This document provides an overview of food irradiation, including definitions, the industrial irradiation process, objectives, types of irradiation, facilities in India, and advantages/disadvantages. It defines food irradiation as exposing food to controlled doses of ionizing radiation like gamma rays, x-rays, or electron beams. This process kills pathogens and insects while extending shelf life but does not cook the food. The three main types are gamma ray, x-ray, and electron beam irradiation. Facilities in India use cobalt-60 sources and electron beam machines. Food irradiation aims to improve safety and storage through pathogen reduction and sprout/maturation inhibition.
Application of irradiation technology in food industrysujayasree o.j
The technology of food irradiation is popularly accepted and surely merit serious consideration by public health authorities, industry and consumer group worldwide.
Its application potential is very diverse, from inhibition of sprouting of tubers and bulbs to production of commercially sterile food products.
This technology can be utilized effectively as a novel postharvest technique to reduce postharvest losses,increase the quality of international trade of food and preserve the quality of food.
These potentialities of technology currently driving the worldwide momentum towards commercial use of food irradiation.
Radio frequency processing and Microwave heating in food processing prakashsp13
radio frequency and microwave heating ; these slides are explain about its principle and working mechanism ,application in food processing and its advantages .
A non thermal processing, which primarily used for homogenisation of fat particles in liquid foods. Now emerged as a promising techniques having applications in food processing. This document will deliver the basics and applications of ultrasound in food
Application of irradiation technology in food industrysujayasree o.j
The technology of food irradiation is popularly accepted and surely merit serious consideration by public health authorities, industry and consumer group worldwide.
Its application potential is very diverse, from inhibition of sprouting of tubers and bulbs to production of commercially sterile food products.
This technology can be utilized effectively as a novel postharvest technique to reduce postharvest losses,increase the quality of international trade of food and preserve the quality of food.
These potentialities of technology currently driving the worldwide momentum towards commercial use of food irradiation.
Radio frequency processing and Microwave heating in food processing prakashsp13
radio frequency and microwave heating ; these slides are explain about its principle and working mechanism ,application in food processing and its advantages .
A non thermal processing, which primarily used for homogenisation of fat particles in liquid foods. Now emerged as a promising techniques having applications in food processing. This document will deliver the basics and applications of ultrasound in food
This lecture exposes students to food irradiation, the source of radiation, discusses whether it is save to consume irradiated foods and the effects of irradiation to food quality.
High pressure processing (HPP) is a method of preserving and sterilizing food, in which a product is processed under very high pressure, leading to the inactivation of certain microorganisms and enzymes in the food
Irradiation of food is novel technique in food processing area in a recent days operations under which food need to go through. It helps mainly in disinfection of food from microorganisms along with shelf life extension and biological activity inhabitation.
High voltage pulse technique or High intensity pulsed electric field processing involves the application of electric pulses of high voltage
20-80 kV/cm to the food placed between two electrodes.
The applied electric field create a pores on the cell membrane, thus the phenomenon known as Electroporation or electropermeabilization.
The effect of Electroporation can be divided into four steps:
An increase in the transmembrane potential
Pore formation
Evolution of the number and size of the pores
Pore resealing
Irradiation technology is widely used in scientific as well as commercial applications in the field of agriculture and animal science, pharmaceuticals and medical science etc. Food Irradiation involves treating certain types of foods with ionizing energy or radiation. Radiation processing of food strengthens food conservation, improves food hygiene and helps food exports overcome quarantine barriers. It facilitates packing, storage, transport and distribution of foods.It is the process of exposing food to ionizing radiation(x-rays, gamma rays ,electron Beams) to destroy microorganisms , bacteria , viruses , or insects that might be present in the food. The measurement of radiation dose is referred to as dosimetry, and involves exposing dosimeters jointly with the treated food item. Dosimeters are small components attached to the irradiated product made of materials that, when exposed to ionizing radiation change specific, measurable physical attributes to a degree that can be correlated to the dose received.
1.Electron irradiation
Electron irradiation uses electrons accelerated in an electric field to a velocity close to the speed of light.
Electrons are particulate radiation and, hence have cross section many times larger than photons, so that they do not penetrate the product
beyond a few inches, depending on product density.
Electron facilities rely on substantial concrete shields to protect workers and the environment from radiation exposure.
2.Gamma irradiation :
Gamma radiation is a part of electromagnetic spectrum .The radiation is obtained through the use of radioisotopes, generally cobalt-60 or caesium-137 Presently, caesium-137 is used only in small hospital units to treat blood before transfusion to prevent Graft-versus-host disease.
Food irradiation using Cobalt-60 is the preferred method by most processors, because the deeper penetration enables administering treatment to entire industrial pallets or totes, reducing the need for material handling.
3.X-ray irradiation :
Similar to gamma radiation, X-rays are photon radiation of a wide energy spectrum and an alternative to isotope based irradiation systems
X-ray irradiators are scalable and have deep penetration comparable to Co-60. They also permit dose uniformity.
Nominal X-ray energy is usually limited to 5 MeV.
USA has provisions for up to 7.5 MeV, which increases conversion efficiency
On the basis of the dose of radiation the application is generally divided into three main categories as detailed under:
Low Dose Applications (up to 1 kGy) Sprout inhibition in bulbs and tubers 0.03-0.15 kGy
Delay in fruit ripening 0.25-0.75 kGy Insect disinfestations including quarantine treatment and elimination of food borne parasites 0.07-1.00 kGy
Medium Dose Applications (1 kGy to 10 kGy)
Reduction of spoilage microbes to prolong shelf-life of meat, poultry and seafoods under refrigeration 1.50–3.00 kGy
Reduction of pathogenic microbes in fresh and frozen meat, poultry
Preservation of food and feed using irradiationAkram Hossain
This a presentation prepared by my fellow Food engineer A.B.M Said Bin Saifullah, Food and Process Engineering, 8th Batch, Hajee Mohammad Danesh Science and Technology University, Bangladesh.
Thanks to him for his contribution.
This lecture exposes students to food irradiation, the source of radiation, discusses whether it is save to consume irradiated foods and the effects of irradiation to food quality.
High pressure processing (HPP) is a method of preserving and sterilizing food, in which a product is processed under very high pressure, leading to the inactivation of certain microorganisms and enzymes in the food
Irradiation of food is novel technique in food processing area in a recent days operations under which food need to go through. It helps mainly in disinfection of food from microorganisms along with shelf life extension and biological activity inhabitation.
High voltage pulse technique or High intensity pulsed electric field processing involves the application of electric pulses of high voltage
20-80 kV/cm to the food placed between two electrodes.
The applied electric field create a pores on the cell membrane, thus the phenomenon known as Electroporation or electropermeabilization.
The effect of Electroporation can be divided into four steps:
An increase in the transmembrane potential
Pore formation
Evolution of the number and size of the pores
Pore resealing
Irradiation technology is widely used in scientific as well as commercial applications in the field of agriculture and animal science, pharmaceuticals and medical science etc. Food Irradiation involves treating certain types of foods with ionizing energy or radiation. Radiation processing of food strengthens food conservation, improves food hygiene and helps food exports overcome quarantine barriers. It facilitates packing, storage, transport and distribution of foods.It is the process of exposing food to ionizing radiation(x-rays, gamma rays ,electron Beams) to destroy microorganisms , bacteria , viruses , or insects that might be present in the food. The measurement of radiation dose is referred to as dosimetry, and involves exposing dosimeters jointly with the treated food item. Dosimeters are small components attached to the irradiated product made of materials that, when exposed to ionizing radiation change specific, measurable physical attributes to a degree that can be correlated to the dose received.
1.Electron irradiation
Electron irradiation uses electrons accelerated in an electric field to a velocity close to the speed of light.
Electrons are particulate radiation and, hence have cross section many times larger than photons, so that they do not penetrate the product
beyond a few inches, depending on product density.
Electron facilities rely on substantial concrete shields to protect workers and the environment from radiation exposure.
2.Gamma irradiation :
Gamma radiation is a part of electromagnetic spectrum .The radiation is obtained through the use of radioisotopes, generally cobalt-60 or caesium-137 Presently, caesium-137 is used only in small hospital units to treat blood before transfusion to prevent Graft-versus-host disease.
Food irradiation using Cobalt-60 is the preferred method by most processors, because the deeper penetration enables administering treatment to entire industrial pallets or totes, reducing the need for material handling.
3.X-ray irradiation :
Similar to gamma radiation, X-rays are photon radiation of a wide energy spectrum and an alternative to isotope based irradiation systems
X-ray irradiators are scalable and have deep penetration comparable to Co-60. They also permit dose uniformity.
Nominal X-ray energy is usually limited to 5 MeV.
USA has provisions for up to 7.5 MeV, which increases conversion efficiency
On the basis of the dose of radiation the application is generally divided into three main categories as detailed under:
Low Dose Applications (up to 1 kGy) Sprout inhibition in bulbs and tubers 0.03-0.15 kGy
Delay in fruit ripening 0.25-0.75 kGy Insect disinfestations including quarantine treatment and elimination of food borne parasites 0.07-1.00 kGy
Medium Dose Applications (1 kGy to 10 kGy)
Reduction of spoilage microbes to prolong shelf-life of meat, poultry and seafoods under refrigeration 1.50–3.00 kGy
Reduction of pathogenic microbes in fresh and frozen meat, poultry
Preservation of food and feed using irradiationAkram Hossain
This a presentation prepared by my fellow Food engineer A.B.M Said Bin Saifullah, Food and Process Engineering, 8th Batch, Hajee Mohammad Danesh Science and Technology University, Bangladesh.
Thanks to him for his contribution.
Irradiation is the process of exposing fresh food to low amount of x-rays to sterilize and prolong its life. Irradiation can kill microorganisms, insects and parasites and this is a fundamental reason for applying the technology to improve the safety and quality of many food and food products. Food suppliers say that irradiated food is safe and does not make foods radioactive. More than 100 years of research that have gone into accepting of the safe and successful use of irradiation as a food safety method is more than any technology used in the industry today.
contract Research and Development (R&D) team of Guires Food Research Lab (FRL) has vast experience designing and developing new food products tailored to the client’s goals.
Contact us
+91 9566299022
info@foodresearchlab.com
Irradiation is a non-thermal food preservation technique used to lengthen and improve the shelf life of fresh or processed foods. Food irradiation is a non-chemical, energy-efficient method of preparing food that can aid in lowering the significant losses brought on by food deterioration or contamination by dangerous bacteria and other parasite life forms. A carefully regulated amount of ionising radiation, such as gamma rays released by radionuclides (such as cobalt-60 and caesium-137), X-rays, and high energy (10 MeV) electrons produced by machine sources, is used to irradiate food. Various effects, which include decreased storage losses, increased shelf life, and enhanced microbiological and parasitological safety of foods, can be obtained depending on the dose of radiation absorbed. Ionizing radiation could potentially be used in the food processing industry since it damages DNA molecules very effectively.
Irradiation doesn't make food radioactive and is safe. Irradiated products are evaluated for food safety based on their chemical, nutritional, microbiological, and toxicological characteristics. There are three dose levels in the radiation: low, medium, and high. Depending on the unique characteristics of the materials, different radiation dosages were applied to each of these constituents. The food industry has widely used irradiation treatments to prevent sprouting and germination, postpone senescence, and stop microbiological growth. Irradiation is being utilised to lengthen the shelf life of fresh-cut food, either alone or in conjunction with other traditional preservation techniques. Food products exposed to radiation are not rendered radioactive for two seasons. First off, cobalt-60 does not become radioactive when exposed to the gamma rays employed in food radiation. Second, food cannot become contaminated with radioactive radiation because it never comes into direct contact with the source. The FAO/WHO label for irradiated food uses the radura international symbol to recognise this fact.
INTRODUCTION
Several method of employed for preservation and extension of self life of fish ranging from primitive drying/smoking to freezing and freez drying. Another important step forward is the development of technology for transportation of live fish. A notable and conceptual difference from all these method is utilization of ionizing radiation for food preservation.
Preservation of foods using ionizing radiation is called irradiation. Preservation of food by irradiation is on of the truly peaceful uses of atomic energy irradiation of foods has been found useful and effective to:
• Inhibit sprouting or reducing weight losses in vegetable such as potato, onion etc. during storage.
• Delay the ripening of fruits.
• Kill insect pests in fruits, grains or spices.
• Reduce or eliminate food spoiling microorganisms in meat and seafood products.
How the Irradiation is going to apply for Food & Food Products, how and when it was started, what are the major advantages of Irradiating Food Products, and Recent advances in the Irradiation Process of Food Products
information about beer processing:-
introduction, ingredients, production & packaging procedure, WTP, Boiler, CO2 & refrigeration plant, yeast propagation, CIP, Quality analysis of beer & raw imports, sensory evaluation of beer, rival beer brands in INDIA.
June 3, 2024 Anti-Semitism Letter Sent to MIT President Kornbluth and MIT Cor...Levi Shapiro
Letter from the Congress of the United States regarding Anti-Semitism sent June 3rd to MIT President Sally Kornbluth, MIT Corp Chair, Mark Gorenberg
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The US House of Representatives is deeply concerned by ongoing and pervasive acts of antisemitic
harassment and intimidation at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT). Failing to act decisively to ensure a safe learning environment for all students would be a grave dereliction of your responsibilities as President of MIT and Chair of the MIT Corporation.
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unwillingness to rectify this violation through action requires accountability.
Postsecondary education is a unique opportunity for students to learn and have their ideas and beliefs challenged. However, universities receiving hundreds of millions of federal funds annually have denied
students that opportunity and have been hijacked to become venues for the promotion of terrorism, antisemitic harassment and intimidation, unlawful encampments, and in some cases, assaults and riots.
The House of Representatives will not countenance the use of federal funds to indoctrinate students into hateful, antisemitic, anti-American supporters of terrorism. Investigations into campus antisemitism by the Committee on Education and the Workforce and the Committee on Ways and Means have been expanded into a Congress-wide probe across all relevant jurisdictions to address this national crisis. The undersigned Committees will conduct oversight into the use of federal funds at MIT and its learning environment under authorities granted to each Committee.
• The Committee on Education and the Workforce has been investigating your institution since December 7, 2023. The Committee has broad jurisdiction over postsecondary education, including its compliance with Title VI of the Civil Rights Act, campus safety concerns over disruptions to the learning environment, and the awarding of federal student aid under the Higher Education Act.
• The Committee on Oversight and Accountability is investigating the sources of funding and other support flowing to groups espousing pro-Hamas propaganda and engaged in antisemitic harassment and intimidation of students. The Committee on Oversight and Accountability is the principal oversight committee of the US House of Representatives and has broad authority to investigate “any matter” at “any time” under House Rule X.
• The Committee on Ways and Means has been investigating several universities since November 15, 2023, when the Committee held a hearing entitled From Ivory Towers to Dark Corners: Investigating the Nexus Between Antisemitism, Tax-Exempt Universities, and Terror Financing. The Committee followed the hearing with letters to those institutions on January 10, 202
A Strategic Approach: GenAI in EducationPeter Windle
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The people of Punjab felt alienated from main stream due to denial of their just demands during a long democratic struggle since independence. As it happen all over the word, it led to militant struggle with great loss of lives of military, police and civilian personnel. Killing of Indira Gandhi and massacre of innocent Sikhs in Delhi and other India cities was also associated with this movement.
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Read| The latest issue of The Challenger is here! We are thrilled to announce that our school paper has qualified for the NATIONAL SCHOOLS PRESS CONFERENCE (NSPC) 2024. Thank you for your unwavering support and trust. Dive into the stories that made us stand out!
2. CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION & BASIC DEFINITIONS 1
FOOD IRRADIATION EXPLAINED 3
INDUSTRIAL PROCESS & THEORY OF FOOD IRRADIATION 5
OBJECTIVES OF FOOD IRRADIATION 7
THE RADURA SYMBOL 9
TYPES OF FOOD IRRADIATION 11
FOOD IRRADIATION FACILITIES IN INDIA 16
TERMINOLOGIES OF FOOD IRRADIATION 17
ADVANTAGES & DISADVANTAGES OF FOOD IRRADIATION 18
REFERENCE 20
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1
INTRODUCTION
Food safety is widely recognized as an increasingly significantly public health
concern world wide;
Recent history has included too many examples of recalls necessitated by the
presence or suspected presence of food borne pathogens such as E.coli,
Listeria, and Salmonella;
In the face of growing concern about food-related illness, Food Irradiation
has entered in the world of Food Science, Processing & Technology;
FDA has approved irradiation of food for limited purpose since 1963, &
NASA has used irradiated food on its space missions for decades as a
precaution against food borne pathogens;
Despite its conceded effectiveness against food borne pathogens, the use of
irradiation is still uncommon in the food industry.
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Ionizing Radiation: Radiation consisting of particles, X-rays, or gamma-
rays with sufficient energy to cause ionization in the medium through
which it passes.
Free Radical: An uncharged molecule (typically high reactive & short lived)
having an unpaired valence electron.
Free Radical Polymerization Mechanism involves 3 steps:-
1. Initiation;
2. Propagation;
3. Termination.
Radiation: A form of energy that comes from a radioactive source and
travels through space and may be able to penetrate various materials.
BASIC DEFINITIONS
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FOOD IRRADIATION EXPLAINED
Food irradiation is a physical process in which a food is exposed to some
controlled and specified doses of ionizing radiation in a biologically shielded
container.
Here 2 important terms are used “controlled & specified”
The dosage is specified and is controlled, that provides no harm with
the food product.
The radiation source and the food never comes in direct contact in the
food irradiation process.
The SI Unit for calculating absorbed dose of ionization radiations is gray
(gy), it is defined as the absorption of one joule of
radiation energy per kilogram of irradiated matter ( Jkg−1).
Measuring the dose is known as dosimetry
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THEORY
As the food is irradiated under specified and controlled doses of the ionizing
radiations; when it comes in contact with the food product.
Since the food irradiation process involves no heat treatment as there is no
raise in temperature this process is also known as cold sterilization.
The products of ionization may be electrically charged (ions) or neutral (free
radicals) in the food product where the radicals are extremely short lived (less
than 10-5 s) but are sufficient to destroy bacterial cells.
Eventually they lead to the development of the H2O2 i.e. hydrogen peroxide,
which acts as a biological toxicant for the harmful microorganisms, pests, etc.
7. IRRADIATION
ROOM
STORAGE POOL
RADIATION SOURCE
CONTROL
CONSOLE
RADIATION SHIELD
CONVEYOR SYSTEM
UNLOADING
PROCESSED PRODUCT
LOADING
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INDUSTRIAL PROCESS OF FOOD IRRADIATION
An industrial irradiator used for food products consist of a
room with concrete walls (2 meters thick) which contain the
radiation source (cobalt-60). A conveyer system
automatically moves the products into the room for
irradiation, and then removes them. When personnel must
enter the room, the source is lowered to the bottom of a pool,
where water absorbs the radiation energy and protects the
workers.
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Arrival of products at
the processing facility
Loading of products
into totes
Transport of totes
(Containing products)
into the radiation cell
Transport of treated
products back to the
unloading area
Circulation of products
around the radiation
source
Source raised for
product irradiation
Unloading of treated
products & shipment
back to client
PROCESS FLOW CHART
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OBJECTIVES OF FOOD IRRADIATION
Delay Maturation Of Fruits
Pathogen Reduction in Spices
Insect Disinfestations in
pulses, cereals, & Dry
fruits
Sprout Inhibition in onion,
potato, garlic, & ginger
Shelf Life Extension Of Chicken,
Meat & Fish
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OBJECTIVES OF FOOD IRRADIATION
Improving the shelf life of food (1 to 10 kGy)
Inhibit Sprouting (0.03 to 0.12 kGy)
Pest Disinfestations (0.2 to 0.8 kGy)
Destroy pathogens & delay the maturation of food (<1kGy)
Food Sterilization (10 to 50 kGy)
Radiation at doses of 2 to 7 kGy can eliminate potentially pathogenic non-
spore forming bacteria such as:-
Salmonella,
Staphylococcus aureus,
Camphylobactor,
Listeria monocytogenes,
Eschirichia coli.
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THE RADURA SYMBOL
Central dot is the radiation source
Two circle segments ('leaves') are the biological shield
to protect the workers and the environment.
Outer ring is the transport system,
The lower half of it is shielded from radiation by the biological
shield and resembles also the loading area,
The upper broken half symbolizes the rays hitting the target
goods on the transport system.
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TYPES OF FOOD IRRADIATION
There are 3 types of Food Irradiation:-
γ-Ray
X-Ray
e-Beam
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GAMMA RAY FOOD IRRADIATION
The simplest form of irradiation, at least in concept, is gamma ray irradiation.
Main source of gamma ray irradiation is Cobalt-60, which is a radioactive isotope produced
from Cobalt-59.
One of the irradiation sources that is permitted for use in food processing is gamma rays
produced from the radioactive isotopes Cobalt-60 (1.77 & 1.33 MeV) & Cesium-137 (0.662
MeV).
These radioactive isotopes are produced by exposure of the ordinary element to a nuclear
reactor core, and their availability may be conditioned on the continued availability of
nuclear power.
Radioactive elements do not have an “off” switch, nor do they come equipped with
directional or intensity controls.
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Gamma rays can be controlled by immersion of the source in a sufficient quantity of water,
but the source must be removed from the pool in order to irradiate the target food.
In order to prevent inadvertent gamma ray exposure, the source must be insulated from
the outside world by several feet of concrete.
X-RAY FOOD IRRADIATION
X-ray irradiation is a relatively new technique that combines many of the advantages of the
other two methods.
Like gamma ray irradiation, X-ray irradiation consists of exposing food to high-energy
photons with a long penetration depth.
In this case, however, bombarding a metal film with a high-energy electron beam produces
the photons, allowing the radiation to be turned on and off.
The X-ray food irradiator is a more powerful version of the X-ray machines used in medical
offices.
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The device still requires heavy shielding, although the amount of shielding requires is less
than that for gamma ray irradiation.
No radioactive substances or by-products are used in, or results from, the process.
Regardless to form, food irradiation is fundamentally about how much energy is absorbed
by the target food.
E-BEAM FOOD IRRADIATION
Electron beam irradiation, through it uses the same term as gamma ray irradiation, is a
completely different kind of treatment.
High energy electron beams are produced in an electron gun, a larger version of the
cathode ray gun found in devices such as televisions and monitors.
Regardless to form, food irradiation is fundamentally about how much energy is absorbed
by the target food.
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The electrons can be directed by a magnetic field to a target food.
The term “irradiation” is really a misnomer, since the food not exposed to electromagnetic
radiation or beta rays (electrons produced by a radioactive source).
Nevertheless, the process has a similar effect to that of gamma ray irradiation.
E-beam irradiation requires shielding as well, but nothing like the concrete bunkers used in
gamma ray irradiation.
The disadvantage of the e-beam is its short penetration depth (about an inch), preventing
its application to many foods and limiting the amount of food that can be processed in bulk.
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FOOD IRRADIATION FACILITIES IN INDIA
Food Irradiation Processing lab was established in the Food Tech.
division at BARC (BHABHA ATOMIC RESEARCH CENTER) in 1967, where
Co-60 irradiation unit called ‘Food package irradiator’ was
installed, this facility is still used to carry out large scale test trials
on food commodities.
In 2000, DAE (DEPARTMENT OF ATOMIC ENERGY) established a 30
tons/day capacity Radiation Processing Plant at Vashi, Navi
Mumbai for microbial decomposition of spices and dry ingredients;
Another facility, KRUSHAK was setup at Lasalgaon near Nasik in
2002 for treatment of agricultural commodities, later in 2006 it was
upgraded for treatment of mangoes & received approval from
USDA for export of INDIAN mangoes to USA.
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TERMINOLOGIES OF FOOD IRRADIATION
Radappertization:- Equivalent to food sterilization with a high radiation
dose (30 to 40 kGy)
It provides treatment on endospores and exotoxins of Clostridium
botulinum (type A, B, E)
Radicidation:- Equivalent to Food pasteurization for e.g. milk
pasteurization with medium dose (2.5 to 10 kGy),
Useful for reduction of number of viable non-spore forming
pathogens.
Radurization:- may be equivalent to beverage & food Pasteurization
with a low dose (0.75 to 2.5 kGy)
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ADVANTAGES OF FOOD IRRADIATION
No heating of food i.e. no change in sensory characteristics;
Packaged & frozen food can be treated;
Single operation technique without any use of chemical preservative;
Very low energy requirements;
Processing is automatically controlled and has low operating costs.
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DISADVANTAGES OF FOOD IRRADIATION
The high capital cost of irradiation plant;
Reduces Vit-E (~15-30%), Thiamin (~10-25%), Vit-C (~5-15%), Riboflavin (~7-10%),
Pyridoxine (~10-20%), & Vit-B12 (~15-20 %);
Is ineffective against viruses;
The possible development of resistance to radiation in micro organisms;
Public resistance due to fears of induced radioactivity or other reasons connected
to concerns over the nuclear industry.
Loss of nutritional value;