Genes contain DNA instructions that control heredity and cell functions. DNA is transcribed into RNA, which helps produce proteins through a multi-step process of transcription, RNA processing, and translation. Gene expression and protein production are regulated through genetic and enzyme mechanisms to control cell biochemistry. Cells reproduce through mitosis and differentiate during development. Cancer arises from genetic mutations that disrupt normal cell growth controls.
Transcription is the process of converting DNA into mRNA. It involves two main steps - formation of pre-mRNA using RNA polymerase and editing of pre-mRNA into mRNA through splicing. During transcription, RNA polymerase binds to DNA and synthesizes pre-mRNA on the template strand. The pre-mRNA then undergoes splicing to remove introns, forming mRNA. The mRNA is transported out of the nucleus where it directs protein synthesis through translation. Translation involves three stages - initiation, elongation, and termination, using ribosomes and tRNA to link amino acids together into a polypeptide chain based on the mRNA codons.
The document summarizes genetic control of protein synthesis, cell function, and cell reproduction. It describes how genes control heredity and cell functions through DNA, RNA, and protein synthesis. The process of transcription and translation are explained, as well as the roles of different types of RNA and ribosomes. Genetic and enzyme regulation control cell activities. Cell reproduction begins with DNA replication and continues through the stages of mitosis to divide the cell into two daughter cells. Growth factors and other mechanisms regulate cell growth and reproduction.
The document summarizes key aspects of the central dogma and genetic code. It discusses how genetic information flows from DNA to RNA to protein in an unidirectional manner. It also describes how the genetic code is cracked, with three nucleotides needed to encode for 20 amino acids. Most amino acids are encoded by multiple codons, making the code degenerate and allowing few changes over time due to lack of tolerance.
The document summarizes the structure and types of neurons and glial cells in the nervous system. It discusses that neurons are excitable cells that conduct nerve impulses, while glial cells provide support and insulation. The major types of glial cells are astrocytes, microglia, ependymal cells, oligodendrocytes, and Schwann cells. Neurons consist of a cell body, dendrites, and an axon. The axon conducts impulses away from the cell body and terminates in synaptic knobs. Neurons are classified structurally as multipolar, bipolar, or unipolar based on their processes, and functionally as afferent, efferent
The document describes the genetic control of protein synthesis. It discusses how genes in the cell nucleus control protein synthesis through the processes of transcription and translation. There are approximately 30,000 genes in each cell, each composed of DNA. During transcription, the DNA code is transferred to an RNA code, which then directs protein synthesis. The main types of RNA - mRNA, tRNA, rRNA and miRNA - are described along with their roles in protein synthesis. Translation and the genetic code are also summarized.
Gene expression is the process by which DNA directs the production of proteins. It involves two main stages: transcription and translation. In transcription, the DNA sequence of a gene is transcribed into mRNA with the help of RNA polymerase. In eukaryotes, the pre-mRNA undergoes processing including 5' capping, splicing, and 3' polyadenylation to produce mature mRNA. Translation then uses the mRNA to produce a polypeptide with the help of ribosomes and tRNA. It involves initiation, elongation through the sequential addition of amino acids, and termination when a stop codon is reached.
Structure, function and classification of neuronDr Sara Sadiq
The document summarizes the structure and classification of the nervous system. It discusses that the nervous system is divided into the central nervous system (CNS) and peripheral nervous system (PNS). The CNS contains the brain and spinal cord while the PNS contains all neural tissue outside the CNS. There are two main cell types - neurons which process and transmit information, and neuroglia which provide support. Neurons can be classified based on their number of poles (unipolar, bipolar, multipolar), length of axons, or their function (sensory, motor, interneurons). Myelin allows faster signal transmission along axons.
Transcription is the process of converting DNA into mRNA. It involves two main steps - formation of pre-mRNA using RNA polymerase and editing of pre-mRNA into mRNA through splicing. During transcription, RNA polymerase binds to DNA and synthesizes pre-mRNA on the template strand. The pre-mRNA then undergoes splicing to remove introns, forming mRNA. The mRNA is transported out of the nucleus where it directs protein synthesis through translation. Translation involves three stages - initiation, elongation, and termination, using ribosomes and tRNA to link amino acids together into a polypeptide chain based on the mRNA codons.
The document summarizes genetic control of protein synthesis, cell function, and cell reproduction. It describes how genes control heredity and cell functions through DNA, RNA, and protein synthesis. The process of transcription and translation are explained, as well as the roles of different types of RNA and ribosomes. Genetic and enzyme regulation control cell activities. Cell reproduction begins with DNA replication and continues through the stages of mitosis to divide the cell into two daughter cells. Growth factors and other mechanisms regulate cell growth and reproduction.
The document summarizes key aspects of the central dogma and genetic code. It discusses how genetic information flows from DNA to RNA to protein in an unidirectional manner. It also describes how the genetic code is cracked, with three nucleotides needed to encode for 20 amino acids. Most amino acids are encoded by multiple codons, making the code degenerate and allowing few changes over time due to lack of tolerance.
The document summarizes the structure and types of neurons and glial cells in the nervous system. It discusses that neurons are excitable cells that conduct nerve impulses, while glial cells provide support and insulation. The major types of glial cells are astrocytes, microglia, ependymal cells, oligodendrocytes, and Schwann cells. Neurons consist of a cell body, dendrites, and an axon. The axon conducts impulses away from the cell body and terminates in synaptic knobs. Neurons are classified structurally as multipolar, bipolar, or unipolar based on their processes, and functionally as afferent, efferent
The document describes the genetic control of protein synthesis. It discusses how genes in the cell nucleus control protein synthesis through the processes of transcription and translation. There are approximately 30,000 genes in each cell, each composed of DNA. During transcription, the DNA code is transferred to an RNA code, which then directs protein synthesis. The main types of RNA - mRNA, tRNA, rRNA and miRNA - are described along with their roles in protein synthesis. Translation and the genetic code are also summarized.
Gene expression is the process by which DNA directs the production of proteins. It involves two main stages: transcription and translation. In transcription, the DNA sequence of a gene is transcribed into mRNA with the help of RNA polymerase. In eukaryotes, the pre-mRNA undergoes processing including 5' capping, splicing, and 3' polyadenylation to produce mature mRNA. Translation then uses the mRNA to produce a polypeptide with the help of ribosomes and tRNA. It involves initiation, elongation through the sequential addition of amino acids, and termination when a stop codon is reached.
Structure, function and classification of neuronDr Sara Sadiq
The document summarizes the structure and classification of the nervous system. It discusses that the nervous system is divided into the central nervous system (CNS) and peripheral nervous system (PNS). The CNS contains the brain and spinal cord while the PNS contains all neural tissue outside the CNS. There are two main cell types - neurons which process and transmit information, and neuroglia which provide support. Neurons can be classified based on their number of poles (unipolar, bipolar, multipolar), length of axons, or their function (sensory, motor, interneurons). Myelin allows faster signal transmission along axons.
Protein synthesis involves DNA being transcribed into mRNA which is then translated into proteins with the help of tRNA and rRNA. There are three main types of RNA - mRNA carries the genetic code from DNA to ribosomes, tRNA carries amino acids and bonds to mRNA through anticodons, and rRNA makes up ribosomes where protein synthesis occurs. The sequence of codons in mRNA determines the specific amino acid sequence of the resulting protein.
The human genome contains around 3 billion base pairs and 20,000-25,000 genes. Genes code for proteins and can vary in length from 1,000 to over 1.5 million base pairs. While genes make up about 1-1.4% of the genome, the remaining non-coding regions also play important regulatory roles. Genetic variations, from single mutations to complex interactions between multiple genes and the environment, underlie many diseases. New sequencing technologies are helping researchers better understand these relationships and develop personalized prevention and treatment approaches.
The document summarizes the structure and function of the reticular formation and limbic system. It discusses how the reticular formation activates the cerebrum through direct stimulation and neurohormonal systems. It describes various neurohormonal systems like the locus ceruleus-norepinephrine system and raphe nuclei-serotonin system. It then discusses the limbic system, including the hypothalamus, and their roles in emotional behavior, motivational drives, and regulating internal body functions. Key limbic structures and their functions in aggression, fear, feeding, reward, and punishment are also outlined.
Control of gene expression ppt
definition of gene expression
inducible gene expression
repressible gene expression
control of gene expression in eukaryotics .all the in information about this topic is include .
Here are the key types of mechanoreceptors and their properties:
- Cutaneous mechanoreceptors:
- Meissner's corpuscles - detect light touch and pressure on fingertips and lips. Found in dermal papillae.
- Merkel's discs - detect sustained light touch. Found just below the epidermis.
- Pacinian corpuscles - detect deep pressure and vibration. Found in dermis and connective tissue.
- Ruffini endings - detect skin stretch and joint movement. Found in dermis and connective tissue.
- Free nerve endings - detect pain. Found throughout the dermis and epidermis.
- Proprioceptors:
- Muscle spind
This document discusses DNA and genetics. It begins by describing the basic components and structure of DNA, including nucleotides, bases, and the double helix formation. It then explains how DNA stores and transmits genetic information through transcription and translation into RNA and proteins. The document also covers DNA replication, genes, mutations, chromosomes, mitosis, meiosis, inheritance patterns, and genetic diseases. Overall, it provides a comprehensive overview of DNA and the fundamentals of genetics.
The document summarizes the major endocrine glands and their hormones. It discusses the pituitary gland and its anterior and posterior lobes which secrete hormones that control other glands. The thyroid gland, parathyroid gland, adrenal glands, pancreas, testes and ovaries are also covered, outlining their hormone productions and functions in regulating processes like growth, metabolism, sexual development and reproduction.
The document summarizes the organization and function of the nervous system. It discusses how the nervous system is divided into the central nervous system (CNS) and peripheral nervous system (PNS). It also describes the basic components of neurons, including the cell body, dendrites, axon, and myelin sheath. It explains how neurons communicate via graded potentials and action potentials in response to stimuli and how synapses facilitate communication between neurons.
Gene expression in eukaryotes is controlled at multiple levels, including chromatin structure, transcription, RNA processing, and translation. Chromatin structure determines if genes are transcriptionally active or inactive. Transcription is regulated by the interaction of promoters, transcription factors, and enhancers. RNA processing controls splicing and transport of mRNA. Finally, translation and post-translational modifications further regulate gene expression. Overall, eukaryotic gene expression is tightly controlled through complex mechanisms at the chromatin, transcription, RNA, translation, and protein levels.
The nucleus is a membrane-bound organelle found in eukaryotic cells that was discovered in 1831. It contains the cell's genetic material and plays a key role in functions like DNA replication and protein synthesis. The nucleus has a double membrane structure and contains chromatin with DNA and histone proteins, as well as the nucleolus where ribosome biogenesis occurs. Transport of molecules into and out of the nucleus occurs through nuclear pore complexes in the membrane.
The document summarizes key aspects of cell structure and genetic control. It describes the three main parts of the cell - plasma membrane, cytoplasm/organelles, and nucleus. It explains the structure and functions of organelles like mitochondria, ER, Golgi complex, lysosomes, and peroxisomes. It also summarizes DNA replication, transcription, translation, and the role of RNA in protein synthesis. Finally, it provides an overview of the cell cycle, mitosis, meiosis, and programmed cell death.
Transposons are mobile segments of DNA that can change their position within the genome. There are two main types: DNA transposons, which move directly through a cut-and-paste mechanism, and retrotransposons, which are first transcribed into RNA and then reverse transcribed back into DNA before inserting into a new location. In bacteria, transposons often carry additional genes for antibiotic resistance and can move between bacterial chromosomes and plasmids. They use either replicative or conservative transposition mechanisms to insert into new sites in the genome. Transposons have played an important role in genome evolution and disease but can also be useful molecular tools.
The document describes the organization of cells and various cellular organelles. It discusses the structure and functions of mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, lysosomes, peroxisomes, and nucleus. Mitochondria generate energy through oxidative phosphorylation. The endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi apparatus are involved in protein modification and transport. Lysosomes contain enzymes for intracellular digestion. Peroxisomes contain enzymes for lipid metabolism. The nucleus contains DNA and directs gene expression and protein synthesis.
This document discusses the structure and function of ribosomes. It begins by introducing ribosomes as large, complex molecules found in all living cells that serve as the primary site of protein synthesis. The document then describes the structure of ribosomes, which consist of two subunits that come together during protein synthesis. It explains the three main steps of protein synthesis carried out by ribosomes - initiation, elongation, and termination - and the role of mRNA and tRNA in translating genetic code into proteins.
Nervous tissue forms the organs of the nervous system such as the brain, spinal cord, and nerves. It is cellular tissue composed of neurons and glial cells. Nervous tissue lacks extracellular material. Neurons generate, conduct, and transmit nerve impulses and process information, while glial cells perform supporting functions. Neurons consist of a cell body and processes, with cell bodies forming gray matter and processes forming white matter. Neurons are polarized and use synapses to transmit nerve impulses chemically or electrically between each other. Glial cells such as oligodendrocytes and astrocytes insulate and support neurons. Myelinated nerve fibers contain axons surrounded by myelin sheaths
This document provides a summary of a biology textbook chapter on DNA, genes, and genetic engineering. It discusses:
- The structure of DNA as a double helix made of nucleotides with complementary base pairing.
- Genes are segments of DNA that code for proteins. DNA is transcribed into mRNA which is translated by ribosomes into polypeptides.
- Genetic engineering techniques allow genes to be transferred between organisms using vectors like plasmids. The process of inserting the human insulin gene into bacteria to produce insulin is described.
DNA replication is the process by which DNA copies itself in living cells. It occurs in three main steps: initiation, elongation, and termination. Initiation begins at origins of replication, where proteins assemble into pre-replication complexes. During elongation, helicase unwinds the DNA strands and DNA polymerase adds complementary nucleotides to each strand. Termination occurs when the replication forks meet, with telomerase ensuring complete replication of chromosome ends.
Gene expression/ RNA & Protein SynthesisRobin Seamon
1. DNA contains the genetic instructions and is located in the nucleus.
2. During transcription, DNA is copied into messenger RNA (mRNA) by RNA polymerase.
3. The mRNA carries the genetic message to the cytoplasm where protein synthesis occurs through translation.
4. During translation, transfer RNA (tRNA) and ribosomes in the cytoplasm work together to assemble amino acids into proteins based on the mRNA instructions.
eukaryotic translation initiation and its regulationnida rehman
The document summarizes eukaryotic translation initiation. It describes how the 43S preinitiation complex is formed and recruits to the 5' end of mRNA with the help of initiation factors. The complex then scans the 5' UTR until it recognizes the start codon, after which the 60S subunit joins to form the 80S ribosome. Initiation factors are regulated by phosphorylation and proteolysis. Translation can also be controlled by RNA-binding proteins and the length of the poly-A tail.
The document summarizes genetic control of protein synthesis, cell function, and cell reproduction. It describes how genes control heredity and cell functions through DNA, RNA, and protein synthesis. The process of transcription and translation are explained, where DNA is transcribed to RNA which is then translated to form proteins. Cell reproduction begins with DNA replication, followed by mitosis where the cell splits into two daughter cells with identical DNA. Gene expression and enzyme regulation control cell activities and functions. Growth factors also regulate cell growth and reproduction.
GENETIC CONTROL OF PROTEIN SYNTHESIS, CELL FUNCTION.pptxFatimaSundus1
The document discusses genetic control of protein synthesis, cell function, and cell reproduction. It explains that genes located in cell nuclei control protein synthesis through transcription and translation. Transcription copies DNA's genetic code into mRNA in the nucleus. Translation then uses mRNA to assemble specific protein sequences in ribosomes located in the cytoplasm. The genetic code is made up of triplets of nucleotides called codons, which correspond to transfer RNA anticodons and the amino acids used to build proteins. Different types of RNA, including mRNA, tRNA, and rRNA, facilitate moving genetic information from DNA and synthesizing proteins. The document also briefly discusses cell mitosis, where a cell divides into two identical daughter cells, and apoptosis, the process of programmed cell
Protein synthesis involves DNA being transcribed into mRNA which is then translated into proteins with the help of tRNA and rRNA. There are three main types of RNA - mRNA carries the genetic code from DNA to ribosomes, tRNA carries amino acids and bonds to mRNA through anticodons, and rRNA makes up ribosomes where protein synthesis occurs. The sequence of codons in mRNA determines the specific amino acid sequence of the resulting protein.
The human genome contains around 3 billion base pairs and 20,000-25,000 genes. Genes code for proteins and can vary in length from 1,000 to over 1.5 million base pairs. While genes make up about 1-1.4% of the genome, the remaining non-coding regions also play important regulatory roles. Genetic variations, from single mutations to complex interactions between multiple genes and the environment, underlie many diseases. New sequencing technologies are helping researchers better understand these relationships and develop personalized prevention and treatment approaches.
The document summarizes the structure and function of the reticular formation and limbic system. It discusses how the reticular formation activates the cerebrum through direct stimulation and neurohormonal systems. It describes various neurohormonal systems like the locus ceruleus-norepinephrine system and raphe nuclei-serotonin system. It then discusses the limbic system, including the hypothalamus, and their roles in emotional behavior, motivational drives, and regulating internal body functions. Key limbic structures and their functions in aggression, fear, feeding, reward, and punishment are also outlined.
Control of gene expression ppt
definition of gene expression
inducible gene expression
repressible gene expression
control of gene expression in eukaryotics .all the in information about this topic is include .
Here are the key types of mechanoreceptors and their properties:
- Cutaneous mechanoreceptors:
- Meissner's corpuscles - detect light touch and pressure on fingertips and lips. Found in dermal papillae.
- Merkel's discs - detect sustained light touch. Found just below the epidermis.
- Pacinian corpuscles - detect deep pressure and vibration. Found in dermis and connective tissue.
- Ruffini endings - detect skin stretch and joint movement. Found in dermis and connective tissue.
- Free nerve endings - detect pain. Found throughout the dermis and epidermis.
- Proprioceptors:
- Muscle spind
This document discusses DNA and genetics. It begins by describing the basic components and structure of DNA, including nucleotides, bases, and the double helix formation. It then explains how DNA stores and transmits genetic information through transcription and translation into RNA and proteins. The document also covers DNA replication, genes, mutations, chromosomes, mitosis, meiosis, inheritance patterns, and genetic diseases. Overall, it provides a comprehensive overview of DNA and the fundamentals of genetics.
The document summarizes the major endocrine glands and their hormones. It discusses the pituitary gland and its anterior and posterior lobes which secrete hormones that control other glands. The thyroid gland, parathyroid gland, adrenal glands, pancreas, testes and ovaries are also covered, outlining their hormone productions and functions in regulating processes like growth, metabolism, sexual development and reproduction.
The document summarizes the organization and function of the nervous system. It discusses how the nervous system is divided into the central nervous system (CNS) and peripheral nervous system (PNS). It also describes the basic components of neurons, including the cell body, dendrites, axon, and myelin sheath. It explains how neurons communicate via graded potentials and action potentials in response to stimuli and how synapses facilitate communication between neurons.
Gene expression in eukaryotes is controlled at multiple levels, including chromatin structure, transcription, RNA processing, and translation. Chromatin structure determines if genes are transcriptionally active or inactive. Transcription is regulated by the interaction of promoters, transcription factors, and enhancers. RNA processing controls splicing and transport of mRNA. Finally, translation and post-translational modifications further regulate gene expression. Overall, eukaryotic gene expression is tightly controlled through complex mechanisms at the chromatin, transcription, RNA, translation, and protein levels.
The nucleus is a membrane-bound organelle found in eukaryotic cells that was discovered in 1831. It contains the cell's genetic material and plays a key role in functions like DNA replication and protein synthesis. The nucleus has a double membrane structure and contains chromatin with DNA and histone proteins, as well as the nucleolus where ribosome biogenesis occurs. Transport of molecules into and out of the nucleus occurs through nuclear pore complexes in the membrane.
The document summarizes key aspects of cell structure and genetic control. It describes the three main parts of the cell - plasma membrane, cytoplasm/organelles, and nucleus. It explains the structure and functions of organelles like mitochondria, ER, Golgi complex, lysosomes, and peroxisomes. It also summarizes DNA replication, transcription, translation, and the role of RNA in protein synthesis. Finally, it provides an overview of the cell cycle, mitosis, meiosis, and programmed cell death.
Transposons are mobile segments of DNA that can change their position within the genome. There are two main types: DNA transposons, which move directly through a cut-and-paste mechanism, and retrotransposons, which are first transcribed into RNA and then reverse transcribed back into DNA before inserting into a new location. In bacteria, transposons often carry additional genes for antibiotic resistance and can move between bacterial chromosomes and plasmids. They use either replicative or conservative transposition mechanisms to insert into new sites in the genome. Transposons have played an important role in genome evolution and disease but can also be useful molecular tools.
The document describes the organization of cells and various cellular organelles. It discusses the structure and functions of mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, lysosomes, peroxisomes, and nucleus. Mitochondria generate energy through oxidative phosphorylation. The endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi apparatus are involved in protein modification and transport. Lysosomes contain enzymes for intracellular digestion. Peroxisomes contain enzymes for lipid metabolism. The nucleus contains DNA and directs gene expression and protein synthesis.
This document discusses the structure and function of ribosomes. It begins by introducing ribosomes as large, complex molecules found in all living cells that serve as the primary site of protein synthesis. The document then describes the structure of ribosomes, which consist of two subunits that come together during protein synthesis. It explains the three main steps of protein synthesis carried out by ribosomes - initiation, elongation, and termination - and the role of mRNA and tRNA in translating genetic code into proteins.
Nervous tissue forms the organs of the nervous system such as the brain, spinal cord, and nerves. It is cellular tissue composed of neurons and glial cells. Nervous tissue lacks extracellular material. Neurons generate, conduct, and transmit nerve impulses and process information, while glial cells perform supporting functions. Neurons consist of a cell body and processes, with cell bodies forming gray matter and processes forming white matter. Neurons are polarized and use synapses to transmit nerve impulses chemically or electrically between each other. Glial cells such as oligodendrocytes and astrocytes insulate and support neurons. Myelinated nerve fibers contain axons surrounded by myelin sheaths
This document provides a summary of a biology textbook chapter on DNA, genes, and genetic engineering. It discusses:
- The structure of DNA as a double helix made of nucleotides with complementary base pairing.
- Genes are segments of DNA that code for proteins. DNA is transcribed into mRNA which is translated by ribosomes into polypeptides.
- Genetic engineering techniques allow genes to be transferred between organisms using vectors like plasmids. The process of inserting the human insulin gene into bacteria to produce insulin is described.
DNA replication is the process by which DNA copies itself in living cells. It occurs in three main steps: initiation, elongation, and termination. Initiation begins at origins of replication, where proteins assemble into pre-replication complexes. During elongation, helicase unwinds the DNA strands and DNA polymerase adds complementary nucleotides to each strand. Termination occurs when the replication forks meet, with telomerase ensuring complete replication of chromosome ends.
Gene expression/ RNA & Protein SynthesisRobin Seamon
1. DNA contains the genetic instructions and is located in the nucleus.
2. During transcription, DNA is copied into messenger RNA (mRNA) by RNA polymerase.
3. The mRNA carries the genetic message to the cytoplasm where protein synthesis occurs through translation.
4. During translation, transfer RNA (tRNA) and ribosomes in the cytoplasm work together to assemble amino acids into proteins based on the mRNA instructions.
eukaryotic translation initiation and its regulationnida rehman
The document summarizes eukaryotic translation initiation. It describes how the 43S preinitiation complex is formed and recruits to the 5' end of mRNA with the help of initiation factors. The complex then scans the 5' UTR until it recognizes the start codon, after which the 60S subunit joins to form the 80S ribosome. Initiation factors are regulated by phosphorylation and proteolysis. Translation can also be controlled by RNA-binding proteins and the length of the poly-A tail.
The document summarizes genetic control of protein synthesis, cell function, and cell reproduction. It describes how genes control heredity and cell functions through DNA, RNA, and protein synthesis. The process of transcription and translation are explained, where DNA is transcribed to RNA which is then translated to form proteins. Cell reproduction begins with DNA replication, followed by mitosis where the cell splits into two daughter cells with identical DNA. Gene expression and enzyme regulation control cell activities and functions. Growth factors also regulate cell growth and reproduction.
GENETIC CONTROL OF PROTEIN SYNTHESIS, CELL FUNCTION.pptxFatimaSundus1
The document discusses genetic control of protein synthesis, cell function, and cell reproduction. It explains that genes located in cell nuclei control protein synthesis through transcription and translation. Transcription copies DNA's genetic code into mRNA in the nucleus. Translation then uses mRNA to assemble specific protein sequences in ribosomes located in the cytoplasm. The genetic code is made up of triplets of nucleotides called codons, which correspond to transfer RNA anticodons and the amino acids used to build proteins. Different types of RNA, including mRNA, tRNA, and rRNA, facilitate moving genetic information from DNA and synthesizing proteins. The document also briefly discusses cell mitosis, where a cell divides into two identical daughter cells, and apoptosis, the process of programmed cell
104 Genetics and cellular functionLearning Objective.docxaulasnilda
1
04 Genetics and cellular
function
Learning Objectives
• With respect to nucleic acids:
• Identify the monomers and polymers.
• Compare and contrast general molecular structure.
• Define the terms genetic code, transcription and translation.
• Explain how and why RNA is synthesized.
• Explain the roles of tRNA, mRNA, and rRNA in protein synthesis.
• Define the term cellular respiration.
• With respect to glycolysis, the Krebs (citric acid or TCA) cycle, and the electron transport chain: compare and
contrast energy input, efficiency of energy production, oxygen use, by-products and cellular location.
• Referring to a generalized cell cycle, including interphase and the stages of mitosis:
• Describe the events that take place in each stage.
• Identify cells that are in each stage.
• Analyze the functional significance of each stage.
• Distinguish between mitosis and cytokinesis.
• Describe DNA replication.
• Analyze the interrelationships among chromatin, chromosomes and chromatids.
• Give examples of cell types in the body that divide by mitosis and examples of circumstances in the body that
require mitotic cell division.
• Compare and contrast the processes of mitosis and meiosis.
• Provide specific examples to demonstrate how individual cells respond to their environment (e.g., in terms of
organelle function, transport processes, protein synthesis, or regulation of cell cycle) in order to maintain
homeostasis in the body.
• Predict factors or situations that could disrupt organelle function, transport processes, protein synthesis, or the
cell cycle.
• Predict the types of problems that would occur if the cells could not maintain homeostasis due to abnormalities
in organelle function, transport processes, protein synthesis, or the cell cycle.
2
DNA and RNA—The Nucleic Acids
DNA Structure
• Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)—
long, thread-like molecule with
2 nm diameter, but varied
length
• 46 DNA molecules in nucleus of
most human cells
• Average length about 43,000 μm
each
• DNA (and other nucleic acids)
are polymers of nucleotides
• Nucleotide consists of a sugar,
phosphate group, and
nitrogenous base
• A single DNA nucleotide
• One deoxyribose sugar
• One phosphate group
• One nitrogenous base
3
Nitrogenous Bases
• Purines—double ring
• Adenine (A)
• Guanine (G)
• Pyrimidines—single ring
• Cytosine (C)
• Thymine (T)
• Uracil (U) (not found in DNA,
only found in RNA)
DNA Structure
• Phosphate and Sugar unite by covalent bonds to
form “backbone”
• Nitrogenous bases of two backbones united by
hydrogen bonds
• A purine on one strand always bound to a pyrimidine
on the other
• A–T two hydrogen bonds
• C–G three hydrogen bonds
• Double helix shape of DNA (resembles spiral
staircase)
• Law of complementary base pairing
• One strand determines base sequence of other
4
Chromatin and Chromosomes
• Most human cells have 2 million μm (2m)
of DNA
• Nucleosome - DNA winds around eight ...
This document provides information on different molecular techniques used in fisheries. It begins with basic differences between eukaryotes and prokaryotes. It then defines molecular biology and its main components like DNA, RNA, and proteins. It describes the roles and structures of DNA, RNA, and the processes of DNA replication, transcription, translation, and reverse transcription. The key molecular biology components are DNA, which holds genetic information; RNA, which acts as intermediary between DNA and protein synthesis; and proteins, the major functional molecules in cells.
The document summarizes key aspects of endoplasmic reticulum, ribosomes, and protein synthesis. It describes the endoplasmic reticulum as a network of membrane-bound channels found in eukaryotic cells, except red blood cells, and absent in prokaryotes. Ribosomes are sites of protein synthesis and consist of a large and small subunit that bind messenger RNA. Protein synthesis involves transcription of DNA to mRNA and translation of mRNA codons into amino acids by ribosomes, consisting of initiation, elongation, and termination stages.
DNA contains the genetic instructions for living organisms. It is replicated for cell division. During transcription, DNA is read to produce messenger RNA (mRNA). The mRNA is then translated by ribosomes to produce proteins according to the genetic code. Transfer RNA delivers amino acids to the ribosome to link together into polypeptide chains. RNA and proteins are essential for carrying out the genetic instructions in DNA and allowing life at the molecular level.
The document provides information on the basics of molecular biology. It discusses the key components involved which are DNA, RNA, and proteins. It explains what each of these components are, their structures and functions. It describes some important molecular biology techniques like DNA replication, transcription, translation, PCR, gel electrophoresis, and macromolecule blotting and probing which are used to study and manipulate these molecular components. The document also provides a brief overview of genomes and why genome analysis is important.
Basics of molecular biology tools and techniquesBOTANYWith
The key players in molecular biology are DNA, RNA, and proteins. DNA is the blueprint stored in the genome that contains the genetic instructions. It is replicated for cell division. During transcription, a complementary RNA copy of a DNA sequence is generated. There are several types of RNA including mRNA and rRNA. mRNA is translated by ribosomes into proteins, the functional molecules that carry out most tasks in cells. Various techniques are used in molecular biology like PCR, gel electrophoresis, and blotting to study these biomolecules.
The key players in molecular biology are DNA, RNA, and proteins. DNA contains the genetic instructions and is located in the nucleus. It is replicated for cell division. During transcription, DNA is read and an mRNA copy is produced. The mRNA moves to the cytoplasm where it is translated by ribosomes into a protein based on the genetic code. RNA also helps in protein synthesis and includes tRNA, rRNA, and mRNA. Proteins are made of amino acids and perform most functions in cells. Reverse transcription allows RNA viruses to make DNA copies of their genomes.
This document discusses various cellular processes including:
1) Passive and active transport mechanisms like diffusion, osmosis, and endocytosis/exocytosis that move materials across cell membranes.
2) Cell metabolism pathways like cellular respiration, glycolysis and the citric acid cycle that break down nutrients to produce energy.
3) Protein synthesis which involves transcription of DNA to mRNA in the nucleus, and translation of mRNA to proteins at ribosomes.
4) Cell division through mitosis, which duplicates the cell's DNA and divides it equally between two daughter cells.
This document discusses various cellular processes including:
1) Passive and active transport mechanisms like diffusion, osmosis, and endocytosis/exocytosis that move materials across cell membranes.
2) Cell metabolism pathways like cellular respiration, glycolysis and the citric acid cycle that break down nutrients to produce energy.
3) Protein synthesis which involves transcription of DNA to mRNA in the nucleus, and translation of mRNA to proteins at ribosomes.
4) Cell division through mitosis, which duplicates the nuclear DNA and divides the cell into two identical daughter cells.
The document provides information on the basics of molecular biology. It begins with a table comparing key attributes of eukaryotes and prokaryotes. It then defines molecular biology as the study of the molecular underpinnings of processes like DNA replication, transcription, and translation. The basic components involved are described as DNA, RNA, and proteins. DNA stores genetic information. RNA and proteins are involved in building and regulating cells. The processes of DNA replication, transcription, translation, and their roles are summarized.
This document summarizes the process of protein synthesis and processing. It begins with an overview that proteins are composed of amino acids and are made by ribosomes. It then describes the two main steps: 1) Transcription, where DNA is copied into mRNA in the nucleus. 2) Translation, where the mRNA code is decoded by ribosomes in the cytoplasm to form a protein chain out of amino acids brought in by tRNA. The document provides details on how each step works, including enzymes involved in transcription and the base-pairing between mRNA codons and tRNA anticodons to assemble the protein chain.
1. The document discusses microbial genetics and the flow of genetic information. It defines key terms like genetics, genes, genome, genotype, and phenotype.
2. It describes the structure of DNA and how it carries genetic information as a double-stranded molecule made up of nucleotides. DNA replication is semi-conservative and involves unwinding the strands, creating an RNA primer, and synthesizing new strands in the 5' to 3' direction.
3. The process of transcription is described, where RNA polymerase reads the genetic code from DNA and synthesizes mRNA, which is then translated to produce proteins. Both prokaryotes and eukaryotes undergo transcription but differ in initiation, processing, and coupling with
This document summarizes a presentation on DNA replication and protein synthesis. It defines DNA replication as producing two identical copies of DNA from one original molecule through semi-conservative replication. It describes the steps of DNA replication as unwinding, complementary base pairing, and joining. It also summarizes transcription as creating mRNA from DNA, and translation as using mRNA to create proteins with the help of tRNAs and ribosomes. The importance of DNA replication is that it is required for growth, repair, and tissue regeneration in living organisms.
This document discusses nucleotides, nucleic acids, and heredity. It begins by explaining that cells contain thousands of proteins and chromosomes carry hereditary information in genes made of DNA and histone proteins. The document then discusses that DNA carries genetic information in genes and each gene controls one protein. It describes the basic components and structures of nucleic acids DNA and RNA, including nucleotides, bases, nucleosides, and primary and secondary structures. It explains how DNA replicates and is amplified through PCR. The roles of different RNA types and protein synthesis are covered. The document concludes by discussing DNA repair through the base excision repair pathway.
DNA, RNA, and proteins are the basic components of molecular biology. DNA stores genetic information and is replicated for cell division, while RNA acts as an intermediary to help synthesize proteins according to the genetic code. Molecular biologists study the interactions between these molecules to understand how life processes like DNA replication, transcription, and translation work at the cellular level.
This document provides an overview of nucleic acids, DNA, RNA, and protein synthesis. It discusses:
- Nucleic acids DNA and RNA are made of nucleotides and carry genetic information.
- DNA exists as a double helix with base pairing between strands. It resides in the nucleus and replicates semi-conservatively.
- RNA is single-stranded and exists in different types to aid protein synthesis in the cytoplasm.
- Protein synthesis involves transcription of DNA to mRNA and translation of mRNA to proteins with the help of tRNA and ribosomes.
How to Setup Warehouse & Location in Odoo 17 InventoryCeline George
In this slide, we'll explore how to set up warehouses and locations in Odoo 17 Inventory. This will help us manage our stock effectively, track inventory levels, and streamline warehouse operations.
A review of the growth of the Israel Genealogy Research Association Database Collection for the last 12 months. Our collection is now passed the 3 million mark and still growing. See which archives have contributed the most. See the different types of records we have, and which years have had records added. You can also see what we have for the future.
This document provides an overview of wound healing, its functions, stages, mechanisms, factors affecting it, and complications.
A wound is a break in the integrity of the skin or tissues, which may be associated with disruption of the structure and function.
Healing is the body’s response to injury in an attempt to restore normal structure and functions.
Healing can occur in two ways: Regeneration and Repair
There are 4 phases of wound healing: hemostasis, inflammation, proliferation, and remodeling. This document also describes the mechanism of wound healing. Factors that affect healing include infection, uncontrolled diabetes, poor nutrition, age, anemia, the presence of foreign bodies, etc.
Complications of wound healing like infection, hyperpigmentation of scar, contractures, and keloid formation.
A workshop hosted by the South African Journal of Science aimed at postgraduate students and early career researchers with little or no experience in writing and publishing journal articles.
it describes the bony anatomy including the femoral head , acetabulum, labrum . also discusses the capsule , ligaments . muscle that act on the hip joint and the range of motion are outlined. factors affecting hip joint stability and weight transmission through the joint are summarized.
Strategies for Effective Upskilling is a presentation by Chinwendu Peace in a Your Skill Boost Masterclass organisation by the Excellence Foundation for South Sudan on 08th and 09th June 2024 from 1 PM to 3 PM on each day.
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This is part 1 of my Java Learning Journey. This Contains Custom methods, classes, constructors, packages, multithreading , try- catch block, finally block and more.
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How to Make a Field Mandatory in Odoo 17Celine George
In Odoo, making a field required can be done through both Python code and XML views. When you set the required attribute to True in Python code, it makes the field required across all views where it's used. Conversely, when you set the required attribute in XML views, it makes the field required only in the context of that particular view.
2. Genes:
• A gene is the basic physical and functional unit of
heredity.
• Genes are made up of DNA/RNA. Some genes act
as instructions to make molecules called proteins.
• The genes, which are located in the nuclei of all
cells of the body, control heredity from parents to
children.
• Genes also control the day-to-day function of all
the body’s cells.
• Each gene, which is composed of deoxyribonucleic
acid (DNA), controls the formation of another
nucleic acid, ribonucleic acid (RNA).
3. Gene expression:
It is the entire process, from transcription of the genetic code in the
nucleus to translation of the RNA code and the formation of proteins
in the cell cytoplasm is known as Gene Expression
Or
It is the process in which information from a gene is used in a synthesis
of functional genetic product.
4.
5. Basic Building blocks of DNA:
(1) Phosphoric acid.
(2) A sugar called deoxyribose.
(3) Four nitrogenous bases:
A. Two purine: Adenine and Guanine.
B. Two pyrimidines: Thymine and Cytosine.
• The phosphoric acid and deoxyribose form the two helical
strands that are the backbone of the DNA molecule.
• The nitrogenous bases lie between the two strands and
connected them by a loose bond called hydrogen bond.
6.
7.
8. GENETIC CODE: It is the successive “triplets” of bases
called code word.
This is occur when the two strands of a DNA molecule
are split apart, the purine and pyrimidine bases
projecting to the side of each DNA strand are
exposed.
The successive triplets eventually control the
sequence of amino acids in a protein molecule that is
to be synthesized in the cell.
9. 1. TRANSCRIPTION:
• The DNA code in the cell nucleus is transferred to RNA code in the
cell cytoplasm.
• The RNA, in turn, diffuses from the nucleus through nuclear pores
into the cytoplasmic.
It is very 1st step of DNA based Gene expression in which a particular
segment is copied in to RNA.
Basic Building Blocks of RNA:
1. Ribose sugar
2. Thymine will replaced by Uracil.
10.
11. “Activation” of the RNA Nucleotides:
• Then formation of RNA depends on the enzyme called “RNA Polymerase”
which is a large protein and has a several properties.
1. RNA polymerase will recognize the promotor area of the DNA strand.
2. Unwinding and separating the DNA helix.
3. polymerase then moves along the DNA strand.
4. When the RNA polymerase reaches the end of the DNA it stops and
liberating the RNA.
5. As the new RNA strand is formed, its weak hydrogen bonds with the
DNA template break away .
12.
13.
14. There are Several types of RNA:
1. Precursor messenger RNA (pre-mRNA) It is a large immature single strand of
RNA that is processed in the nucleus to form mature messenger RNA (mRNA).
The pre-RNA includes two different types of segments called introns, which are
removed by a process called splicing, and exons, which are retained in the final
mRNA.
2. Small nuclear RNA (snRNA) directs the splicing of pre-mRNA to form mRNA.
3. Messenger RNA (mRNA) carries the genetic code to the cytoplasm for
controlling the type of protein formed.
4. Transfer RNA (tRNA) transports activated amino acids to the ribosomes to be
used in assembling the protein molecule.
15. 5. Ribosomal RNA, along with about 75 different proteins, forms ribosomes,
the physical and chemical structures on which protein molecules are actually
assembled.
6. MicroRNA (miRNA) are single-stranded RNA molecules of 21 to 23
nucleotides that can regulate gene transcription and translation.
16.
17.
18. A) MESSENGER RNA- THE CODONS:
- Messenger RNA molecules are long, single RNA strands that are suspended in
the cytoplasm.
-They contain codons that are exactly complementary to the code triplets of the
DNA genes.
-Most of the amino acids are represented by more than one codon; also, one
codon represents the signal “start manufacturing the protein molecule,” and
three codons represent “stop manufacturing the protein molecule.”
19.
20. B) TRANSFER RNA- THE ANTICODONS:
-Transfers one amino acid molecules.
-Carrier to transport its specific type of amino acid to the
ribosomes.
-Small molecule in comparison with mRNA.
-Anticodon is located approximately in the middle of the
tRNA molecule
21.
22.
23. C) RIBOSOMAL RNA:
• The third type of RNA in the cell is ribosomal RNA.
• Constitutes about 60 percent of the ribosome.
• The remainder of the ribosome is protein.
• The ribosome is the physical structure in the cytoplasm on which
protein molecules are actually synthesized.
24. 2) TRANSLATION:
• Formation of proteins on the ribosomes.
• When a molecule of mRNA comes in contact with a ribosome, it
travels through the ribosome.
• Polyribosomes: is a cluster of ribosome 3 – 10 that are attached to a
single of mRNA at the same time.
25.
26. Chemical Steps in Protein Synthesis:
1. Each amino acid is activated by a chemical process in which ATP
combines with the amino acid to form an adenosine
monophosphate complex with the amino acid, giving up two high-
energy phosphate bonds in the process.
2. The activated amino acid, having an excess of energy, then combines
with its specific tRNA to form an amino acid– tRNA complex and, at
the same time, releases the adenosine monophosphate.
3. The tRNA carrying the amino acid complex then comes in contact
with the mRNA molecule in the ribosome, where the anticodon of
the tRNA attaches temporarily to its specific codon of the mRNA,
thus lining up the amino acid in appropriate sequence to form a
protein molecule.
27. KEY POINT:
• the enzyme peptidyl transferase (one of the proteins in the
ribosome), forms a peptide bond b/w the two amino acids.
• This process also need a additional high energy phosphate
bond.
• So in general the synthesis of proteins is one of the most energy-
consuming processes of the cell.
29. • The genes control both the physical and chemical functions of
the cells.
• The degree of activation of respective genes must also be
controlled.
• Each cell has powerful internal feedback control mechanisms that keep
the various functional operations of the cell in step with one another.
• There are basically two methods by which the biochemical activities
in the cell are controlled:
(1) genetic regulation.
(2) enzyme regulation.
30. 1- GENETIC REGULATION:
• Regulation of gene expression.
• Covers the entire process from transcription of the genetic code in
the nucleus to the formation of proteins in the cytoplasm.
• Regulation of gene expression provides all living organisms with the
ability to respond to changes in their environment.
• Regulation of gene expression can occur at any point in the
pathways of transcription, rna processing, and translation.
31. 2- ENZYME REGULATION
• cell activities are also controlled by intracellular inhibitors or
activators that act directly on specific intracellular enzymes.
• enzyme regulation represents a second category of mechanisms by
which cellular biochemical functions can be controlled.
• Enzyme regulation is done by:
1) Enzyme inhibition.
2) Enzyme Activation.
33. Life Cycle of the Cell:
• Cell Reproduction Begins With Replication of DNA:
• Chemical and Physical Events of DNA Replication:
1.Both strands of the DNA in each chromosome are replicated, not simply one of them.
2.Both entire strands of the DNA helix are replicated from end to end, rather than small portions
of them, as occurs in the transcription of RNA.
3.The principal enzymes for replicating DNA are a complex of multiple enzymes called DNA
polymerase, which is comparable to RNA polymerase.
34. 4.Formation of each new DNA strand occurs simultaneously in hundreds of
segments along each of the two strands of the helix until the entire strand is
replicated. Then the ends of the subunits are joined together by the DNA
ligase enzyme.
5.Each newly formed strand of DNA remains attached by loose hydrogen
bonding to the original DNA strand that was used as its template. Therefore,
two DNA helixes are coiled together.
6.Because the DNA helixes in each chromosome are approximately 6
centimeters in length and have millions of helix turns, it would be impossible
for the two newly formed DNA helixes to uncoil from each other were it not for
some special mechanism. This uncoiling is achieved by enzymes that
periodically cut each helix along its entire length, rotate each segment enough
to cause separation, and then resplice the helix.
35.
36. CELL MITOSIS:
• The actual process by which the cell splits into two new cells is called
mitosis.
• Once each chromosome has been replicated to form the two
chromatids.
• mitosis follows automatically within 1 or 2 hours.
• Mitotic Apparatus: Function of the Centrioles.
37. • 1- Prophase:
• First stage of mitosis.
• Chromosomes condensation. 2- Prometaphase:
• The growing micro tubular spines of the aster fragment the nuclear
envelope.
• Multiple microtubules from the aster attach to the chromatids at the
centromeres.
• The tubules then pull one chromatid of each pair toward one
cellular pole and its partner toward the opposite pole.
38. • 3- Metaphase:
• The two asters of the mitotic apparatus are pushed farther
apart.
• Minute contractile protein molecules called “molecular motors,”
which are perhaps composed of the muscle protein actin, extend
between the respective spines.
• Lining up to form the equatorial plate of the mitotic spindle.
• 4- Anaphase:
• All 46 pairs of chromatids are separated.
• Two separate sets of 46 daughter chromosomes.
39. • 5- Telophase:
• the two sets of daughter chromosomes are pushed completely
apart.
• the mitotic apparatus dissolute, and a new nuclear membrane
develops around each set of chromosomes.
• the cell pinches in two, midway between the two nuclei.
40. CONTROL OF CELL GROWTH AND CELL
REPRODUCTION:
1. Some cells grow and reproduce all the time, such as the blood-
forming cells of the bone marrow, the germinal layers of the skin,
and the epithelium of the gut.
2. Many other cells, however, such as smooth muscle cells, may not
reproduce for many years.
3. A few cells, such as the neurons and most striated muscle cells,
do not reproduce during the entire life of a person, except during
the original period of fetal life.
41. Three ways in which growth can be controlled:
A. Growth factors that come from other parts of the body. Some of
these growth factors circulate in the blood, but others originate in
adjacent tissues (exam Pancrease).
B. Most normal cells stop growing when they have run out of space
for growth (exam Culture).
C. Cells grown in tissue culture often stop growing when minute
amounts of their own secretions are allowed to collect in the
culture medium.
42. Telomeres: Prevent the Degradation of
Chromosomes:
1. A telomere is a region of repetitive nucleotide
sequences located at each end of a chromatid.
2. Telomeres serve as protective caps that
prevent the chromosome from
deterioration during cell division.
3. When the telomeres shorten to a critical
length, the chromosomes become
unstable and the cells die.
KEY: the enzyme telomerase adds bases to
the ends of the telomeres so that many
more generations of cells can be produced.
43. Regulation of Cell Size:
• If replication of the DNA does not occur, the cell grows to a certain
size and thereafter remains at that size.
• use of the chemical colchicine makes it possible to prevent formation
of the mitotic spindle and therefore to prevent mitosis, even though
replication of the DNA continues.
• In this event, the nucleus contains far greater quantities of DNA
than it normally does, and the cell grows proportionately larger.
44. CELL
DIFFERNTIATION
• changes in physical and functional
properties of cells as they proliferate
in the embryo to form the different
bodily structures and organs.
45.
46. APOPTOSIS—PROGRAMMED CELL
DEATH:
• When cells are no longer needed or become a threat to the organism,
they undergo a suicidal programmed cell death, or apoptosis.
• This process involves a specific proteolytic cascade that causes the cell
to shrink and condense, disassemble its cytoskeleton, and alter its cell
surface so that a neighboring phagocytic cell, such as a macrophage,
can attach to the cell membrane and digest the cell.
• In contrast to programmed death, cells that die as a result of an acute
injury usually swell and burst due to loss of cell membrane integrity, a
process called cell necrosis.
• Some drugs that have been used successfully for chemotherapy appear
to induce apoptosis in cancer cells.
47.
48. CANCER:
• Cancer is caused in most instances by mutation or by some other
abnormal activation of cellular genes that control cell growth and
cell mitosis.
• Proto-oncogenes are normal genes that code for various proteins
that control cell adhesion, growth, and vision. If mutated or
excessively activated, proto-oncogenes can become abnormally
functioning oncogenes capable of causing cancer.
• present in all cells are antioncogenes, also called tumor suppressor
genes, which suppress the activation of specific oncogenes.
Therefore, loss or inactivation of antioncogenes can allow activation
of oncogenes that lead to cancer.
49. Factors that increase the chance to develop a
cancer:
1. Ionizing radiation.
2. Chemical substances.
3. Physical irritants.
4. hereditary tendency to cancer.
5. certain types of viruses
50. The major differences between a cancer cell
and a normal cell are as follows:
A. Cancer cell does not respect usual cellular growth limits.
B. Cancer cells are often far less adhesive to one another.
C. Some cancers also produce angiogenic factors.