Foundation of Communication and Networking

Communicatio
n and
Networking
Class XII (Day -1)

Communication
and Networking
In the past, people use pigeon to send and receive message for long distance. Later on,
invention of telegram telegraph and telephone made a remarkable change in the field of
telecommunication. Where, word ‘tele’ means large distance and communication means
exchange or sharing ideas, views and information with other individual or machine. Thus,
the exchange of data and information between sender and receiver through any given
medium following a common rule is known as communication. So, telecommunication
is the art of communicating at a distance. Telephone, radio and television are the main and
popular media of tele-communication.
After the invention of microcomputers in 1980's, people started using computers and
telephone (Internet) lines to send and receive data from one place to another. The use of
computers to send and receive data from one location to another is known as data
communication.
Basic elements of communication
1.Sender (source) which creates the message to be transferred.
2.Medium which carry message.
3.Receiver (sink) which receives the message
4.Data: The information or message to be carried.
5.Protocol: Rules to carry the data.

Communication and Networking
•As we know, system refers to the integration of several individual units or components
interacting with each other to achieve a common objective. Similar, to make an effective
communication, we need several communicating unit which interact with each other. This
integrated individual functioning components are called communication system.

Computer Networking:
Computer networking refers to interconnected computing devices that can exchange data and share resources with
each other. These networked devices use a system of rules, called communications protocols, to transmit
information over physical or wireless technologies.
We use different bounded media like twisted pair cable , coaxial cable and fiber optics cable or unbounded media
like microwave, radio wave, infrared , satellites to establish connection between different computers at different
location.
Modes of communication:
Based on the flow of direction of communication. Communication has 3 modes.
Simplex: It is unidirectional mode of communication on which sender always sends the data and receiver receives it. In this mode receiver
never sends the data. For example, radio, television
Half duplex: It is the bidirectional mode of communication in which sender can send the data and receives the data as well and vice versa
but only one at a time that means sender is not allowed to receive data while it is sending data. For e.g., walkie talkie.
Full duplex: It is the bidirectional mode of communication in which both sender and receiver can send and receives data simultaneously.
For e.g., cell phones, telephone etc.

•Advantages of computer network
• Hardware sharing: Using computer network expensive hardware devices can
be shared among multiple number of computers. For example, in cyber one
printer can be shared among multiple number of computers which help to save
money as well time.
• Software sharing: Similarly, software also can be shared among computer n a
network which helps to access application program from any remote location.
• Centralized control and management: Network provides the centralized
control and management that means every other computer in a network are
centrally connected with server which controls and monitor all the activities
within the network. This helps to ensure security
• Speedy and fast effective communication: Since all the computer in a
Network are interconnected with each other, one can sends and receives
messages within the computer in just few seconds.
• Backup and Recovery: Since all the computer are connected with server, it
helps to maintain backup at periodic interval. that means keeping extra copy
so that data and the formation can be recover when lost accidentally or
intentionally.
• Flexible Access: In a network a computer can easily access files from other
computer he/she has authority or privilege to access/use.
• Work group computing: Network allows different user to work in group that
means; different user can work on o single task by dividing workload.

Disadvantages of computer network
Virus Transfer: Since computer
Network allows data and
information to be transferred , still
there remains the possibility of
virus transfer and other malicious
program.
Less reliable: Since computer in a network
are interconnected with each other
performance of one computer may affect
performance of another computer. That
means if one computer start malfunctioning
in a network than it may affect other
computers in a network.
Security: Computer network is a group of
computer interconnected with each
other. That means, one computer in a
network can access data and information
from another computer. Since there may
be also possibility of unauthorized access
there exist security issue in a network.
Expensive: Creating a network among
different computer is itself a complex
task or job. We may need different inter
networking devices and others special
devices and other to establish a
network. Buying all the devices, cables
and equipment may be expensive.
Need Technical Manpower: Since
establishing a network is a Technical
job, we need a technical manpower in
order to establish and trouble shoot a
network. Hiring technical manpower
may be expensive.

•Type of Network
•Based on geographical area covered
•LAN
•MAN
•WAN
•On the basis of network architecture
•Peer-to- peer
•Client server
LAN MAN WAN
Area Covered Room, building City, village
Across the cities,
country
Transmission
media
Guided/wired Wired/wireless Often Wireless
Transmission
speed
Fastest Faster Fast
Reliable Highly Medium Reliable Less reliable

•LAN: LAN stands for Local Area Network. It is the type of Network which
covers small geographical area such as room, building, school, university etc.
Since it covers small area, are interconnected with guided or wired media such
as twisted pair cable, coaxial cable or fiber optic cable. It is one of the fastest
network in term of transmission speed among all other. Since, they are
connected with wires they have higher reliability. Some of the implementation
of LAN can be in computer lab, cyber, network between different department.
•Advantages of LAN
• It is cheaper to establish.
• Data transmission is faster than MAN and WAN.
• It has higher security to resources of the network
• It is eager to establish, manage of the network and operate
•Disadvantages of LAN
• It is limited only to a small area.
• It can connect less number of computers comparatively.
• Cannot be used as distributed network.
On the basis of geographical area covered

•MAN: MAN stands for Metropolitan Area Network. It covers an entire city,
district or village. MAN connects two or more than two LAN together. Big
companies like banks, and many organization have their branches or sub
offices in a city or in neighboring city use MAN to connect with each other.
The communication media in MAN can be guided as well as unguided. This
network use bridge, repeater, router, switch etc to establish a connection.
The data transmission speed of MAN is faster compared to WAN and
slower than LAN. Media like microwave, radio wave, infrared etc are used
to connect devices in a MAN.
•Advantages of MAN
•It covers larger geographical area than LAN.
•It can connect large number of computer than LAN.
•We can use guided as well as unguided type of transmission media.
•Disadvantages of MAN
•It is expensive to set up then LAN.
•Transmission speed slower compared to LAN.
•It is complex to establish, manage and provides security.

Communication
and Networking
•WAN: It stands for Wide Area Network, which can be extended to the whole
world. It is also known as the network of networks. They are used to connect LANs
together so that users and computers in one location can communicate with users
and computer in another location. WAN is unlimited. It is the slowest data
communication among all of three as it covers entire country, continents or even a
whole world. These type of network use unguided media such as microwave, radio
wave, satellites and even fiber optics sometimes to communicate in larger distance.
The best example of WAN is Internet which is a public network whereas Intranet is
a private network earn by an organizations
•Advantage of WAN
•It covers larger geographical area than LAN and MAN.
•It can connect large number of computer compared to LAN and MAN.
•Using WAN communication can be done over a large distance.
•Disadvantage of WAN
•It is expensive to establish, manage and operate.
•It is the slowest type of network compared to that of LAN and MAN.
•Highly qualified manpower are required to establish and run these type of
network.

On the basis of Network architecture
Peer-to-peer: These type of network architecture in which all the computers in a network
are connected with each other having equal access and responsibility are known as peer -to-
peer network. In this type of network architecture there is no presence of main computer that
is server which provides services to the network. All the jobs and task are carried out by
themselves without having authority from other computer. Hence, they are known as peers.
Each computer in a network behave itself as a client as well as server. This type of
architecture can be used to small work group where security may not be of greater issue.
Advantages
• It is simple cheap and easier to set up.
• Since there is no dedicated server, user can manage their own server.
• Failure of a computer in a network doesn't affect the other computer in
a network.
Disadvantages
• Data security is very poor in this type of architecture.
• Data recovery and backup is difficult.
• It is not appropriate for large scale organization.
• Network administration is difficult it without dedicated Server.

Networking
On the basis of Network architecture
Client server: In the client-server setup, there's a main computer called the server that takes care
of all the client computers in the network. It offers important services and stays in charge. All the
data and programs are kept on this strong server, and clients use its power to do their tasks faster.
Only the right people can get into the server, keeping things safe and making sure only authorized
users can use its data and features.
Advantages
Centralized administration is possible
through this network.
High security can be provided by suing
appropriate server.
It is appropriate for large organization.
Data recovery and backup process is
easier.
Disadvantages
If server fails whole network is affected.
It is expensive due to use of dedicated
server.
It is complex to establish and manage.
Experienced administrator is required to
operate.

Transmission media are means through which data
travel form source to destination. Transmission media
are from often called communication media or
communication channel. As we know the basic
component of communication are sender (source),
communication media and receiver (sink / destination)
which means communication media are used to
transmit data. In other word, the physical channel or
pathway through which data travel from one place to
another or from one computer to another is called
transmission media or communication channel.
Depending upon the cost, requirement and reliability,
communication media are classified into:
Transmission Media / Communication Media
Wired / guided / bounded
Twisted pair cable
Co-axial cable
Fibre optic cable
Wireless / unguided / unbounded
Microwave
Radiowave
Infrared
Satellites

Communication
and
Networking
•Wired / guided / bounded
Guided transmission media consists of physical connection between source and destination
through a wire or a cable. In the type of transmission media data must travel in a closed path.
There are different types of guided media.
• Twisted pair cable: As a name suggest in this type of transmission media the pair of cable
are twisted around each other. They are twisted in order to reduce the electro magnetic
interference (EMI). This type of cable have greater transmission and fewer chance of error
in transmission. It is the most common type of transmission media used in telephone
system and in most of the LAN. Twisted pair offers some significant benefits. It is cheaper,
lighter, thinner, more flexible and easier to install than coaxial cable or fiber optics.
Twisted pair cable are found in one pair, two pair and four pair. The media connector used
for 4 pair cable is RJ45. Similarly, RJ11 are used for two pair twisted pair. There are 2 types
of twisted pair cable.
• UTP (Unshielded Twisted Pair): It is the type of twisted pair cable in which inner
pair of conducting wire are not shielded. Since the pair of wire are not shielded, they
are immune to EMI (Electro Magnetic Interference). It is cheaper and cannot transfer
data for longer distance compared to STP. It is the most common twisted pair cable.
E.g., CAT5
• STP (Shielded Twisted Pair): It is the rare type of twisted pair of cable in which inner
pair of conducting wire are shielded. In order to reduce EMI. They are expensive and
can be used for longer distance of transmission. E.g., lBM type 1

Communication
and Networking
•Advantages
• It is cheaper than other cables.
• It is light and thin. So, it is flexible for LAN.
• It can travel data in short distance with higher bandwidth.
•Disadvantage
• It is only used for short distance transmission.
• It can be affected by electrical and magnetic field.
• It is slower type of transmission media compared to other cables.
•2. Co-axial cable: It is one of the most common television broadcasting transmission media
that carries data signal of higher frequency and at higher speed than twisted pair cable. Co-
axial cable has large bandwidth and better reliability which means it can handle large volume
of data at high speed. The other advantages includes that it can carry signal over significant
speed. Co-axial cable has inner layer of conducting wire covered with an insulator which is
surrounded by a conducting mesh and finally covered with a jacket. Co-axial cable used BNC
(Bayonet Neill–Concelman) connector.
•Advantages:
• It is faster and reliable than twisted pair cable.
• It can transfer data over medium range of distance.
•Disadvantages
• It is not appropriate for relatively larger distance.
• It is expensive than twisted pair cable.
• It is rarely used in computer network.

Communication
and Networking
•3. Fiber Optics: A fiber optics cable is made up of glass or plastic material in
order to transmit data in the form of light. This cable are different than other
cables as it plays different set of rules that means data are transferred in the
form of photons (light) instead of electricity (electron). Since there is no
electricity, it is completely immune to Electromagnetic Interference (EMI).
Hence data are transferred in a very high speed with better reliability & less
error. It has enormous bandwidth and can carry signal for long distance. It is
also more source than other cable.
•Advantages:
•It has higher bandwidth that means it can handle large volume of data.
•This medium can be used for long distance transmission.
•It is the most secured and error free transmission medium.
•Disadvantages
•It is one of the expensive type of transmission media.
•It is not used for short distance transmission.
•Highly qualified and technical manpower are required to operate on fibre
optics.
•[Note: Coaxial cable use BNC (British Naval connector) as a media connector
whereas fiber optics use ST(Straight Tip connector) Connector as its media
connector]

•Unguided media / Unbounded / wireless media
Those types of transmission media in which data doesn't have to travel in a close path. In Unguided
transmission media there is no physical connection between source and destination, instead they
use air itself. For e.g.; microwave, radio wave, satellite communication, infrared etc.
•1. Microwave: It is the type of transmission media which are used for longer distance. This type of
wave have higher frequency than radio wave hence it can handle large amount of a data. Microwave
signal cannot pass obstacles like hills, buildings and others. So, it is necessary that microwave
transmission (sender and receiver) must be in line of sight (LOS). The transmitting station must be in
visible contact with receiving station.
•2. Satellite: They are the microwave transmission system in space. It is used as amplifier or
repeater that is used to receive information from one location on the earth, repeats the data and
send it to one or more receiving location on the earth. The communication is carried out through
uplink and downlink. To make communication possible in even longer distance multiple satellites are
used. Satellites are set in geo-stationary orbit directly over the equator which notates in
synchronization to the earth hence it looks stationary from any point on the earth.
•3. Radio wave: It is the type of wireless transmission medium that con operate on single as well as
multiple frequency band. In this type of transmission medium sender and receiver station must not
be in the line of sight.

•4. Infrared: It is wireless transmission technology that use red-light
(below the visibility of human eye) to transmit information. Like fiber
optics, information infrared use light for communication. They are
commonly used for TV remote. They are used for closed area using line of
sight communication. That means it cannot penetrate the wall or any
obstacle. It cannot be used in open area or outside the building because
sun ray also contain infrared in it which may interfere the communication.
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
•Network Topology / LAN Topology
The physical layout or a geographical orientation of the computer in a
network is known as a network topology. There are many different way for
setting up LAN. Therefore, topology is a physical arrangement in which
computers or devices in a network are interconnected with each other.
People may choose different topologies due to different requirement of
the user. This requirements may be high speed of data transfer, data
security, cost etc.

Networking
•Network Topology / LAN Topology
•The physical layout or a geographical orientation of
the computer in a network is known as a network
topology. There are many different way for setting up
LAN. Therefore, topology is a physical arrangement in
which computers or devices in a network are
interconnected with each other. People may choose
different topologies due to different requirement of
the user. This requirements may be high speed of data
transfer, data security, cost etc.
•Types of Network Topology.
•1. Bus Topology: .

1. Bus Topology:
Bus topology is a network layout where all devices are connected to a single central cable, known as the
bus. Data sent by any device travels along this bus and can be received by all other devices. Data
transmission and collisions are discarded. If two devices send data at the same time, they detect a collision
and try again after a random delay. Terminators are placed at both ends of the bus to absorb signals and
prevent them from reflecting back, which could cause interference. This topology is easy to install and
requires less cable than other topologies like star or ring. However, it has its drawbacks: if the central
bus fails, the entire network goes down. Additionally, as more devices are added, the likelihood of data
collisions increases, making it less efficient for larger networks.
Advantages
It is easy setup.
It is not expensive as it requires least amount of cable.
It is easy to implement and extent.
Terminator doesn't allow data to escape
Each computer in a network has equal access and priority to communicate on the network.
Disadvantages:
Since every computer in a network are connected to the bus, if the cable fails to work then whole network is affected.
As the number of computer increases, performance decreases.
It cannot cover large geographical area.

Star topology is a network configuration where all devices are connected to a central hub or switch, forming a star-
like shape. Each device has its own dedicated connection to the hub, which acts as a communication point for data
transfer. This setup ensures that if one device fails, it does not affect the rest of the network, making it more reliable
than bus topology. The central hub can be either a simple hub or a more sophisticated switch, which can manage
data traffic more efficiently. Star topology simplifies network management and troubleshooting since any
connectivity issues can be easily traced back to the individual device or the central hub. It is also scalable, allowing
for easy addition of new devices without significant changes to the existing network infrastructure. However, the
central hub represents a single point of failure; if it goes down, the entire network becomes inoperable.
•Advantages
• Adding and removing computers and devices is very easy.
• If one computer fails to works, its doesn’t affect the entire network.
• It is one of the most reliable and practical network topology.
•Disadvantage
• It depends upon a central device so if it fails to work it affect the whole network.
• It maybe expensive as we require maximum number of cables and devices.
2. Star Topology:

3. Ring topology: In this type of topology every computer or devices are connected to a single cable or trunk in
a circular way. In this topology, first and last computer are connected with each other. Here, each computer act
as a repeater which accepts the incoming signal and regenerate it before pass it to next one. One data may flow
either in clockwise or in anti-clockwise direction. If any breakthrough occur the whole network is collapsed.
Guided media like twisted pair cable co-axial cable are used for data transmission.
Advantages
All station (nodes) have equal access.
As data travels in only one direction,
speed is high.
Since each computer act as a repeater, it
can be extended to a greater distance.
Increase in number of computer will have
minimal impact to overall network
performance.
Disadvantages
Since every computer are connected with
the single cable, if that single cable fails to
work whole network is affected.
Adding computer in this type of network is
difficult as we need to rewrite the
program.

Networking
4. Mesh Topology: As a name suggest computer and devices in a network are randomly connected with each other.
It is only true point to point design. This design is one of the most impractical type as it is difficult to install and
reconfigure. It require maximum amount of cable. As the number of cable increases, difficulty of the installation
increases simultaneously.
Advantages Data transmission is faster in this type of topology.
Since devices are connected point to point , it is one of the reliable
network topology.
Identifying faults and isolating them is easier.
Disadvantage
s
It is expensive as it use maximum number of cables.
This type of network topology is difficult and complex in structure

Networking
5. Tree topology (Hybrid topology):
This type of topology is the combination of two or more
than two type of topology. In this topology both star and
bus topology are connected with each other.
[Note: All the advantage and disadvantage of bus and star
topology are applicable here.

Networking
•Communication Protocol and examples: A network or
communication protocol is a set of rules for communicating
between computing devices which governs format, timing,
sequencing, and error control. Without these rules, the
computer cannot make sense incoming/outgoing bits. A protocol
set a rules to identify one another in a network, the form of the
data during transmission process, and how data is processed
before it reaches its final destination.
•Computers could communicate only if the protocol used by a
computer in the network is compatible with the protocol used by
another computer. The rules include guidelines which regulates a
network access method, allowed physical topologies, types of
cabling, and the speed of data transfer.

Networking
• FTP (File Transfer Protocol): This protocol is used for
transferring data between client and server over TCP/IP
(Internet). Hence, it is responsible for uploading and
downloading files to and from the server. Types of files may
include program files, multimedia files, text files, and
documents, etc.
•SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol): SMTP is a standard
protocol for transmitting electronic mail (email) by the
internet. It is a Internet mail protocol. It is a TCP/IP protocol
used to send emails.
•Post Office Protocol: POP is the most commonly used
protocol for receiving email over the internet. This standard
protocol, which most email servers and their clients support,
is used to receive emails from a remote server and send to a
local client.

Networking
•HTTP AND HTTPS:
•Full form of HTTP is Hypertext Transfer
Protocol. HTTP offers set of rules and standards
which govern how any information can be
transmitted on the World Wide Web. HTTP
provides standard rules for web browsers
(clients) & servers to communicate.
•HTTPS stands for Hyper Text Transfer Protocol
Secure. It is highly advanced and secure version
of HTTP. It uses the port no. 443 for Data
Communication. It allows the secure
transactions by encrypting the entire
communication with SSL. It is a combination of
SSL/TLS protocol and HTTP. It provides
encrypted and secure identification of a network
server.

Networking
• IP Address
An Internet Protocol address (IP Address) is a unique identification number assigned to
each devices connected in a network that uses Internet protocol for communication.
The typical IP address looks like
216.27.67.137
IP address are expressed in decimal as above which is easier for us to remember, but
computers communicate in binary. So same IP address looks like
11011000.00011011.00111101.10001001
•IP address has four sets of number separated by a period ( . ), These sets are Called
Octets. IP address perform mainly two functions. One is identification of Network and
Identification of particular host in that network.
• MAC address
Media Access Control (MAC) address also known as hardware or physical address is
unique number associated with a network adapter (NIC). It is used to uniquely identify
each device (node) of a network. MAC address is usually assigned by the manufacturer
of a network interface card (NIC) and are stored in its ROM. All NIC developed contains
unique MAC address. It is a 12-digit hexadecimal number (48 bit in length) and are
Witten in following formats.
MM:MM:MM:SS:SS:SS or MM-MM-MM-SS-SS-SS
•The first half of the address contains ID number of the adapter regulated by an Internet
standards body and other half represent the number assigned by the manufacturer. For
example: 00:A0:C9:14:C8:29
The prefix 00A0C9 indicates manufactures Intel Corporation and 14C829 indicates a
particular host.

Networking
• Intranet: An intranet is a private network that uses internet
protocols, to securely share part of an organization's information
between its employees. An intranet is a Local Area Network or Wide
Area Network that uses TCP/IP protocol but, belongs to a corporation,
school, or organization. The intranet is accessible only to the
organization's workers. If the intranet is connected the Internet, then
it is secured by a firewall to prevent unauthorized users from gaining
access to it. Advantages of an Intranet
• Workforce productivity: Employees can easily access and share
information in-between their workgroups which enhances
productivity
• Time: With intranets, organizations can make more information
available to employees in any time.
• Communication: Intranets can serve as powerful tools for
communication within an organization.
•Extranet: An extranet is a private intranet that can be accessed by
outside users over the secure channel. To gain entrance to the
extranet's resource, an external user must log on to the networks by
providing a valid user ID and password. The extranet is a combination
of the public Internet and the closed intranet.

Networking
•Network Connecting Devices
•Network inter-connecting devices are used to establish and operate the network. We need several
hardware components in order to setup a network environment. Various devices and components
are used for interconnecting several units of a network. Some of them are explained below:
•Network Inter-Connecting Devices
•1. Network Interface Card (NIC): NIC is a device that connects computer and network cable. The
cards are installed in an expansion slot in each computer or are built into the system. The NIC
coordinates the transfer of information between the computer and the network. Each NIC is
assigned a unique physical address called MAC address. The functions of the Network Interface
Card are:
• Prepare data from the computer for the transmission in network cable.
• Send/receive the data to another computer through network cable
• Control the data flow between the computer and the transmission system.
•2. MODEM: MODEM stands for Modulator and Demodulator. It is a device, which converts analog
signal into digital and vice versa. It translates data from digital data (binary codes) to analog data
that can be transmitted over the telephone network and translates analog data into digital data
(binary codes). Modulation is the process of converting data from binary (digital) to analog and
demodulation is the reverse process. MODEM is required when digital data i.e. binary codes stored
in the computer has to be transmitted in the form of analog signal in medium like traditional
telephone system. When all the telephone line become digital, the MODEM will no longer be
necessary.
•3. Hub: Hub is a connectivity device with multiple ports for connecting computers in a star
topology. It accepts data, amplifies them and then broadcasts to several other workstation. It is also
used to split network segments and propagate signals through it. Its major limitation is that it can't
filter network traffic which cause impacts to the number of computer that is connected with it.

Networking
•4. Router: Router is used to connect two or more different networks together. Its main job is to find
out the best route (path) that can be used for transmission. Router manages a routing table, which is
used to mine the most efficient routes to the various network nodes. In general, routers are
responsible for getting traffic from here to there along the most efficient possible path. Router
operates at the network layer of OSI (Open System Interconnection) model.
•5. Switch: A switch is also called a switching hub; it selects the most direct path needed to send a
data packet to its destination. It is also known as intelligent hub. When switch receives a data packet,
it creates a direct connection between sender and receiver and forwards the data packet to the
destination computer only.
•6. Bridge: Bridge is used to connect two similar network segments together. It is the connecting
device between hubs. It passes data packets between multiple network segments that use same
communication protocol. A bridge is more intelligent than hub as it examines the destination
address of each packet and only passes through those that need to get from one segment to the
other. Bridges often used to reduce data traffic on a busy network.
•7. Gateway: Unlike bridge, Gateway enables communication between networks using different
network architectures. It act as a translator between networks using incompatible transport
protocols. Thus, helps to establish a network connection between two or more dissimilar networks.
•8. Repeater: Repeater is a device that amplifies incoming signal that is being transmitted on the
network. It is used to increase the length of the transmission media, in which data can be
transmitted. It receives incoming signals, amplifies them and retransmits towards the receiver. For
example, using a UTP cable, we can send data up to maximum of 100 meters without amplification.
If the data travel beyond that distance without amplification, then it becomes weaker and after
some time the signal will decay. So, in order to strengthen the incoming signal repeaters can be
used.

Networking
•9. Bluetooth: Bluetooth is a wireless technology used for exchanging data over short
distances using short wavelength radio transmissions. We can exchange data between
mobile and other devices, creating Personal Area Networks (PANS) with high levels of
security. It is created by Ericsson in 1994 and follows wireless technology standards.
•10. Wi-Fi: Wi-Fi refers to Wireless Fidelity. A Wi-Fi enabled device such as a laptop, mobile
phone, smart phone can connect to the network or internet within the limited range. It
uses radio wave to established communication between communicating devices. The
coverage of Wi-Fi network depends on one or more interconnect access points.

Networking
•OSI Model
•The OSI model describes seven layers that computer systems use to communicate over
a network. It has been developed by ISO ‘International Organization for
Standardization‘. The 7 layers of OSI Reference Model can be divided into 2 categories.
They are: Upper Layer and Lower Layer
•Upper Layer of the OSI Model deal with application issues and generally are
implemented only in software.
•Lower Layer of the OSI Model handle data transport issue.
Layer Protocols
Application Layer FTP, TFTP, Telnet, HTTP
Presentation
Layer
SMTP,NFS
Session Layer Telnet, SNMP
Transport Layer TCP,UDP
Network Layer IP
Data Link Layer ARP,RARP,RIP
Physical Layer Ethernet, Token Ring

Foundation of Communication and Networking

Foundation of Communication and Networking

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Foundation of Communication and Networking