To Significant Genetic Variation...
1.Name essential structural elements of a functional eukaryotic chromosome and describe their functions.
Centromere–attachment to the spindle fibers during cell division
Telomere– are the caps at each end of each strand of DNA that protect our chromosomes.
Origins of replication–replication is initiated
2.Identify the four different types of chromosomes based on the position of the centromere.
Metacentric, Submetacentric, Acrocentric, and telocentric
3.Name the stages of the cell cycle and explain what happens in each stage.
Interphase–This is the phase that prepares for cell division, duplication. This is also called the resting phase.
Prophase–This is the first stage of mitosis, chromosomes that consist of two chromatids and condense ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Anaphase 2–The sister chromatids that are individual chromosomes move away from each other and move to the opposite end of the cell.
Telophase 2– This is where the process ends and meiosis is complete. A nuclear envelope forms around each set of chromosomes and then cytokinesis
occurs, four daughter cells are then produced with a haploid set of chromosomes.
6.Why does meiosis lead to significant genetic variation while mitosis does not?
Meiosis is a process of cell division where a diploid cell becomes four haploid cells resembling mitosis but the chromosomes are duplicated once in
which gametocytes form gametes. They occur in genetic information in variation of female and male gametes. In Mitosis the nuclei of the diploid
cells reproduce after chromosomes duplicate in four stages with two diploid cells formed with identical set of chromosomes with the cytoplasm, it also
divides with the cells and they occur in somatic cells.
7.A Chimera is a single individual genetically consisting of two different individuals. How do you think this can happen?
This happens because it comes from 2 different

The Process Of Natural Selection
Introduction
Reproduction has been the ultimate goal of every living organism that has ever originated on the earth. Over the time organisms have evolved to
become better acclimated to the environment they live in such that reproduction and survival requirements are met. Even so, not every organism born
is viable or produce progeny that survive and not every progeny that survives lives long enough to reproduce again. Only those who are strong and
successful in reproducing are selected to survive. The process of 'Natural Selection' functions as the key to maintain the balance of the environment.
Similarly, genes also work towards the same motive, replication. All genes on the other hand follow the 'Mendelian Inheritance theory', which allows
genes to segregate into only 50% of the offspring exhibit the genotypes of genes from both parents in a 1:1 ratio. However, every commonly accepted
system has its offenders. Similarly, offenders of the ancient gene pathway, come in the form of selfish genetic elements who work around the system
and use other ways to increase in abundance, most often at the cost of the host's health. Surprisingly, these selfish elements are still among the
successful survivors though they do not follow the rules. One curious case of such an element is the segregation distorter gene found in all populations
of a species of fly known as Drosophila melanogaster. The intention of this paper is to review a few researches conducted to give you an insight of this

Down Syndrome And The Human Body
We all love amazing smiles and infectious eyes and hugs. Down syndrome occurs in people of all races and economic levels. Who are we to judge
when we all bleed the same blood. Down syndrome is only a part of them and not how they are defined. No one is greater than another no matter
what the situation. In every cell in the human body there is a nucleus, where genetic material is stored in genes. Genes carry the codes responsible for
all of our inherited traits and are grouped along rod–like structures called chromosomes. Typically, the nucleus of each cell contains 23 pairs of
chromosomes, half of which are inherited from each parent. Down syndrome occurs when an individual has a full or partial extra copy of chromosome
21.
This additional genetic material alters the course of development and causes the characteristics associated with Down syndrome. A few of the common
physical traits of Down syndrome are low muscle tone, small stature, an upward slant to the eyes, and a single deep crease across the center of the
palm – although each person with Down syndrome is a unique individual and may possess these characteristics to different degrees, or not at all.
One in every 691 babies in the the United States is born with Down syndrome, making Down syndrome the most common genetic condition.
Approximately 400,000 Americans have Down syndrome and about 6,000 babies with Down syndrome are born in the United States each year.
For centuries, people with Down syndrome have been

Meiosis: Chromosomes
Meiosis BIOL 1111 Introduction Meiosis is the second important kind of nuclear division. It resembles mitosis in many ways but the consequences
of meiotic divisions are very different from those of mitotic divisions. While mitotic division may occur in almost any living cell of an organism,
meiosis occurs only in special cells. In animals, meiosis is restricted to cells that form gametes (eggs and sperm). Each species has a characteristic
number of chromosomes per somatic cell. Fruit flies have 8; normal humans have 46. They exist as homologous pairs (partners) that are similar in
size and shape and carry the same kinds of genes. Thus humans have 23 homologous pairs. The full complement of 46 chromosomes is referred to as the
These are the physical parts, the sum of the atoms, molecules, macromolecules, cells, structures, metabolism, energy utilization, tissues, organs,
reflexes and behaviors; anything that is part of the observable structure, function or behavior of a living organism. A genotype is the "internally
coded, inheritable information" carried by all living organisms. This stored information is used as a "blueprint" or set of instructions for building and
maintaining a living creature. These instructions are found within almost all cells. They are written in a coded language (the genetic code), they are
copied at the time of cell division or reproduction and are passed from one generation to the next ("inheritable"). These instructions are intimately
involved with all aspects of the life of a cell or an organism. Conclusion: The Genotype, carried by all living organisms, holds the critical instructions
that are used and interpreted by the cellular machinery of the cells to produce the Phenotype of the organism. Meiosis I. Procedure: We the

Unit 3 Types Of Asexual Reproduction
There are three types of asexual reproduction known as, budding, regeneration, and parthenogenesis. Budding is the production of new individuals
that form from bodies of older animals. Regeneration can either replace a damaged tissue or form another individual. An example of regeneration is
flatworms. Lastly, parthenogenesis is the development of the offspring from unfertilized eggs. An example of parthenogenesis is honey bees or ants.
In the evolution of sex cells divide because it replaces cells that have aged and died. Another reason for why cells divide is because it replaces cells
that are lost or damaged known as regeneration. In a cell division chromosomes are replicated and it is passed on to daughter cells. The number of
chromosomes... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The symptoms are excessive mucus in lungs, liver, and digestive tract. Alleles are different versions of a givengene and there are two different types of
alleles. The first one is dominant allele this one prevents a second allele from affecting the phenotype when two alleles are paired together. On the
other hand, recessive allele does not affect the phenotype when it is paired with a dominant allele. If the alleles are the same type then the organism
is homozygous for that trait, but if it is not it's heterozygous. The dominant alleles are given capital letters and the recessive alleles are given lower
case letters. Alleles can be tracked across generations, there are three generations. The first one is P generation this is the parents, the second one is
F1 generation this one is the first set of offspring. The last one is F2 generation this is the offspring of

The Importance Of Chromosomes
nuclear transfer. But, even after days, the follicles didn't develop. The exact reason is unknown but they assumed it to be either because of the DNA or
nucleus condition or incompatibility between mouse oocyte and mammoth nucleus.
Then again let us assume that we find an intact nucleus having a proper DNA inside it, there are still many obstacles to overcome. One being lack of
enough knowledge and information about the number of chromosomes that mammoths possessed. Moreover, Y chromosome in a mammal is typically
very small and repetitive, therefore, making it hard to sort it out. But, the solution can be sequencing only the female species. Also, determining the
exact sequence of other regions including centromere is almost impossible. So, ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
During the experiment, they took frozen samples of ovarian tissue from African elephants and transplanted it into mice. After several days they
observed mature follicles develop inside the ovary of the mice. This showed that it was indeed possible to transplant tissues from ovaries of one animal
to another (Henry, 2008).
Another is to transfer the mammoth nucleus, for this, it is first necessary to remove the elephant's nucleus. Another important component beside
nucleus is the mitochondria and it has to be compatible with each other. Even though mammoths and elephants are closely related, there's still a risk.
So, the solution that the researchers proposed was to replace the elephant's mitochondria with synthetic ones and this is indeed plausible because
mammoth's mitochondria have already been sequenced. While doing this it is also necessary to make sure that there aren't any remains of elephant's
mitochondria left inside the cell which might fuse with the newer one.
Finally, the last step is to transfer the fertilized egg to a suitable surrogate. The main concern here is whether the surrogate is suitable to harbor the
mammoth fetus but evidence gained form preserved mammoths have found that size is not a problem since they are similar in terms of size and height
(Henry, 2008).
All the steps are just a possibility because when an organism dies, DNA decay starts almost immediately. So, the samples

Triple X Syndrome Testing and Diagnosis
Dear, Brown Family I am Dr. Cunningham I have a PHD and MD from Stanford University. I am a Obstetrics and Gynecology affiliated with St.
Vincent Health Hospital I have been working here for about 6 years now. Over week I have been doing numerous test on your daughter such as
Amniocentesis and Chorionic Villus sampling. Chorionic villus is collected by putting a long thin needle through the belly into the placenta.
Amniocentesis is tested by getting a sample from the amnion or amniotic sac surrounding a developing fetus and the fetal DNA is examined for genetic
abnormalities. The purpose of these testing is to determine whether or not your daughter is diagnosed with Triple X syndrome.These test can be done
at any time but preferably early in pregnancy. As my years of being a doctor I have seen about 1990 women undergo Chorion Villus sampling and
there were no serious maternal infections among the women in this. Also, Amniocentesis testing is not very risky due to the fact there is a low risk of
pregnancy lost when this test is done. Before I did the Chorionic and Amniocentesis testing on your daughter I explained the potential drawbacks to her
such as miscarriages, uterine contractions or tenderness, feeling shivery (like you're going down with flu), infection and amniotic fluid leakage which
can lead to the baby developing hypoplastic lungs (underdeveloped lungs).
A chromosome is a threadlike structure within the nucleus that contains genetic information that is passed

Mosaic Down Syndrome
When a baby is conceived, the baby receives 23 chromosomes from each parent, equaling 46 chromosomes. Sometimes during this creation a sperm or
egg cell can causes that cell to contain 24 chromosomes. When this abnormal cell is included in the conception of a baby, that baby will have 47
chromosomes. The extra chromosome causes Down syndrome. After fertilization; cells start to divide rapidly. Depending on how thecell divides
determines what type of Down syndrome the child has. Mosaic Down syndrome is obtained when a cell divides abnormally, creating a string of cells
with the extra chromosome. A child with Mosaic Down syndrome has both cells: the normal 46 chromosomes, and the Down syndrome 47
chromosomes. It is believed that babies with Mosaic Down syndrome experience mild symptoms of the disorder.
The next form of Down syndrome is called translocation. During translocation cell division, the 21 chromosome breaks. A piece of the 21
chromosome attaches itself to another chromosome. All of the cells still has 46 chromosomes, but the extra piece results in Down syndrome. Down
syndrome affects both boys and girls and although it can be very rare Down syndrome can be diagnosed along with other developmental disorders as
well.
DSM–V ICD code
A diagnosis in the DSM–V refers to neurocognitive disorders that highlight both clinical ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Babies with Down syndrome seem to be extremely quiet, less responsive, with weak muscles. Many physical signs of Down syndrome may be
present including: flat face, small head, flat bridge of the nose, small mouth causing the tongue to stick out and to appear large, upward slanting eyes,
extra folds of skin located at the inside corner of each eye, rounded cheeks, small ears, small wide hands, a malformed fifth finger, a wide space
between the big and the second toes, and they appear to be shorter than normal

The Structure Of Eukaryotic Chromosomes
Humans are all totally unique in one way. That one way is DNA. Human DNA is very complex and it takes on a certain structure in order for it to
function correctly. Understanding the structure of eukaryotic chromosomes, or condensed forms of DNA, and how they function helps scientists
understand how human DNA is unique. These highly specialized cells help eukaryotic organisms, such as humans, to sustain life.
What is a eukaryotic organism? A eukaryotic organism is any organism with complex cells, or a single cell with a complex structure. These eukaryotic
organisms cells genetic material is organized into chromosomes found in a nucleus. These eukaryotic cells also have membrane bound organelles,
which distinguishes them from other types of organisms.
Structure of Eukaryotic Chromosomes Multi celled organisms like human beings require a large amount of DNA. There are two meters of DNA in
every human cell but the cell's nucleus diameter is only 5–8 micrometers. So how does all that DNA fit into our cell's nucleus? Well the very long
double stranded DNA molecules are tightly packed into chromosomes, which are highly compacted. Chromosome 22, for example, has 48 million
nucleotide pairs which, if stretched out end to end the DNA would extended 1.5 cm. Chromosome 22 during the stage of mitosis it measures at an
astonishing 2 micrometers. This is ten thousand times tighter then if the DNA was stretched out all the way. DNA has the assistance of the
chromosomal proteins, histones

A Change Of A Chromosome Number
A change in a chromosome number is known as Aneuploidy. Aneuploidy is a genetic condition where an organism acquires fewer or more
chromosomes than the normal diploid number. A monosomic organism has one less than the diploid number of chromosomes meaning the human
zygote will have 45 chromosomes. A trisomic organism has one more than the diploid number of number of chromosomes i.e. the organism will now
have 47 set of chromosome meaning there are three homologous copies of one chromosome. It can develop in many ways. For example, during mitosis
a centromere can be deleted as a result a chromosome can be lost. Aneuploidy usually alters the phenotype drastically because it alters chromosome
number but not the DNA sequence. Between 75 and ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Gene alterations on an organism have profound effects on both cellular and physiological levels. Aneuploidy can be present in two ways if its present
in only certain cells its known as somatic aneuploidy but its its found in all of the cells then its called constitutional aneuploidy. The effects of
constitutional aneuploidy can be lethal. In humans, a condition known as down syndrome is caused is due to third copy of chromosome 21 and a
third copy in any autosome will always result in childhood problems. (Hassold TJ, 1984). They can survive but will have significant health problems
and will be mentally affected. Also, the absence of any autosomal chromosomes can lead to embryonic death.
One of the basic consequences of aneuploidy is the genomic instability. Genomic instability refers to the change initiated during the life cycle of a cell.
Genetic instability is hallmark of aneuploidy that leads to wide range of changes in the genome of the organisms. These changes can cause serious
effects to the organism these include the chromosome alterations, chromosomal mutations. The Structural rearrangements of chromosomes are thought
to develop from the repair of double–strand DNA breaks (DSB) by non– homologous end joining (NHEJ) pathway and its variant, alternative NHEJ
(also known as backup NHEJ) (Quinlan and Hall, 2012).
During a cell division, it is believed that genomic instability is minimized by four major mechanisms, which include chromosome segregation in

Essay On The Y Chromosome
Clearly the choo–choo was chugging faster now – so I scrolled down for backup. My mom? God, no...this would just be confirmation that the Y
chromosome should be erased from humanity. My sister? Not much better. Still, it was someone. Mercifully, Hester answered, even though I knew
she was at work. "Hester? Got a minute?" "Hey, birthday girl! What's up?" My sister's voice, always on the loud side, boomed out of my phone,
and I held it away from my ear. "Hester," I bleated, "he's seeing someone! He gave me a beautiful bracelet and kissed me and then he told me he's
seeing someone! For a couple of months and it's fairly serious, but I still love him!" "Jesus, lady, get a grip," muttered the man behind me.... Show more
The woman in front of me turned around. She had the leathery, lined face and broad shoulders of a dairy farmer. "You a'right, theah, deah?" she
asked, her Vermont accent as thick as overboiled maple syrup. "I'm fine," I answered in a shaky and rather unconvincing voice, attempting a brave
smile. "I ovahheard you, you poah thing," she said. "Men can be such ahssholes. My husband, Nahman we're talkin' about, he sits down to dinnah one
day and says he wants a d'vorce on account a' he's been banging the secretary down at the creamery. And this when we've been married fahty–two
yeahs." "Oh, my gosh, I'm so sorry," I said, reaching out to hold her hand. She was right. Men were assholes. Mark was an asshole. I shouldn't be
heartbroken over him. Except I loved the rat bastard. Oh, blerk! "Hello? I'm still here, Callie," my sister reminded me sharply. "What do you want
me to say?" "I don't know, Hes...What do you think I should do?" I asked. "Step outside?" suggested the man behind me. "Damned if I know, Callie,"
she sighed. "The longest relationship I've ever had lasted thirty–six hours. Which you know," she said, her voice turning thoughtful, "has worked really
well for me." "Hes," I said wetly, "I'll be seeing them together every day." The notion

Chromosome 10 Research Paper
In recent years, more research has been put towards examining chromosomes 5 and 10 and their association with the disease. "Chromosome 5 is
estimated to contain 900 genes making up nearly 6% of all the DNA in the human body." Several different variations of genes on chromosome 5 have
been linked back to other inflammatory bowel diseases (Genetics Home Reference). "Chromosome 10 contains roughly 700–800 genes and makes up
about 4.5% of every DNA in the human body." Researchers don't have much information on chromosome 10, more specifically the section in which
gene 10q21.1 is located. It has been referred to as the "gene desert," because they're no known genes in that area (Genetics Home Reference). Due to
this, scientists speculate there could possibly be an undiscovered gene in the "gene desert" causing the problem. ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
NOD2 proteins are responsible for protecting the intestinal wall against damaging bacteria and can be found in the cells of the intestinal wall and
immune–system. Most of the bacteria in the GI tract (Gastrointestinal Tract) is fairly harmless, and any that is detrimental is removed by the NOD2
proteins immediately. NOD2 is made up of three domains: C–terminal leucine–rich domain, a central nucleotide–binding site, and two N–terminal
caspase–activating and recruitment domains. (Philpott, Dana J. Jun. 2004) In addition, NOD2 is apart of a family of apoptosis regulators. (Eckmann,
Lars Jun. 2005) Within these domains, is an allele called 1007fs. When mutated this allele can disrupt inflammatory responses and disfigure of the
shape of NOD2 proteins. (Eckmann, Lars Jun. 2005) mutated NOD2 stops the body from properly fighting off pathogens, that should otherwise not be

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