DNA profiling and its legal applications were discussed. Key points include: 1) DNA profiling involves analyzing variable repetitive sequences in non-coding regions to obtain a unique genetic profile for identification. 2) The first use of DNA fingerprinting in a criminal case in 1986 helped exonerate a falsely accused man. 3) DNA has significant forensic applications such as identifying suspects in murder, sexual assault, and disputed parentage cases. 4) DNA analysis also has legal implications including the right to privacy versus right to information in criminal investigations.

1. FORENSIC SIGNIFICANCE OF DNA
PROFILING & ITS LEGAL PROSPECTIVE
NAME-AYUSHI SINGH
ID-17MSFS022
SEMESTER-3RD

2. • Dna profiling is the process where a specific
pattern called as profile is obtained from a
person. And the hypervariable regions non
coding repetitive sequences are analysed

3. HISTORY OF DNA PROFILING
• Dr. Alec J. Jeffreys in 1984 found out that there is a repeating sequences
in the DNA known as VNTRs (variable number of tandem repeats) which
can be seen as the bar code in the X-ray pictures. These sequences were
unique and even a small part of these codes was enough to determine
the identity of an individual
• In 1986, DNA fingerprinting was used in the criminal case for the first
time. At that time, Richard Buckland was accused for the rape and
murder of two young school girls. The DNA test was found negative
when the semen sample collected from the two girls did not match with
the accuse's. He was the first person to be found innocent with the help
of DNA fingerprinting

4. SOURCES
OF DNA
Teeth
Blood
Hair
Bone
saliva
semen
Viscera
fingernail
scrapping
Vaginal
swabs

5. Restriction
fragment length
polymorphism
Polymerase
chain reaction
Y
CHROMOSOME
ANALYSIS
MT-DNA
Single-
nucleotide
polymorphism
Sanger method
Electrophoresis
Minisatellites
(VNTR)
Microsatellites
or Short Tandem
Repeats (STR)

6. Extraction
Quantification
Amplification
Separation
ANALYSIS &
INTERPRETATION
Quality
assurance

8. FORENSIC SIGNIFICANCE OF DNA
PROFILING

9.  Murder- blood on a weapon can be matched against the blood
of the victim. blood stains on the clothing or the person of the
accused in case of murder can be matched with the blood of the
victim. Hair roots found on a weapon can be matched against
the blood of the victim and accused.
 Sexual crimes- the seminal Dna obtained from the vaginal
aspirates or swab or compared with the Dna prints obtained
from blood samples of the suspect. There is no need to match
semen against semen a salivary stain or a hair transformed from
the accused to the victim can be used fr the comparison. If they
match the suspect is criminal. In the case of gang rape the y
chromosome analysis helps in tracing up the multiple
contributors. Seminal stain and vaginal epithelial cells will
identify the victim and assailant . in the case of oligospermic or
aspermia..Analysis of genetic markers on the y chromosome
through STR method
 Disputed maternity Exchange of newborn in hospital or when the
two women claiming for the single child .
 Botanical evidences ( pollen grain) individualization of the region

10. DNA ANCESTORY TEST
• Y chromosome (Y-DNA) test: This test only explores a man’s “patrilineal” or
direct father’s-line ancestry.
• Mitochondrial DNA test (mtDNA test)- This test tracks matrilineal or
mother’s-line heritage using the DNA in the cellular powerhouses known as
mitochondria. Whereas the Y-DNA test is for men only, an mtDNA test can
be taken by women as well.
• Autosomal DNA test- Y-DNA or mtDNA test, which only focus on one line of
your family tree, an autosomal DNA test has the power to trace all of your
family lines. Both men and women can take this test. Autosomal DNA is
contained in the 22 pairs of chromosomes not involved in determining a
person's sex. Autosomal DNA recombines each generation, and new
offspring receive one set of chromosomes from each parent. These are
inherited exactly equally from both parents and roughly equally from
grandparents to about 3x great-grand parents. Therefore, the number of
markers (one of two or more known variants in the genome at a particular
location – known as Single-nucleotide polymorphisms or SNPs) inherited
from a specific ancestor decreases by about half each generation , an
individual receives half of their markers from each parent, about a quarter
of their markers from each grandparent;

12. PATERNITY DISPUTES
In this the identification of biological father ,mother and alleged father are
printed for DNA a child will have 50% dna from mother and 50% from
father the bars in the child code are first match with mother then
remaining one are match with the father. If he correspond then he is the
father. RFLP and PCR methods in .in polymerase chain reaction method
the dna is extracted, fragmented, amplified, and then separated by the
process of gel electrophoresis the dna fragments then studied and
compared. In RFLP method the extracted dna is fragmented by enzymes
and the dna fragment is sorted by size and then undergo identification.
• (PARENTAL PATERNITY TEST) is also performed .
• Buccal swabs , the result of the buccal swabs found in cheek cells are
same as the dna found in all the other test cells. Or Blood samples of both
father and mother and the child is taken. For the prior procedure
The parents would not have blood transfusion for three months before
taking the sample mutation of the genes can give rise to wrong results

14. PEDIGREE ANALYSIS AND ESTABLISHING FAMILY
RELATIONSHIP
pedigree is a diagram of a family tree showing the relationships between
individuals together with relevant facts about their medical histories. A
pedigree analysis is the interpretation of these data that allows a better
understanding of the transmission of genes within the family. Usually, at
least one member of the family has a genetic disease, and by examining
the pedigree, clues to the mode of inheritance of the disorder and the
potential risk to other family members can be obtained

15. species identification and sexing
Dna barcoding helps in the identification of species The mitochondrial
cytochrome b gene sequence is analysed and the phylogentic tress of the
 It is useful to know if male and female components are present in
sample the amelogenin locus will show one band in female and two
bands in male.
 All the cases of biological identification
 To exonerate a falsely implicated person of the crime
 Diagnosis of inherited disorder in parental and new born babies . A
disease causing change in the dna of a gene is called a mutation. PCR
and DNA sequencing.. This then allows scientists to determine whether
or not there is a change or mutation present in a gene of interest.
 TEST- parental testing and new born baby testing
 Determining how the races have migrated one region to another it is
based on the genetic characters and phylogentetic trees identification.

16.  In hit and run case accidents matching dna matching
from blood of victim from bloodstains on a vehicle.
• In the cases where the identification of the susepect is
not matched then dna profile from the crime scene
cases sent to (CODIS) to identify suspect anywhere in
the uk and link the serial killer
 Identification of the mutilated bodies in cases of
accident ,bomb blast, mass attack .The dna fingerprint
obtained for such from such remains can be compared
with previous prints if available or with the close blood
relatives of the deceased ,which can establish ,links
between close relatives.
 Extortion cases Saliva sample from envelope face
mask, nasal secretions, etc

17. EXHUMED CASES
Nicolas Copernicus died in 1542 shortly after completing his noted book
placing the sun at the centre of the universe. He was buried at Frombork
Cathedral in Poland, but despite his fame at the time, his tomb wasn’t
clearly marked
Archaeologists searched unsuccessfully for Copernicus for two centuries.
Finally, scans beneath a cathedral in 2005 turned up human remains that
looked like Copernicus, quite literally. The Polish Police Central Forensic
Laboratory used the skull to reconstruct a face that bears a striking
resemblance to the astronomer’s self-portrait.
Scientists also recovered DNA from the remains, but had nothing to match it
against to confirm identity; no direct descendants of Copernicus could be
found.
Eventually, a librarian found several hairs inside a book of calendars owned
by the astronomer. Genetic testing confirmed a DNA match to the remains,
• scientists look for pockets that tend to be preserved in hair, molar teeth,
and the petrous bone near the inner ear
 NOTE--DNA analysis can be achieved by a combination of DNA extraction
from bone powder using a buffer consisting solely of EDTA and proteinase
K, and purification of the DNA by binding to silica in the presence of high
concentrations of guanidinium thiocyanate. All steps are performed at
room temperature (20-23 degrees C),

19. LEGAL PROSPECTIVE OF DNA

20. Use of DNA INFORMATION IN LEGAL
SYSTEM
• DNA USED IN CRIMINAL CASES and civil
cases are as follows
a) For individualization
b) For genealogical identification
c) Paternity test , abdoning child, concealed
birth
d) Immigration eligibility

21. SECTION 53 (crpc)An Examination of a person accused of rape by medical
practitioner authorizes a police officer to get the assistance of a medical
practitioner in good faith for the purpose of the investigation. But, it
doesn’t enable a complainant to collect blood, semen etc for bringing the
criminal charges against the accused.
SECTION53(A)- (crpc) Examination of person accused of rape by medical practioner
When a person is arrested on a charge of committing an offence of rape or an attempt
to commit rape and there are reasonable grounds for believing that an examination
of his person will afford evidence as to the commission of such offence, it shall be
lawful for a registered medical practitioner employed in a hospital run by the
Government or by a local authority and in the absence of such a practitioner within
the radius of sixteen kilometres from the place where the offence has been
committed by any other registered medical practitioner, acting at the request of a
police officer not below the rank of a sub-inspector, and for any person acting in
good faith in his aid and under his direction, to make such an examination of the
arrested person and to use such force as is reasonably necessary for that purpose.
– the name and address of the accused and of the person by whom he was
brought,
– the age of the accused,
– marks of injury, if any, on the person of the accused,
– the description of material taken from the person of the accused
for DNA profiling,
• The exact time of commencement and completion of the examination shall also be
noted in the report.

22. SEC-112 INDIAN EVIDENCE ACT
Section 112 of the Indian Evidence Act deals with the proof of legitimacy of
offspring if they are born during wedlock or within a certain period of the
280 days after its dissolution of marriage. In many ways it is a unique
section. On the one hand it establishes the fact of marriage as conclusive
proof of the legitimacy of the children and at the same time mentions that
the conclusive proof of legitimacy (i.e. marriage) can be avoided if the
parties could not have begotten the child as the spouses had no access to
each other. The obvious purpose behind such a section would be to
prevent the unnecessary bastardization of illegitimate children and the
condemning of their mothers and unchaste. However, with the advent of
DNA fingerprinting analysis some problems have arisen. DNA test that
indicated that the respondent was not the father of the child would not be
enough to rebut the conclusiveness of the marriage as proof of legitimacy
of the child. DNA analysis is of utmost importance in determining the
paternity of a child in the cases of civil disputes. Need of this evidence is
most significant in the criminal cases, civil cases, and in the maintenance
proceeding in the criminal courts

23. RIGHT TO PRIVACY VS RIGHT TO
INFORMATION
• The right to privacy is our right to keep a domain around us, which includes all those things
that are part of us, such as our body, home, property, thoughts, feelings, secrets and identity.
The right to privacy gives us the ability to choose which parts in this domain can be accessed
by others, and to control the extent, manner and timing of the use of those parts we choose
to disclose
• RIGHT TO INFORMATION
• The basic object of the Right to Information Act is to empower the citizens, promote
transparency and accountability in the working of the Government, contain corruption, and
make our democracy work for the people in real sense. It goes without saying that an
informed citizen is better equipped to keep necessary vigil on the instruments of governance
and make the government more accountable to the governed.
• DNA technology is concerned there is the conflict between two fundamental rights i.e. right
to privacy and right to information. welfare of the state and public cannot compel a person to
go for DNA or blood test because it amounts to breach of right to privacy, the courts can only
direct the parties to the criminal case or civil suits to go for the same. but it in criminal case
for the interest of the victim and welfare of then state as a part of public policy and to give
justice to victim there arise the question of right to information from the concerned person
who is suppose to disclose the relevant facts to establish the conclusive proofs during the
judicial proceedings before the courts of law.

24. KEY POINTS
• Dna testing has got legal validity in 1989 in India
kunhiraman vs. manoj was 1st paternity dispute cases
used in India
• The court is taking dna evidence as expert opinion
(section45 I.E.A) like forensic experts,balistic experts etc.
• The govt of India law commission of India the parliament
affairs board has set up an advisory committee to give
comprehensive report on dna testing
• The law commission in its 185 report has also
recommended inclusion of dna testing in the Indian
evidence act by amending section112

25. THANK YEW.........