The document summarizes genetic control of protein synthesis, cell function, and cell reproduction. It describes how genes control heredity and cell functions through DNA, RNA, and protein synthesis. The process of transcription and translation are explained, where DNA is transcribed to RNA which is then translated to form proteins. Cell reproduction begins with DNA replication, followed by mitosis where the cell splits into two daughter cells with identical DNA. Gene expression and enzyme regulation control cell activities and functions. Growth factors also regulate cell growth and reproduction.
Genes contain DNA instructions that control heredity and cell functions. DNA is transcribed into RNA, which helps produce proteins through a multi-step process of transcription, RNA processing, and translation. Gene expression and protein production are regulated through genetic and enzyme mechanisms to control cell biochemistry. Cells reproduce through mitosis and differentiate during development. Cancer arises from genetic mutations that disrupt normal cell growth controls.
The document describes the genetic control of protein synthesis. It discusses how genes in the cell nucleus control protein synthesis through the processes of transcription and translation. There are approximately 30,000 genes in each cell, each composed of DNA. During transcription, the DNA code is transferred to an RNA code, which then directs protein synthesis. The main types of RNA - mRNA, tRNA, rRNA and miRNA - are described along with their roles in protein synthesis. Translation and the genetic code are also summarized.
104 Genetics and cellular functionLearning Objective.docxaulasnilda
1
04 Genetics and cellular
function
Learning Objectives
• With respect to nucleic acids:
• Identify the monomers and polymers.
• Compare and contrast general molecular structure.
• Define the terms genetic code, transcription and translation.
• Explain how and why RNA is synthesized.
• Explain the roles of tRNA, mRNA, and rRNA in protein synthesis.
• Define the term cellular respiration.
• With respect to glycolysis, the Krebs (citric acid or TCA) cycle, and the electron transport chain: compare and
contrast energy input, efficiency of energy production, oxygen use, by-products and cellular location.
• Referring to a generalized cell cycle, including interphase and the stages of mitosis:
• Describe the events that take place in each stage.
• Identify cells that are in each stage.
• Analyze the functional significance of each stage.
• Distinguish between mitosis and cytokinesis.
• Describe DNA replication.
• Analyze the interrelationships among chromatin, chromosomes and chromatids.
• Give examples of cell types in the body that divide by mitosis and examples of circumstances in the body that
require mitotic cell division.
• Compare and contrast the processes of mitosis and meiosis.
• Provide specific examples to demonstrate how individual cells respond to their environment (e.g., in terms of
organelle function, transport processes, protein synthesis, or regulation of cell cycle) in order to maintain
homeostasis in the body.
• Predict factors or situations that could disrupt organelle function, transport processes, protein synthesis, or the
cell cycle.
• Predict the types of problems that would occur if the cells could not maintain homeostasis due to abnormalities
in organelle function, transport processes, protein synthesis, or the cell cycle.
2
DNA and RNA—The Nucleic Acids
DNA Structure
• Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)—
long, thread-like molecule with
2 nm diameter, but varied
length
• 46 DNA molecules in nucleus of
most human cells
• Average length about 43,000 μm
each
• DNA (and other nucleic acids)
are polymers of nucleotides
• Nucleotide consists of a sugar,
phosphate group, and
nitrogenous base
• A single DNA nucleotide
• One deoxyribose sugar
• One phosphate group
• One nitrogenous base
3
Nitrogenous Bases
• Purines—double ring
• Adenine (A)
• Guanine (G)
• Pyrimidines—single ring
• Cytosine (C)
• Thymine (T)
• Uracil (U) (not found in DNA,
only found in RNA)
DNA Structure
• Phosphate and Sugar unite by covalent bonds to
form “backbone”
• Nitrogenous bases of two backbones united by
hydrogen bonds
• A purine on one strand always bound to a pyrimidine
on the other
• A–T two hydrogen bonds
• C–G three hydrogen bonds
• Double helix shape of DNA (resembles spiral
staircase)
• Law of complementary base pairing
• One strand determines base sequence of other
4
Chromatin and Chromosomes
• Most human cells have 2 million μm (2m)
of DNA
• Nucleosome - DNA winds around eight ...
This document provides information on different molecular techniques used in fisheries. It begins with basic differences between eukaryotes and prokaryotes. It then defines molecular biology and its main components like DNA, RNA, and proteins. It describes the roles and structures of DNA, RNA, and the processes of DNA replication, transcription, translation, and reverse transcription. The key molecular biology components are DNA, which holds genetic information; RNA, which acts as intermediary between DNA and protein synthesis; and proteins, the major functional molecules in cells.
1. The document discusses microbial genetics and the flow of genetic information. It defines key terms like genetics, genes, genome, genotype, and phenotype.
2. It describes the structure of DNA and how it carries genetic information as a double-stranded molecule made up of nucleotides. DNA replication is semi-conservative and involves unwinding the strands, creating an RNA primer, and synthesizing new strands in the 5' to 3' direction.
3. The process of transcription is described, where RNA polymerase reads the genetic code from DNA and synthesizes mRNA, which is then translated to produce proteins. Both prokaryotes and eukaryotes undergo transcription but differ in initiation, processing, and coupling with
The document summarizes key aspects of endoplasmic reticulum, ribosomes, and protein synthesis. It describes the endoplasmic reticulum as a network of membrane-bound channels found in eukaryotic cells, except red blood cells, and absent in prokaryotes. Ribosomes are sites of protein synthesis and consist of a large and small subunit that bind messenger RNA. Protein synthesis involves transcription of DNA to mRNA and translation of mRNA codons into amino acids by ribosomes, consisting of initiation, elongation, and termination stages.
GENETIC CONTROL OF PROTEIN SYNTHESIS, CELL FUNCTION.pptxFatimaSundus1
The document discusses genetic control of protein synthesis, cell function, and cell reproduction. It explains that genes located in cell nuclei control protein synthesis through transcription and translation. Transcription copies DNA's genetic code into mRNA in the nucleus. Translation then uses mRNA to assemble specific protein sequences in ribosomes located in the cytoplasm. The genetic code is made up of triplets of nucleotides called codons, which correspond to transfer RNA anticodons and the amino acids used to build proteins. Different types of RNA, including mRNA, tRNA, and rRNA, facilitate moving genetic information from DNA and synthesizing proteins. The document also briefly discusses cell mitosis, where a cell divides into two identical daughter cells, and apoptosis, the process of programmed cell
Genes contain DNA instructions that control heredity and cell functions. DNA is transcribed into RNA, which helps produce proteins through a multi-step process of transcription, RNA processing, and translation. Gene expression and protein production are regulated through genetic and enzyme mechanisms to control cell biochemistry. Cells reproduce through mitosis and differentiate during development. Cancer arises from genetic mutations that disrupt normal cell growth controls.
The document describes the genetic control of protein synthesis. It discusses how genes in the cell nucleus control protein synthesis through the processes of transcription and translation. There are approximately 30,000 genes in each cell, each composed of DNA. During transcription, the DNA code is transferred to an RNA code, which then directs protein synthesis. The main types of RNA - mRNA, tRNA, rRNA and miRNA - are described along with their roles in protein synthesis. Translation and the genetic code are also summarized.
104 Genetics and cellular functionLearning Objective.docxaulasnilda
1
04 Genetics and cellular
function
Learning Objectives
• With respect to nucleic acids:
• Identify the monomers and polymers.
• Compare and contrast general molecular structure.
• Define the terms genetic code, transcription and translation.
• Explain how and why RNA is synthesized.
• Explain the roles of tRNA, mRNA, and rRNA in protein synthesis.
• Define the term cellular respiration.
• With respect to glycolysis, the Krebs (citric acid or TCA) cycle, and the electron transport chain: compare and
contrast energy input, efficiency of energy production, oxygen use, by-products and cellular location.
• Referring to a generalized cell cycle, including interphase and the stages of mitosis:
• Describe the events that take place in each stage.
• Identify cells that are in each stage.
• Analyze the functional significance of each stage.
• Distinguish between mitosis and cytokinesis.
• Describe DNA replication.
• Analyze the interrelationships among chromatin, chromosomes and chromatids.
• Give examples of cell types in the body that divide by mitosis and examples of circumstances in the body that
require mitotic cell division.
• Compare and contrast the processes of mitosis and meiosis.
• Provide specific examples to demonstrate how individual cells respond to their environment (e.g., in terms of
organelle function, transport processes, protein synthesis, or regulation of cell cycle) in order to maintain
homeostasis in the body.
• Predict factors or situations that could disrupt organelle function, transport processes, protein synthesis, or the
cell cycle.
• Predict the types of problems that would occur if the cells could not maintain homeostasis due to abnormalities
in organelle function, transport processes, protein synthesis, or the cell cycle.
2
DNA and RNA—The Nucleic Acids
DNA Structure
• Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)—
long, thread-like molecule with
2 nm diameter, but varied
length
• 46 DNA molecules in nucleus of
most human cells
• Average length about 43,000 μm
each
• DNA (and other nucleic acids)
are polymers of nucleotides
• Nucleotide consists of a sugar,
phosphate group, and
nitrogenous base
• A single DNA nucleotide
• One deoxyribose sugar
• One phosphate group
• One nitrogenous base
3
Nitrogenous Bases
• Purines—double ring
• Adenine (A)
• Guanine (G)
• Pyrimidines—single ring
• Cytosine (C)
• Thymine (T)
• Uracil (U) (not found in DNA,
only found in RNA)
DNA Structure
• Phosphate and Sugar unite by covalent bonds to
form “backbone”
• Nitrogenous bases of two backbones united by
hydrogen bonds
• A purine on one strand always bound to a pyrimidine
on the other
• A–T two hydrogen bonds
• C–G three hydrogen bonds
• Double helix shape of DNA (resembles spiral
staircase)
• Law of complementary base pairing
• One strand determines base sequence of other
4
Chromatin and Chromosomes
• Most human cells have 2 million μm (2m)
of DNA
• Nucleosome - DNA winds around eight ...
This document provides information on different molecular techniques used in fisheries. It begins with basic differences between eukaryotes and prokaryotes. It then defines molecular biology and its main components like DNA, RNA, and proteins. It describes the roles and structures of DNA, RNA, and the processes of DNA replication, transcription, translation, and reverse transcription. The key molecular biology components are DNA, which holds genetic information; RNA, which acts as intermediary between DNA and protein synthesis; and proteins, the major functional molecules in cells.
1. The document discusses microbial genetics and the flow of genetic information. It defines key terms like genetics, genes, genome, genotype, and phenotype.
2. It describes the structure of DNA and how it carries genetic information as a double-stranded molecule made up of nucleotides. DNA replication is semi-conservative and involves unwinding the strands, creating an RNA primer, and synthesizing new strands in the 5' to 3' direction.
3. The process of transcription is described, where RNA polymerase reads the genetic code from DNA and synthesizes mRNA, which is then translated to produce proteins. Both prokaryotes and eukaryotes undergo transcription but differ in initiation, processing, and coupling with
The document summarizes key aspects of endoplasmic reticulum, ribosomes, and protein synthesis. It describes the endoplasmic reticulum as a network of membrane-bound channels found in eukaryotic cells, except red blood cells, and absent in prokaryotes. Ribosomes are sites of protein synthesis and consist of a large and small subunit that bind messenger RNA. Protein synthesis involves transcription of DNA to mRNA and translation of mRNA codons into amino acids by ribosomes, consisting of initiation, elongation, and termination stages.
GENETIC CONTROL OF PROTEIN SYNTHESIS, CELL FUNCTION.pptxFatimaSundus1
The document discusses genetic control of protein synthesis, cell function, and cell reproduction. It explains that genes located in cell nuclei control protein synthesis through transcription and translation. Transcription copies DNA's genetic code into mRNA in the nucleus. Translation then uses mRNA to assemble specific protein sequences in ribosomes located in the cytoplasm. The genetic code is made up of triplets of nucleotides called codons, which correspond to transfer RNA anticodons and the amino acids used to build proteins. Different types of RNA, including mRNA, tRNA, and rRNA, facilitate moving genetic information from DNA and synthesizing proteins. The document also briefly discusses cell mitosis, where a cell divides into two identical daughter cells, and apoptosis, the process of programmed cell
Basics of molecular biology tools and techniquesBOTANYWith
The key players in molecular biology are DNA, RNA, and proteins. DNA is the blueprint stored in the genome that contains the genetic instructions. It is replicated for cell division. During transcription, a complementary RNA copy of a DNA sequence is generated. There are several types of RNA including mRNA and rRNA. mRNA is translated by ribosomes into proteins, the functional molecules that carry out most tasks in cells. Various techniques are used in molecular biology like PCR, gel electrophoresis, and blotting to study these biomolecules.
DNA contains the genetic instructions for living organisms. It is replicated for cell division. During transcription, DNA is read to produce messenger RNA (mRNA). The mRNA is then translated by ribosomes to produce proteins according to the genetic code. Transfer RNA delivers amino acids to the ribosome to link together into polypeptide chains. RNA and proteins are essential for carrying out the genetic instructions in DNA and allowing life at the molecular level.
The document provides information on the basics of molecular biology. It discusses the key components involved which are DNA, RNA, and proteins. It explains what each of these components are, their structures and functions. It describes some important molecular biology techniques like DNA replication, transcription, translation, PCR, gel electrophoresis, and macromolecule blotting and probing which are used to study and manipulate these molecular components. The document also provides a brief overview of genomes and why genome analysis is important.
This document provides an overview of nucleic acids, DNA, RNA, and protein synthesis. It discusses:
- Nucleic acids DNA and RNA are made of nucleotides and carry genetic information.
- DNA exists as a double helix with base pairing between strands. It resides in the nucleus and replicates semi-conservatively.
- RNA is single-stranded and exists in different types to aid protein synthesis in the cytoplasm.
- Protein synthesis involves transcription of DNA to mRNA and translation of mRNA to proteins with the help of tRNA and ribosomes.
The key players in molecular biology are DNA, RNA, and proteins. DNA contains the genetic instructions and is located in the nucleus. It is replicated for cell division. During transcription, DNA is read and an mRNA copy is produced. The mRNA moves to the cytoplasm where it is translated by ribosomes into a protein based on the genetic code. RNA also helps in protein synthesis and includes tRNA, rRNA, and mRNA. Proteins are made of amino acids and perform most functions in cells. Reverse transcription allows RNA viruses to make DNA copies of their genomes.
This document discusses nucleotides, nucleic acids, and heredity. It begins by explaining that cells contain thousands of proteins and chromosomes carry hereditary information in genes made of DNA and histone proteins. The document then discusses that DNA carries genetic information in genes and each gene controls one protein. It describes the basic components and structures of nucleic acids DNA and RNA, including nucleotides, bases, nucleosides, and primary and secondary structures. It explains how DNA replicates and is amplified through PCR. The roles of different RNA types and protein synthesis are covered. The document concludes by discussing DNA repair through the base excision repair pathway.
The document provides information on the basics of molecular biology. It begins with a table comparing key attributes of eukaryotes and prokaryotes. It then defines molecular biology as the study of the molecular underpinnings of processes like DNA replication, transcription, and translation. The basic components involved are described as DNA, RNA, and proteins. DNA stores genetic information. RNA and proteins are involved in building and regulating cells. The processes of DNA replication, transcription, translation, and their roles are summarized.
Substitution/point mutations and frameshift mutations are similar in that they both alter the genetic code, but they differ in how they alter it:
- Substitution/point mutations involve changing one or a few nucleotides, altering a single codon but not changing the reading frame.
- Frameshift mutations involve inserting or deleting a nucleotide, which shifts the entire reading frame and changes all subsequent codons downstream from the mutation site.
DNA, RNA, and proteins are the basic components of molecular biology. DNA stores genetic information and is replicated for cell division, while RNA acts as an intermediary to help synthesize proteins according to the genetic code. Molecular biologists study the interactions between these molecules to understand how life processes like DNA replication, transcription, and translation work at the cellular level.
This document summarizes a presentation on DNA replication and protein synthesis. It defines DNA replication as producing two identical copies of DNA from one original molecule through semi-conservative replication. It describes the steps of DNA replication as unwinding, complementary base pairing, and joining. It also summarizes transcription as creating mRNA from DNA, and translation as using mRNA to create proteins with the help of tRNAs and ribosomes. The importance of DNA replication is that it is required for growth, repair, and tissue regeneration in living organisms.
The document summarizes key aspects of cell structure and genetic control. It describes the three main parts of the cell - plasma membrane, cytoplasm/organelles, and nucleus. It explains the structure and functions of organelles like mitochondria, ER, Golgi complex, lysosomes, and peroxisomes. It also summarizes DNA replication, transcription, translation, and the role of RNA in protein synthesis. Finally, it provides an overview of the cell cycle, mitosis, meiosis, and programmed cell death.
1) The document discusses microbial genetics, including the structure and function of genetic material, levels of genetic study from genomes to genes, and DNA replication.
2) It describes how genes are expressed through transcription of DNA into RNA and translation of RNA into proteins. Key processes like transcription, translation, and gene regulation are explained.
3) Various mechanisms of genetic exchange between microbes are covered, including conjugation, transformation, and transduction.
DNA contains the genetic material of organisms and carries hereditary information between generations. It is made up of nucleotides containing deoxyribose, phosphate groups, and nitrogenous bases. Watson and Crick discovered that DNA has a double helix structure. RNA is similar to DNA but contains ribose rather than deoxyribose. There are three main types of RNA - mRNA, tRNA, and rRNA - that have different functions in protein synthesis. mRNA carries protein sequence information to ribosomes. tRNA transfers amino acids and rRNA is a catalytic component of ribosomes.
This document discusses various cellular processes including:
1) Passive and active transport mechanisms like diffusion, osmosis, and endocytosis/exocytosis that move materials across cell membranes.
2) Cell metabolism pathways like cellular respiration, glycolysis and the citric acid cycle that break down nutrients to produce energy.
3) Protein synthesis which involves transcription of DNA to mRNA in the nucleus, and translation of mRNA to proteins at ribosomes.
4) Cell division through mitosis, which duplicates the cell's DNA and divides it equally between two daughter cells.
This document discusses various cellular processes including:
1) Passive and active transport mechanisms like diffusion, osmosis, and endocytosis/exocytosis that move materials across cell membranes.
2) Cell metabolism pathways like cellular respiration, glycolysis and the citric acid cycle that break down nutrients to produce energy.
3) Protein synthesis which involves transcription of DNA to mRNA in the nucleus, and translation of mRNA to proteins at ribosomes.
4) Cell division through mitosis, which duplicates the nuclear DNA and divides the cell into two identical daughter cells.
This document discusses DNA, RNA, and DNA/RNA replication. It describes that DNA encodes genetic instructions and consists of two strands coiled around each other. RNA plays roles in coding, decoding, regulating, and expressing genes. DNA replication involves unwinding and separating the DNA strands, attaching initiator proteins, and using enzymes like helicase, primase, and DNA polymerase to copy the strands. DNA polymerase can only copy in the 3' to 5' direction, so the lagging strand is copied discontinuously in short fragments called Okazaki fragments.
The document discusses gene expression and its regulation. It begins by outlining the central dogma of biology - that DNA is transcribed into RNA which is then translated into protein. It then describes gene structure in eukaryotes, including introns and exons. The document goes on to explain the roles and types of RNA, the process of transcription, and how mRNA is processed. It also covers the genetic code, translation, and the different levels at which gene expression can be controlled.
1) This document describes fetal and placental development from the third month of pregnancy until birth. It details the growth and changes that occur in the fetus, fetal membranes, placenta, and umbilical cord during each month of the second and third trimesters.
2) The placenta develops from the chorion frondosum and decidua basalis. It functions to exchange gases, nutrients, electrolytes, and antibodies between the mother and fetus.
3) Near birth, the fetus is fully developed, weighing approximately 3,000-3,500g. Labor occurs around 38 weeks and has three stages, culminating in delivery of the placenta and membranes.
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The key players in molecular biology are DNA, RNA, and proteins. DNA is the blueprint stored in the genome that contains the genetic instructions. It is replicated for cell division. During transcription, a complementary RNA copy of a DNA sequence is generated. There are several types of RNA including mRNA and rRNA. mRNA is translated by ribosomes into proteins, the functional molecules that carry out most tasks in cells. Various techniques are used in molecular biology like PCR, gel electrophoresis, and blotting to study these biomolecules.
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The document provides information on the basics of molecular biology. It discusses the key components involved which are DNA, RNA, and proteins. It explains what each of these components are, their structures and functions. It describes some important molecular biology techniques like DNA replication, transcription, translation, PCR, gel electrophoresis, and macromolecule blotting and probing which are used to study and manipulate these molecular components. The document also provides a brief overview of genomes and why genome analysis is important.
This document provides an overview of nucleic acids, DNA, RNA, and protein synthesis. It discusses:
- Nucleic acids DNA and RNA are made of nucleotides and carry genetic information.
- DNA exists as a double helix with base pairing between strands. It resides in the nucleus and replicates semi-conservatively.
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The key players in molecular biology are DNA, RNA, and proteins. DNA contains the genetic instructions and is located in the nucleus. It is replicated for cell division. During transcription, DNA is read and an mRNA copy is produced. The mRNA moves to the cytoplasm where it is translated by ribosomes into a protein based on the genetic code. RNA also helps in protein synthesis and includes tRNA, rRNA, and mRNA. Proteins are made of amino acids and perform most functions in cells. Reverse transcription allows RNA viruses to make DNA copies of their genomes.
This document discusses nucleotides, nucleic acids, and heredity. It begins by explaining that cells contain thousands of proteins and chromosomes carry hereditary information in genes made of DNA and histone proteins. The document then discusses that DNA carries genetic information in genes and each gene controls one protein. It describes the basic components and structures of nucleic acids DNA and RNA, including nucleotides, bases, nucleosides, and primary and secondary structures. It explains how DNA replicates and is amplified through PCR. The roles of different RNA types and protein synthesis are covered. The document concludes by discussing DNA repair through the base excision repair pathway.
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Substitution/point mutations and frameshift mutations are similar in that they both alter the genetic code, but they differ in how they alter it:
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- Frameshift mutations involve inserting or deleting a nucleotide, which shifts the entire reading frame and changes all subsequent codons downstream from the mutation site.
DNA, RNA, and proteins are the basic components of molecular biology. DNA stores genetic information and is replicated for cell division, while RNA acts as an intermediary to help synthesize proteins according to the genetic code. Molecular biologists study the interactions between these molecules to understand how life processes like DNA replication, transcription, and translation work at the cellular level.
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DNA contains the genetic material of organisms and carries hereditary information between generations. It is made up of nucleotides containing deoxyribose, phosphate groups, and nitrogenous bases. Watson and Crick discovered that DNA has a double helix structure. RNA is similar to DNA but contains ribose rather than deoxyribose. There are three main types of RNA - mRNA, tRNA, and rRNA - that have different functions in protein synthesis. mRNA carries protein sequence information to ribosomes. tRNA transfers amino acids and rRNA is a catalytic component of ribosomes.
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How to Make a Field Mandatory in Odoo 17Celine George
In Odoo, making a field required can be done through both Python code and XML views. When you set the required attribute to True in Python code, it makes the field required across all views where it's used. Conversely, when you set the required attribute in XML views, it makes the field required only in the context of that particular view.
LAND USE LAND COVER AND NDVI OF MIRZAPUR DISTRICT, UPRAHUL
This Dissertation explores the particular circumstances of Mirzapur, a region located in the
core of India. Mirzapur, with its varied terrains and abundant biodiversity, offers an optimal
environment for investigating the changes in vegetation cover dynamics. Our study utilizes
advanced technologies such as GIS (Geographic Information Systems) and Remote sensing to
analyze the transformations that have taken place over the course of a decade.
The complex relationship between human activities and the environment has been the focus
of extensive research and worry. As the global community grapples with swift urbanization,
population expansion, and economic progress, the effects on natural ecosystems are becoming
more evident. A crucial element of this impact is the alteration of vegetation cover, which plays a
significant role in maintaining the ecological equilibrium of our planet.Land serves as the foundation for all human activities and provides the necessary materials for
these activities. As the most crucial natural resource, its utilization by humans results in different
'Land uses,' which are determined by both human activities and the physical characteristics of the
land.
The utilization of land is impacted by human needs and environmental factors. In countries
like India, rapid population growth and the emphasis on extensive resource exploitation can lead
to significant land degradation, adversely affecting the region's land cover.
Therefore, human intervention has significantly influenced land use patterns over many
centuries, evolving its structure over time and space. In the present era, these changes have
accelerated due to factors such as agriculture and urbanization. Information regarding land use and
cover is essential for various planning and management tasks related to the Earth's surface,
providing crucial environmental data for scientific, resource management, policy purposes, and
diverse human activities.
Accurate understanding of land use and cover is imperative for the development planning
of any area. Consequently, a wide range of professionals, including earth system scientists, land
and water managers, and urban planners, are interested in obtaining data on land use and cover
changes, conversion trends, and other related patterns. The spatial dimensions of land use and
cover support policymakers and scientists in making well-informed decisions, as alterations in
these patterns indicate shifts in economic and social conditions. Monitoring such changes with the
help of Advanced technologies like Remote Sensing and Geographic Information Systems is
crucial for coordinated efforts across different administrative levels. Advanced technologies like
Remote Sensing and Geographic Information Systems
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Changes in vegetation cover refer to variations in the distribution, composition, and overall
structure of plant communities across different temporal and spatial scales. These changes can
occur natural.
1. Genetic Control of Protein
Synthesis, Cell Function, and
Cell Reproduction
2. • The genes, which are located in the nuclei of all cells
of the body, control heredity from parents to
children.
• Genes also control the day-to-day function of all the
body’s cells.
• Each gene, which is composed of deoxyribonucleic
acid (DNA), controls the formation of another nucleic
acid, ribonucleic acid (RNA).
• Gene expression: is the entire process, from
transcription of the genetic code in the nucleus to
translation of the rna code and the formation of
proteins in the cell cytoplasm.
3.
4. Basic Building Blocks of DNA:
(1) Phosphoric acid.
(2) A sugar called deoxyribose.
(3) Four nitrogenous bases:
A. Two purine: adenine and guanine.
B. Two pyrimidines: thymine and cytosine.
• The phosphoric acid and deoxyribose form the two
helical strands that are the backbone of the dna
molecule.
• The nitrogenous bases lie between the two strands
and connected them by a loose bond called
hydrogen bond.
5.
6.
7. GENETIC CODE:
• Is the successive “triplets” of
bases called code word.
• This is occur when the two
strands of a DNA molecule are
split apart, the purine and
pyrimidine bases projecting to
the side of each DNA strand are
exposed.
• The successive triplets
eventually control the sequence
of amino acids in a protein
molecule that is to be
synthesized in the cell.
8. 1- TRANSCRIPTION:
• The DNA code in the cell nucleus is transferred to RNA
code in the cell cytoplasm.
• The RNA, in turn, diffuses from the nucleus through
nuclear pores into the cytoplasmic.
Basic Building Blocks of RNA:
1. The sugar is ribose.
2. Thymine is replaced by another pyrimidine, uracil.
9.
10. “Activation” of the RNA Nucleotides:
• Then formation of RNA depends on the enzyme
called “RNA Polymerase” which is a large protein
and has a several properties.
1. RNA polymerase will recognize the promotor area
of the DNA strand.
2. Unwinding and separating the DNA helix.
3. polymerase then moves along the DNA strand.
4. When the RNA polymerase reaches the end of the
DNA it stops and liberating the RNA.
5. As the new RNA strand is formed, its weak
hydrogen bonds with the DNA template break
away .
11.
12.
13. There Are Several Different Types of
RNA:
1. Precursor messenger RNA (pre-mRNA) is a large
immature single strand of RNA that is processed
in the nucleus to form mature messenger RNA
(mRNA).
The pre-RNA includes two different types of
segments called introns, which are removed by a
process called splicing, and exons, which are
retained in the final mRNA.
2. Small nuclear RNA (snRNA) directs the splicing of
pre-mRNA to form mRNA.
14. 3. Messenger RNA (mRNA) carries the genetic code to
the cytoplasm for controlling the type of protein
formed.
4. Transfer RNA (tRNA) transports activated amino
acids to the ribosomes to be used in assembling the
protein molecule.
5. Ribosomal RNA, along with about 75 different
proteins, forms ribosomes, the physical and chemical
structures on which protein molecules are actually
assembled.
6. MicroRNA (miRNA) are single-stranded RNA
molecules of 21 to 23 nucleotides that can regulate
gene transcription and translation.
15.
16.
17. A) MESSENGER RNA—THE CODONS:
• Messenger RNA molecules are long, single RNA
strands that are suspended in the cytoplasm.
• They contain codons that are exactly
complementary to the code triplets of the dna
genes.
• Most of the amino acids are represented by
more than one codon; also, one codon
represents the signal “start manufacturing the
protein molecule,” and three codons represent
“stop manufacturing the protein molecule.”
18.
19. B) TRANSFER RNA—THE
ANTICODONS:
• Transfers one amino acid molecules.
• Carrier to transport its specific type of amino
acid to the ribosomes.
• Small molecule in comparison with mRNA.
• Anticodon is located approximately in the
middle of the tRNA molecule
20.
21. C) RIBOSOMAL RNA:
• The third type of RNA in the cell is ribosomal
RNA.
• Constitutes about 60 percent of the ribosome.
• The remainder of the ribosome is protein.
• The ribosome is the physical structure in the
cytoplasm on which protein molecules are
actually synthesized.
22. 2- TRANSLATION
• Formation of proteins on the ribosomes.
• When a molecule of mRNA comes in contact with
a ribosome, it travels through the ribosome.
Polyribosomes: is a cluster of ribosome 3 – 10 that
are attached to a single of mRNA at the same time.
23.
24. Chemical Steps in Protein Synthesis:
1. Each amino acid is activated by a chemical process in
which ATP combines with the amino acid to form an
adenosine monophosphate complex with the amino acid,
giving up two high-energy phosphate bonds in the
process.
2. The activated amino acid, having an excess of energy, then
combines with its specific tRNA to form an amino acid–
tRNA complex and, at the same time, releases the
adenosine monophosphate.
3. The tRNA carrying the amino acid complex then comes in
contact with the mRNA molecule in the ribosome, where
the anticodon of the tRNA attaches temporarily to its
specific codon of the mRNA, thus lining up the amino acid
in appropriate sequence to form a protein molecule.
25. • the enzyme peptidyl transferase (one of the
proteins in the ribosome), forms a peptide
bond b/w the two amino acids.
• This process also need a additional high
energy phosphate bond.
• So in general the synthesis of proteins is one
of the most energy-consuming processes of
the cell.
29. • The genes control both the physical and
chemical functions of the cells.
• The degree of activation of respective genes
must also be controlled.
• Each cell has powerful internal feedback control
mechanisms that keep the various functional
operations of the cell in step with one another.
• There are basically two methods by which the
biochemical activities in the cell are controlled:
(1) genetic regulation.
(2) enzyme regulation.
30.
31. 1- GENETIC REGULATION:
• Regulation of gene expression.
• Covers the entire process from transcription of
the genetic code in the nucleus to the formation
of proteins in the cytoplasm.
• Regulation of gene expression provides all living
organisms with the ability to respond to changes
in their environment.
• Regulation of gene expression can occur at any
point in the pathways of transcription, rna
processing, and translation.
32. 2- ENZYME REGULATION
• cell activities are also controlled by
intracellular inhibitors or activators that act
directly on specific intracellular enzymes.
• enzyme regulation represents a second
category of mechanisms by which cellular
biochemical functions can be controlled.
• Enzyme regulation is done by:
1) Enzyme inhibition.
2) Enzyme Activation.
35. Life Cycle of the Cell:
• Cell Reproduction Begins With Replication of
DNA:
Chemical and Physical Events of DNA Replication:
1. Both strands of the DNA in each chromosome are replicated, not
simply one of them.
2. Both entire strands of the DNA helix are replicated from end to
end, rather than small portions of them, as occurs in the
transcription of RNA.
3. The principal enzymes for replicating DNA are a complex of
multiple enzymes called DNA polymerase, which is comparable to
RNA polymerase.
36. 4. Formation of each new DNA strand occurs simultaneously in
hundreds of segments along each of the two strands of the helix
until the entire strand is replicated.
Then the ends of the subunits are joined together by the DNA
ligase enzyme.
5. Each newly formed strand of DNA remains attached by loose
hydrogen bonding to the original DNA strand that was used as its
template.
Therefore, two DNA helixes are coiled together.
6. Because the DNA helixes in each chromosome are
approximately 6 centimeters in length and have millions of helix
turns, it would be impossible for the two newly formed DNA
helixes to uncoil from each other were it not for some special
mechanism. This uncoiling is achieved by enzymes that periodically
cut each helix along its entire length, rotate each segment enough
to cause separation, and then resplice the helix.
37.
38. CELL MITOSIS:
• The actual process by which the cell splits into
two new cells is called mitosis.
• Once each chromosome has been replicated
to form the two chromatids.
• mitosis follows automatically within 1 or 2
hours.
• Mitotic Apparatus: Function of the
Centrioles.
39. 1- Prophase:
• First stage of mitosis.
• Chromosomes condensation.
2- Prometaphase:
• The growing microtubular spines of the aster
fragment the nuclear envelope.
• Multiple microtubules from the aster attach to
the chromatids at the centromeres.
• The tubules then pull one chromatid of each
pair toward one cellular pole and its partner
toward the opposite pole.
40. 3- Metaphase:
• The two asters of the mitotic apparatus are
pushed farther apart.
• Minute contractile protein molecules called
“molecular motors,” which are perhaps composed
of the muscle protein actin, extend between the
respective spines.
• Lining up to form the equatorial plate of the
mitotic spindle.
4- Anaphase:
• All 46 pairs of chromatids are separated.
• Two separate sets of 46 daughter chromosomes.
41. 5- Telophase:
• the two sets of daughter chromosomes are
pushed completely apart.
• the mitotic apparatus dissolutes, and a new
nuclear membrane develops around each set
of chromosomes.
• the cell pinches in two, midway between the
two nuclei.
42. CONTROL OF CELL GROWTH
AND CELL REPRODUCTION:
1. Some cells grow and reproduce all the time,
such as the blood-forming cells of the bone
marrow, the germinal layers of the skin, and the
epithelium of the gut.
2. Many other cells, however, such as smooth
muscle cells, may not reproduce for many years.
3. A few cells, such as the neurons and most
striated muscle cells, do not reproduce during
the entire life of a person, except during the
original period of fetal life.
43. Three ways in which growth can be
controlled:
A. growth factors that come from other parts of
the body. Some of these growth factors circulate
in the blood, but others originate in adjacent
tissues (exam Pancrease).
B. Most normal cells stop growing when they have
run out of space for growth (exam Culture).
C. cells grown in tissue culture often stop growing
when minute amounts of their own secretions
are allowed to collect in the culture medium.
44. Telomeres: Prevent the Degradation of Chromosomes.
1. A telomere is a region of repetitive nucleotide sequences
located at each end of a chromatid.
2. Telomeres serve as protective caps that prevent the
chromosome from deterioration during cell division.
3. When the telomeres shorten to a critical length, the
chromosomes become unstable and the cells die.
the enzyme telomerase adds bases
to the ends of the telomeres so
that many more generations of
cells can be produced.
45. Regulation of Cell Size:
• If replication of the DNA does not occur, the cell
grows to a certain size and thereafter remains at
that size.
• use of the chemical colchicine makes it possible to
prevent formation of the mitotic spindle and
therefore to prevent mitosis, even though
replication of the DNA continues.
• In this event, the nucleus contains far greater
quantities of DNA than it normally does, and the
cell grows proportionately larger.
47. • changes in physical and functional properties
of cells as they proliferate in the embryo to
form the different bodily structures and
organs.
48.
49. APOPTOSIS—PROGRAMMED
CELL DEATH:
• When cells are no longer needed or become a threat to
the organism, they undergo a suicidal programmed cell
death, or apoptosis.
• This process involves a specific proteolytic cascade that
causes the cell to shrink and condense, disassemble its
cytoskeleton, and alter its cell surface so that a
neighboring phagocytic cell, such as a macrophage, can
attach to the cell membrane and digest the cell.
• In contrast to programmed death, cells that die as a result
of an acute injury usually swell and burst due to loss of cell
membrane integrity, a process called cell necrosis.
• Some drugs that have been used successfully for
chemotherapy appear to induce apoptosis in cancer cells.
50.
51. CANCER:
• Cancer is caused in most instances by mutation or by some
other abnormal activation of cellular genes that control
cell growth and cell mitosis.
• Proto-oncogenes are normal genes that code for various
proteins that control cell adhesion, growth, and vision. If
mutated or excessively activated, proto-oncogenes can
become abnormally functioning oncogenes capable of
causing cancer.
• present in all cells are antioncogenes, also called tumor
suppressor genes, which suppress the activation of specific
oncogenes. Therefore, loss or inactivation of
antioncogenes can allow activation of oncogenes that lead
to cancer.
52.
53. Factors that increase the chance to
develop a cancer:
1. ionizing radiation.
2. Chemical substances.
3. Physical irritants.
4. hereditary tendency to cancer.
5. certain types of viruses.
54. The major differences between a cancer
cell and a normal cell are as follows:
A. cancer cell does not respect usual cellular
growth limits.
B. Cancer cells are often far less adhesive to one
another.
C. Some cancers also produce angiogenic
factors.