These slides were prepared for a workshop for international students at Massey University, New Zealand. The session covered the appropriate use of linking words and other strategies for creating clarity and focus in academic writing.

1. Firstly, Secondly … Stop!

2. CONTENTS
What are linking words?
Overuse of linking words
Effective use of linking words
Creating clarity and flow

3. What are linking words?

4. LINKING WORDS are words or phrases like
‘however’ and ‘as a result’.
They are used to EMPHASISE an important move in an
argument or description.
Uber has certainly proved popular with consumers, given its
convenience and competitive pricing; however, it has put
a lot of taxi drivers out of work.
Synthetic milk can now be made in a laboratory, without
the need for cows or land; as a result, a major segment of
the New Zealand economy is under threat.

5. ORDER COMPARISON AND
CONTRAST
ADDITION AND
REINFORCEMENT
first
secondly
next
meanwhile
later
then
afterwards
finally
similarly
likewise
on the other hand
conversely
however
yet
furthermore
moreover
also
in addition
in fact
indeed
Some examples

6. EXAMPLES EFFECT/ RESULT SUMMARY /
CONCLUSION
for example
for instance
therefore
thus
consequently
as a result
hence
in brief
all in all
in short
in the end
For more examples and exercises, see:
tinyurl.com/firstlysecondly1
tinyurl.com/firstlysecondly2
tinyurl.com/firstlysecondly3

7. OVERUSE OF LINKING
WORDS

8. This case study focuses on a chain of clothes shops.
Firstly, the chain employs a thousand people in New
Zealand. Secondly, the long-term future of this business is
at risk because of rising costs and falling sales. On the
other hand, a very attractive deal has been offered by a
clothes exporter in a developing country. Moreover, profits
could be significantly increased. Furthermore, concerns
have been expressed by a sales manager regarding
employee conditions at this exporter which affect the
workers, the majority of whom are female. Therefore,
Utilitarianism which means the “greatest happiness of the
greatest number” (Mill, 1848) must be considered in this
case.
How many linking words can you see in the
paragraph on the next slide?
How many of them are used correctly?

9. This case study focuses on a chain of clothes shops. Firstly,
the chain employs a thousand people in New Zealand.
Secondly, the long-term future of this business is at risk
because of rising costs and falling sales. On the other hand,
a very attractive deal has been offered by a clothes exporter
in a developing country. Moreover, profits could be
significantly increased. Furthermore, concerns have been
expressed by a sales manager regarding employee conditions
at this exporter which affect the workers, the majority of
whom are female. Therefore, Utilitarianism which means
the “greatest happiness of the greatest number” (Mill, 1848)
must be considered in this case.
There are six linking words or phrases.
NOT ONE of them is used correctly!

10. This case study focuses on a chain of
clothes shops. Firstly, the chain employs a
thousand people in New Zealand.
Secondly, the long-term future of this
business is at risk because of rising costs
and falling sales. On the other hand, a
very attractive deal has been offered by a
clothes exporter in a developing country.
Moreover, profits could be significantly
increased. Furthermore, concerns have
been expressed by a sales manager
regarding employee conditions at this
exporter which affect the workers, the
majority of whom are female. Therefore,
Utilitarianism which means the “greatest
happiness of the greatest number” (Mill,
1848) must be considered in this case.
NOT a sequence!
NOT a contrast!
NOT
reinforcement!
NOT a logical
consequence!

11. This case study focuses on a chain of clothes shops. The
chain employs a thousand people in New Zealand. The
long-term future of this business is at risk because of
rising costs and falling sales. A very attractive deal has
been offered by a clothes exporter in a developing country.
Profits could be significantly increased. Concerns have
been expressed by a sales manager regarding employee
conditions at this exporter which affect the workers, the
majority of whom are female.
The paragraph would be more natural and readable
without any linking words (and by removing the last
sentence, which doesn’t make sense).

12. EFFECTIVE USE OF
LINKING WORDS

13. This case study focuses on a chain of clothes shops. The
chain employs a thousand people in New Zealand. The
long-term future of this business is at risk because of
rising costs and falling sales. A very attractive deal has
been offered by a clothes exporter in a developing country.
Profits could be significantly increased. Concerns have
been expressed by a sales manager regarding employee
conditions at this exporter which affect the workers, the
majority of whom are female.
If you could add just ONE linking word or phrase,
WHICH ONE would you put in – and WHERE?

14. This case study focuses on a chain of
clothes shops. The chain employs a
thousand people in New Zealand. The long-
term future of this business is at risk
because of rising costs and falling sales. A
very attractive deal has been offered by a
clothes exporter in a developing country.
Profits could be significantly increased.
However, concerns have been expressed
by a sales manager regarding employee
conditions at this exporter which affect the
workers, the majority of whom are female.
Situation
Problem
Here, for example, it highlights the move from
description of the situation to a focus on the problem
(which will be the focus of the essay)

15. It’s best to think of linking words as adding
SPICE to a paragraph.

16. A LITTLE spice, carefully
matched to the dish, will
enhance the flavour.
TOO MUCH will overwhelm
the flavour and make the
dish uneatable.

17. See how in this well-written paragraph, just ONE
linking phrase is used to highlight an important
move.

18. Another way to consider this decision is to focus
on its consequences. Ethical theories which focus
on the consequences are known as
consequentialist (Smith, 2009). According to one
of these theories, Utilitarianism, decision-makers
need to focus on the consequences of an action
for everyone who is affected. An action can only
be considered justified if it is intended to bring
the greatest happiness to the greatest number of
people (Richards, 2011). The strength of this
approach to ethics is that it encourages decision-
makers to consider in a practical way the ‘bigger
picture’ of their actions’ in terms of their effects
on others, not only on themselves. On the other
hand, as Brown (2006) points out, happiness
cannot be objectively measured. And a narrow
interpretation of this approach might lead to a
view that any actions are allowed since ‘the end
justifies the means’.
Explanation
Strength(s)
Weakness(es)
Introduction
of theory

19. CREATING CLARITY &
FLOW

20. People might overuse linking words because they think these
words will help give their writing clarity and ‘flow’.
The problem is that linking words can’t create clarity or flow;
they can only highlight elements that are already there.
And using too many of them can reduce their value and attract
too much attention (like strong spice!).
More basic ways of creating clarity and flow are STRATEGIC
REPETITION and OLD-NEW sentence structures.

21. STRATEGIC REPETITION means repeating the key topic
words (or associated words) in most sentences in a paragraph.
It can give a paragraph a very clear focus on a theme.

22. For instance, look again at the paragraph about Utilitarianism.
The theme of the whole essay is the decision which the
manager needs to make.
The main theme of is that Utilitarianism is an ethical theory
which focuses on the consequences of actions.
So the key words are ‘decision’, ‘ethical theory’ and
‘consequences’.
Notice how often these words (or associated words) are used.

23. Another way to consider this decision is to focus on its
consequences. Ethical theories which focus on the
consequences are known as consequentialist (Smith,
2009). According to one of these theories, Utilitarianism,
decision-makers need to focus on the consequences of
an action for everyone who is affected. An action can only
be considered justified if it is intended to bring the
greatest happiness to the greatest number of people
(Richards, 2011). The strength of this approach to ethics
is that it encourages decision-makers to consider in a
practical way the ‘bigger picture’ of their actions’ in terms of
their effects on others, not only on themselves. On the
other hand, as Brown (2006) points out, happiness cannot
be objectively measured. And a narrow interpretation of this
approach might lead to a view that any actions are allowed
since ‘the end justifies the means’.

24. OLD-NEW sentences make a smooth transition between the
topic of the previous sentence(s) and the topic of the new one.
This is especially important in the TOPIC sentence at the
beginning of a new paragraph.
Another way to consider
this decision …
… is to focus on its
consequences

25. Another way to consider
this decision …
… is to focus on its
consequences.
Ethical theories which focus
on the consequences …
… are known as
consequentialist
According to one of
these theories,
Utilitarianism,
… decision-makers
need to focus on the
consequences …

26. Another way to consider
THIS decision …
… is to focus on its
consequences.
According to one of
THESE theories,
Utilitarianism,
… decision-makers
need to focus on the
consequences …
‘This’ and ‘these’ help to link the sentence
strongly to ideas in previous sentences.

27. In this session you have learnt how to:
• Use linking words selectively to emphasise important
shifts in an argument
• Use strategic repetition to focus strongly on the topic
• Use ‘old-new’ sentences to construct a convincing and
readable argument
SUMMARY
• For more advice and resources, look under ‘Academic
Support’ on Stream
• Visit us in the Centre for Teaching and Learning on Level 3 of
the library.