The document discusses the employer's duties toward employees, including providing fair compensation (wages and salaries) and working conditions. It notes that determining fair wages can be challenging as it requires balancing the employer's interest in minimizing costs and the employees' need for a decent living. The document then lists several factors that should be considered when determining wages and salaries, such as prevailing wages in the industry, the firm's financial capabilities, the nature of the job, minimum wage laws, and fairness of wage negotiation processes. It also discusses the importance of providing healthy and safe working conditions for employees.
Please be informed that the Labour Code numbered 4857 (“Labour Code”) regulates the working conditions and also rights and obligations of the employees and employers. The Labour Code shall apply to all employers, employer representatives, employees and workplaces except those listed under Article 4 of the Labour Code. There are two types of termination of the employment contract stipulated under the Labour Code; 1) Termination with notice period and 2) Immediate Termination due to justified reasons.
introduction to trade unions
trade unions characteristics
objectives of trade unions
how trade unions are financed
how trade unions recruits its members
why employees join trade unions
functions of trade unions
trade union structure
Weakness/challenges/problems facing trade unions
Measures to strengthen trade unions
Advantages of trade unions to workers, employeer and society
criticism of trade unions by employer
Lay-off and Retrenchment –difference between lay-off and
Retrenchment their application, necessary preconditions for their
application, lay-off and retrenchment compensation, special
provisions relating to lay-off, retrenchment, and closure in certain establishments, penalty, and punishment for illegal lay-off or retrenchment, the consequences of illegal lay-off or retrenchment.
Please be informed that the Labour Code numbered 4857 (“Labour Code”) regulates the working conditions and also rights and obligations of the employees and employers. The Labour Code shall apply to all employers, employer representatives, employees and workplaces except those listed under Article 4 of the Labour Code. There are two types of termination of the employment contract stipulated under the Labour Code; 1) Termination with notice period and 2) Immediate Termination due to justified reasons.
introduction to trade unions
trade unions characteristics
objectives of trade unions
how trade unions are financed
how trade unions recruits its members
why employees join trade unions
functions of trade unions
trade union structure
Weakness/challenges/problems facing trade unions
Measures to strengthen trade unions
Advantages of trade unions to workers, employeer and society
criticism of trade unions by employer
Lay-off and Retrenchment –difference between lay-off and
Retrenchment their application, necessary preconditions for their
application, lay-off and retrenchment compensation, special
provisions relating to lay-off, retrenchment, and closure in certain establishments, penalty, and punishment for illegal lay-off or retrenchment, the consequences of illegal lay-off or retrenchment.
Strike and Lockout - Legal and illegal strikes and lockouts,
Justified and unjustified strikes and lockouts, Strike and lockout in public utility services and other industries, Distinction between
lockout and closure, strike and lockout.
Maharashtra Recognition of Trade Unions & Prevention of Unfair Labour Practic...Sandip Satbhai
The Important Provisions of Maharashtra Recognition of Trade Unions & Prevention of Unfair Labour Practices Act, 1071 have been highlighted for law students.
Wage components - compensation management - Manu Melwin Joymanumelwin
The salaried employees in high pay positions are not likely to receive additional pay for the hours in excess of 40 per week. However, employees with low salaries are entitled to overtime pay.
Improper use (or threat of improper use) of authority, economic power, physical force, or other such advantage, by a party to compel another to submit to the wishes of its wielder. Agreements entered into, or testaments signed, under coercion are considered illegal and invalid.
Strike and Lockout - Legal and illegal strikes and lockouts,
Justified and unjustified strikes and lockouts, Strike and lockout in public utility services and other industries, Distinction between
lockout and closure, strike and lockout.
Maharashtra Recognition of Trade Unions & Prevention of Unfair Labour Practic...Sandip Satbhai
The Important Provisions of Maharashtra Recognition of Trade Unions & Prevention of Unfair Labour Practices Act, 1071 have been highlighted for law students.
Wage components - compensation management - Manu Melwin Joymanumelwin
The salaried employees in high pay positions are not likely to receive additional pay for the hours in excess of 40 per week. However, employees with low salaries are entitled to overtime pay.
Improper use (or threat of improper use) of authority, economic power, physical force, or other such advantage, by a party to compel another to submit to the wishes of its wielder. Agreements entered into, or testaments signed, under coercion are considered illegal and invalid.
Philippine Labor Laws
Authorized Causes for Dismissal of Employee
Employee Discipline and Termination
The two most commonly used grounds for termination of employee are the Authorized Causes under Article 283 and 284 of the Labor Code, and the Just Causes under Article 282. Below are the authorized causes for termination of employment.
As maybe broadly defined, authorized causes for dismissal of employee refer to those lawful grounds for termination which in general do not arise from fault or negligence of the employee. “Authorized causes” are distinguished from “just causes” under Article 282 in that the latter are always based on acts attributable to the employee’s own fault or negligence.
Macro Economics
For downloading this contact- bikashkumar.bk100@gmail.com
Prepared by Students of University of Rajshahi
Group - Galaxy
Bikash Kumar
Rahid Hassan
Uttam Kumar
Md. Tarikul Islam Tarif
Md. Rajib Hossain
Unit V Lesson Notes It is understood that a labor union is an.docxmarilucorr
Unit V: Lesson Notes
It is understood that a labor union is an organization that acts as a filter between its members and the organization in which the members are employed. It has also been identified that the main purpose of labor unions is to give employees the opportunity and power to negotiate for better working conditions, decent wages, and other benefits through collective bargaining. Now that the foundation of collective bargaining has been laid, it is now time to look a little further into some of the issues that employees bargain for.
Whether working in a union or non-union environment, what would be one of your major concerns with employment? When addressing this question, many of you would probably state “compensation/wages” would be the main topic of interest. Sure, there are other perks that you would look for; however, most would not consider employment or would consider leaving current employer for better wages.
According to the textbook, “wages and benefits represent the heart of the collective bargaining process. Guarantee of a certain standard of living and a reasonable return for their productive efforts is the major concern for most union members” (Carrell & Heavrin, 2013, p. 278). This second part of this statement can be said to be true for non-union workers as well. Although there are similarities among non-union and union environments, there are differences in how wages and benefits are determined and implemented.
Non-Union Environment: Most non-union employees do not have the opportunity to negotiate their wages. Most of these organizations have a set pay rate or pay range for all positions. Many organizations conduct job analysis and job evaluations to determine appropriate pay rates. When offered a job, some may try to negotiate on the front end with the hiring manager and/or human resources a certain pay rate. Sometimes, the employee does succeed and the organization may meet the applicant half-way or offer a little more to display true interest in the applicant. However, there are some organizations that will not budge and the applicant would be forced to accept or decline the offer. Even if the applicant does accept the offer, there may be limits on how often raises are given or if they are given at all. Based on experience, sometimes the applicant will accept the job and continue to look at organizations that offer better wages and benefits. Unlike union environments, wages can also differ tremendously among individuals who have the same job title and perform the same duties. This can have a major impact on the organization.
Union Environment: Wages within union environments are negotiated. Pay rates/ranges, along with pay raises, are determined and outlined within the collective bargaining agreement. The pay rates/ranges are set for each job covered under the agreement. Many organizations will conduct job evaluations, wage surveys, and other methods when making wage decisions. Management must look ...
HR, 3eAngelo S. DeNisi, Ricky W. GriffnThe amount of value.docxwellesleyterresa
HR, 3e
Angelo S. DeNisi, Ricky W. Griffn
The amount of value people create for an organization and what the organization gives them as compensation for that value are important determinants of organizational competitiveness. If employers pay too much for the value created by workers, then profits (and hence competitiveness) will suffer. But if they pay too little or demand too much from their workers for what they are paying, they will suffer in different ways: lower-quality workers, higher turnover, or employee fatigue and stress. Clearly, then, managing compensation and benefits are important activities for any organization. And just as clearly, Nucor managers have a keen understanding of the relationship between worker compensation and company performance.
Compensation and benefits refer to the various types of outcomes employees receive for their time at work. Compensation is the set of rewards that organizations provide to individuals in return for their willingness to perform various jobs and tasks within the organization. Benefits are the various rewards, incentives, and other items of value that an organization provides to its employees beyond wages, salaries, and other forms of financial compensation. The term total compensation is sometimes used to refer to the overall value of financial compensation plus the value of additional benefits that the organization provides.
Compensationis the set of rewards that organizations provide to individuals in return for their willingness to perform various jobs and tasks within the organization.
Benefitsgenerally refer to various rewards, incentives, and other things of value that an organization provides to its employees beyond their wages, salaries, and other forms of direct financial compensation.
In this chapter, we cover the basic concepts of compensation and benefits. We start by examining how compensation strategies are developed, and then we turn to the administration of compensation programs and how organizations evaluate their compensation programs. We look at benefits, discussing the basic reasons for benefit plans and describing different types of benefit plans typically found in organizations. Next we consider the often controversial topic of executive compensation, discussing the basic components of executive-compensation packages and why they are so controversial. We conclude with a discussion of legal issues associated with compensation and benefits and the ways in which organizations can evaluate their compensation and benefit programs.
9-1 DEVELOPING A COMPRATION STRATEGY
Compensation should never be a result of random decisions but instead the result of a careful and systematic strategic process.3 Embedded in the process is an understanding of the basic purposes of compensation, an assessment of strategic options for compensation, knowledge of the determinants of compensation strategy, and the use of pay surveys.
9-1a Basic Purposes of Compensation
Compensation has several f ...
Acetabularia Information For Class 9 .docxvaibhavrinwa19
Acetabularia acetabulum is a single-celled green alga that in its vegetative state is morphologically differentiated into a basal rhizoid and an axially elongated stalk, which bears whorls of branching hairs. The single diploid nucleus resides in the rhizoid.
A Strategic Approach: GenAI in EducationPeter Windle
Artificial Intelligence (AI) technologies such as Generative AI, Image Generators and Large Language Models have had a dramatic impact on teaching, learning and assessment over the past 18 months. The most immediate threat AI posed was to Academic Integrity with Higher Education Institutes (HEIs) focusing their efforts on combating the use of GenAI in assessment. Guidelines were developed for staff and students, policies put in place too. Innovative educators have forged paths in the use of Generative AI for teaching, learning and assessments leading to pockets of transformation springing up across HEIs, often with little or no top-down guidance, support or direction.
This Gasta posits a strategic approach to integrating AI into HEIs to prepare staff, students and the curriculum for an evolving world and workplace. We will highlight the advantages of working with these technologies beyond the realm of teaching, learning and assessment by considering prompt engineering skills, industry impact, curriculum changes, and the need for staff upskilling. In contrast, not engaging strategically with Generative AI poses risks, including falling behind peers, missed opportunities and failing to ensure our graduates remain employable. The rapid evolution of AI technologies necessitates a proactive and strategic approach if we are to remain relevant.
Read| The latest issue of The Challenger is here! We are thrilled to announce that our school paper has qualified for the NATIONAL SCHOOLS PRESS CONFERENCE (NSPC) 2024. Thank you for your unwavering support and trust. Dive into the stories that made us stand out!
June 3, 2024 Anti-Semitism Letter Sent to MIT President Kornbluth and MIT Cor...Levi Shapiro
Letter from the Congress of the United States regarding Anti-Semitism sent June 3rd to MIT President Sally Kornbluth, MIT Corp Chair, Mark Gorenberg
Dear Dr. Kornbluth and Mr. Gorenberg,
The US House of Representatives is deeply concerned by ongoing and pervasive acts of antisemitic
harassment and intimidation at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT). Failing to act decisively to ensure a safe learning environment for all students would be a grave dereliction of your responsibilities as President of MIT and Chair of the MIT Corporation.
This Congress will not stand idly by and allow an environment hostile to Jewish students to persist. The House believes that your institution is in violation of Title VI of the Civil Rights Act, and the inability or
unwillingness to rectify this violation through action requires accountability.
Postsecondary education is a unique opportunity for students to learn and have their ideas and beliefs challenged. However, universities receiving hundreds of millions of federal funds annually have denied
students that opportunity and have been hijacked to become venues for the promotion of terrorism, antisemitic harassment and intimidation, unlawful encampments, and in some cases, assaults and riots.
The House of Representatives will not countenance the use of federal funds to indoctrinate students into hateful, antisemitic, anti-American supporters of terrorism. Investigations into campus antisemitism by the Committee on Education and the Workforce and the Committee on Ways and Means have been expanded into a Congress-wide probe across all relevant jurisdictions to address this national crisis. The undersigned Committees will conduct oversight into the use of federal funds at MIT and its learning environment under authorities granted to each Committee.
• The Committee on Education and the Workforce has been investigating your institution since December 7, 2023. The Committee has broad jurisdiction over postsecondary education, including its compliance with Title VI of the Civil Rights Act, campus safety concerns over disruptions to the learning environment, and the awarding of federal student aid under the Higher Education Act.
• The Committee on Oversight and Accountability is investigating the sources of funding and other support flowing to groups espousing pro-Hamas propaganda and engaged in antisemitic harassment and intimidation of students. The Committee on Oversight and Accountability is the principal oversight committee of the US House of Representatives and has broad authority to investigate “any matter” at “any time” under House Rule X.
• The Committee on Ways and Means has been investigating several universities since November 15, 2023, when the Committee held a hearing entitled From Ivory Towers to Dark Corners: Investigating the Nexus Between Antisemitism, Tax-Exempt Universities, and Terror Financing. The Committee followed the hearing with letters to those institutions on January 10, 202
A review of the growth of the Israel Genealogy Research Association Database Collection for the last 12 months. Our collection is now passed the 3 million mark and still growing. See which archives have contributed the most. See the different types of records we have, and which years have had records added. You can also see what we have for the future.
Safalta Digital marketing institute in Noida, provide complete applications that encompass a huge range of virtual advertising and marketing additives, which includes search engine optimization, virtual communication advertising, pay-per-click on marketing, content material advertising, internet analytics, and greater. These university courses are designed for students who possess a comprehensive understanding of virtual marketing strategies and attributes.Safalta Digital Marketing Institute in Noida is a first choice for young individuals or students who are looking to start their careers in the field of digital advertising. The institute gives specialized courses designed and certification.
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Exploiting Artificial Intelligence for Empowering Researchers and Faculty, In...Dr. Vinod Kumar Kanvaria
Exploiting Artificial Intelligence for Empowering Researchers and Faculty,
International FDP on Fundamentals of Research in Social Sciences
at Integral University, Lucknow, 06.06.2024
By Dr. Vinod Kumar Kanvaria
Francesca Gottschalk - How can education support child empowerment.pptxEduSkills OECD
Francesca Gottschalk from the OECD’s Centre for Educational Research and Innovation presents at the Ask an Expert Webinar: How can education support child empowerment?
1. LESSON 24:
FIRM’S DUTIES TO THE EMPLOYEE
Today, we will discuss the employer’s duties towards the From the employee’s point of view, wages are the principal
employee. (perhaps the only) means for satisfying the basic economic
needs of the worker and the worker’s family. From the
Points to be covered in this lesson:
employer’s point of view, wages are a cost of production that
• Employee compensation must be kept down lest the product be priced out of the mar-
• Working conditions ket. Every employer, therefore, faces the dilemma of setting fair
Can you think of some of the duties of employers or the firm wages: How can a fair balance be struck between the employer’s
towards the employee? In the last lecture we discussed some of interests in minimizing costs and the workers’ interest in
the duties of employees towards the firm and the ways in which providing a decent living for themselves and their families?
they fail to live up to the duties, to pursue the goals of There is, unfortunately, no simple formula for determining a
the firm. “fair wage”. The fairness of wages depends in part on the public
supports that society pro-vides the worker (social security,
I will try to list down some of the duties of the employers
Medicare, unemployment compensation, public education,
now:
welfare, etc.), on the freedom of labor markets, on the con-
1. Compensation or Wages tribution of the worker, on the needs of the worker, and on the
2. Job satisfaction competitive po-sition of the firm.
3. Working environment Although there is no way of determining fair salaries with
mathematical exactitude, we can at least identify a number of
4. Job profile
factors that should be taken into account in determining wages
5. Health and Safety and salaries:
6. Growth prospects 1. The going wage in the industry and the area Although
7. Job Rotation labor markets in an in-dustry or an area may be manipulated
The basic moral obligation that the employer has toward or distorted (by job shortages, for exam-ple), they generally
employees, accord-ing to the rational view of the firm, is to provide at least rough indicators of fair wages if they are
provide them with the compensation they have freely and competitive and if we assume competitive markets are just.
knowingly agreed to receive in exchange for their ser-vices. In addition, the cost of living in the area must be taken into
account if employees are to be provided with an income
There are two main issues related to this obligation:
adequate to their families needs.
• The fairness of wages and
2. The firm’s capabilities In general, the higher the firm’s
• The fairness of employee working conditions. profits, the more it can and should pay its workers, while the
Both wages and working conditions are aspects of the compen- smaller its profits, the less it can afford. Taking advantage of
sation employees receive from their services, and both are related cheap labor in captive markets when a company is perfectly
to the question of whether or not the em-ployee contracted to capable of paying higher wages is exploitation.
take a job freely and knowingly. If an employee was “forced” to 3. The nature of the job Jobs that involve greater health risks,
accept a job with inadequate wages or inad- equate working condi- that offer less security, that require more training or
tions, then the work contract would be unfair. experience, that impose heavier physical or emotional burdens,
Wages or that take greater effort should carry higher levels of
compensation.
4. Minimum wage laws The minimum wages required by law
set a floor for wages.
In most circumstances, wages that fall beneath this floor are
unfair.
5. Relation to other salaries If the salary structure within an
organization is to be fair, workers who do roughly similar
work should receive roughly similar salaries.
6. The fairness of wage negotiations Salaries and wages that
result from “unfree” negotiations in which one side uses
fraud, power, ignorance, deceit, or passion to get its way will
rarely be fair. When the management of a company, for
68 11.292
2. exam-ple, uses the threat of relocation to force wage In 1970 Congress passed the Occupational Safety and Health Act
concessions out of a wholly de-pendent community, or when and cre-ated the Occupational Safety and Health Adminis-
a union “blackmails” a failing company with a strike that is tration (OSHA) “to assure as far as possible every working man
certain to send the firm into bankruptcy, the resulting wages and woman in the nation safe and healthful working condi-
have little likelihood of being fair. tions.” Unfortunately, from the beginning OSHA found itself
embroiled in controversy. But in spite of the severe criticism it
Working Conditions: Health and Safety has received, an inadequate number of field inspectors (800),
and often-inefficient forms of regulation, the existence of
OSHA has led many firms to institute their own safety
programs. One poll revealed that 36 percent of the firms
surveyed had implemented safety programs as a result of
OSHA, while 72 percent said that the existence of OSHA had
influenced them in their safety efforts.
Although more attention is now being paid to worker safety,
occupational accident rates have not all been declining. Between
1960 and 1993, the num-ber of workers killed on the job
declined dramatically from 21 deaths per 100,000 workers to 8
deaths per 100,000. However, the number of disabling injuries
rose from 2.0 million in 1960 to 3.2 million in 1993.
Risk is, of course, an unavoidable part of many occupations. A
racecar driver, a circus performer, a rodeo cowboy, all accepts
certain hazards as part of their jobs. So long as they
Each year more than 5000 workers are killed and over 3,000,000 1. Are fully compensated for assuming these risks and
are se-riously injured as a result of job accidents. Ten percent of
2. Freely and knowingly choose to accept the risk in exchange
the job force suf-fers a job-related injury or illness each year, for a
for the added compensation, and then we may assume that
loss of over 31 million workdays annually. Delayed occupa- tional
their employer has acted ethically.
diseases resulting from exposure to chem-ical and physical
hazards till off additional numbers. Annual costs of work related The basic problem, however, is that in many hazardous
deaths and injuries were estimated to be $119 billion in 1995. occupations, these conditions do not obtain.
Workplace hazards include not only the more obvious catego- 1. Wages will fail to provide a level of compensation
ries of me-chanical injury, electrocution, and burns, but also proportional to the risks of a job when labor markets in an
extreme heat and cold, noisy machinery, rock dust, textile fiber industry are not competitive, or when markets do not reg-
dust, chemical fumes, mercury, lead, beryl-lium, arsenic, corrosives, ister risks because the risks are not yet known. In some rural
poisons, skin irritants, and radiation. A government description mining areas, for ex-ample, a single mining company may
of occupational injuries is dismaying. have a monopoly on jobs. The health risks involved in
mining a certain mineral (such as uranium) may not be
Three and a half million American workers exposed to asbestos
known until many years afterwards. In such cases, wages will
face a dual threat: Not only are they subject to the lung-scarring
not fully compensate for risks.
pneumoconiosis of their trade, asbestosis, but they are
endangered by lung cancer associated with in-halation of asbestos 2. Workers might accept risks unknowingly because they do not
fibers. Recent studies of insulation workers in two states showed have adequate ac-cess to information concerning those risks.
1 in 5 deaths were from lung cancer, seven times the expected rate; Collecting information on the risks of handling certain
half of those with twenty years or more in the trade had x-ray chemicals, for example, takes up a great deal of time, effort,
evidence of asbesto-sis; 1 in 10 deaths were caused by and money. Workers acting individually may find it too costly,
mesothelioma, a rare malignancy of the lung or therefore, to collect the information needed to assess the risks
pleura which strikes only 1 in 10,000 in the general working of the jobs they accept.
population. Of 6000 men who have been uranium miners, an 3. Workers might accept known risks out of desperation
estimated 600 to 1100 will die dur-ing the next twenty years as a because they lack the mobility to enter other less risky
result of radiation exposure, principally from lung cancer. Fifty industries or because they lack information on the
percent of the machines in industry generate noise levels alternatives available to them. Low-income coal miners, for
potentially harmful to hearing. Hundreds of thousands of example, may know the hazards inherent in coal mining, but
workers each year suffer skin dis-eases from contact with materials since they lack the resources needed to travel elsewhere, they
used in their work. The dermatoses are the most common of all may be forced to either take a job in a coal mine or starve.
occupational illnesses. Even the old, well- known industrial When any of the three conditions obtain, then the contract
poisons, such as mercury, arsenic, and lead, still cause trouble. In between employer and employee is no longer fair; the employer
India also, the places where too much of health hazards workers has a duty, in such cases, to take steps to ensure that the worker
face are the coalmines, fire crackers manufacturing unit and lime is not being unfairly manipulated into accepting a risk unknow-
manufacturing units. ingly, unwillingly, or without due compensation. In particular:
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3. 1. Employers should offer wages that reflect the risk-premium the number of pieces we completed, and the number of errors
prevalent in other similar but competitive labor markets. we made, on our individual production sheets. These produc-
2. To insure their workers against unknown hazards the tion sheets were the basis for our periodic merit raises. Aside
from counting and checking, the supervisor also tried to curtail
employer should provide them with suitable health
talking and eating at desks.
insurance programs.
The debilitating effects that job specialization can have on
3. Employers should (singly or together with other firms)
workers were first noted over two hundred years ago by Adam
collect information on the health hazards that accompany a
Smith when he wrote:
given job and make all such information avail- able to
workers. In the progress of the division of labor, the employment of the
far greater part of those who live by labor, that is, of the great
Working Conditions: Job Satisfaction body of the people, comes to be con-firmed to a few very simple
operations, frequently to one or two. But the under- standings
of the greater part of men are necessarily formed by their
ordinary employments. The man whose whole life is spent in
performing a few simple op-erations has no occasion to exert his
understanding. . . . He naturally loses, there-fore, the habit
of such exertion and generally becomes as stupid and ignorant
as it is possible for a human creature to become. . . . It corrupts
even the activity of his body, and renders him incapable of
exerting his strength with vigor and per-severance, in any other
employment than that to which he has been bred.
More recent research on the mental health of assembly-line
workers has tended to corroberate Smith’s early suspicions. In a
study of auto workers, for exam-ple, A. W. Kornhauser found
that about 40 percent suffered some sort of men-tal health
‘The rational parts of the organization put a high value on problem and that only 18 percent could be considered to have
efficiency: All jobs, all tasks, are to be designed so as to achieve “good mental health. “A later study found that many American
the organization’s goals as efficiently as possible. When efficiency workers suffered from ulcers, lack of self-esteem, anxiety, and
is achieved through specialization, the rational aspects of other psychological and psycho-somatic diseases. In a survey of
organizations tend to incorporate highly specialized jobs. fifteen years of research on job satisfaction, Stanislav Kasl
found that, among other factors, low job satisfaction was
Jobs can be specialized along two dimensions:
related to “lack of control over work; inability to use skills and
• Jobs can be specialized horizontally by restricting the range abilities; highly frac-tionated, repetitive tasks involving few
of different tasks contained in the job and increasing the diverse operations; no participation in decision-making,” and
repetition of this narrow range of tasks. that poor mental health was related to similar factors.
• Jobs can also be specialized vertically by restricting the range of Not all workers are equally affected by job specialization. Older
con-trol and decision making over the activity that the job workers and workers in large urban areas seem to show more
involves. Whereas, the job of the spot-welder is highly tolerance for routine mo-notonous jobs, apparently because
specialized vertically, the job of the plant man-ager is much less older workers scale down their expectations over the years, while
vertically specialized. urban workers reject the Puritan work ethic and prefer not to
Job specialization is most obvious at the operating levels of become involved in their work. Nonetheless, only 24 percent of
organiza-tions. Assembly-line work usually consists of closely all blue-collar workers would choose the same type of work if
supervised, repetitive, and simple tasks. Low-level clerical jobs they could start all over again, an indication that a substantial
also tend to be fragmented, repeti-tive, dull, and closely portion of workers do not find their jobs intrinsically satisfying.
monitored as this example shows. The injuries that highly specialized work has on the well-being
I worked for a while at the Fair Plan Insurance Company, where of work-ers poses an important problem of justice for
hundreds of women sat typing up and breaking down employees. The most narrowly specialized forms of work are
sextuplicate insurance forms. My job was in endorsements: First, those that require the least skills (since one of the functions of
third, and fourth copies staple together/place the pink sheet in specialization is to dispense of the need for training). And un-
back of the yellow/If the endorsement shows a new skilled labor, of course, commands the lowest levels of
mortgagee/stamp the fifth copy” certificate needed. . .” Other compensation. As a consequence, the psychological costs of dull,
sections, like coding, checks, filing, and endorsement typing, did meaningless, and repetitive work tend to be borne by the group
similar subdivided parts of the paperwork. The women in the of workers that is paid least: unskilled laborers.
other sections sat at steel desks like mine, each working separately Not only may the injuries of specialization be inequitable, they
on a tack of forms or cards. Every section had a supervisor who are often also related to a lack of freedom. Unskilled workers
counted and checked the work. She recorded often have no real free-dom of choice: They must either accept
70 11.292
4. work that is meaningless and debili-tating or else not work at provide them with the compensation they have freely and
all. The freedom that is essential to a fair work contract is, knowingly agreed to receive in exchange for their ser-vices.
therefore, often absent. There are two main issues related to this obligation: fairness
Excessive job specialization is undesirable for other reasons of wages, and fairness of employee working conditions.
than that it places unjust burdens on workers. There is also Activity
considerable evidence that it does not contribute to efficiency. Discuss the factors that should be considered to determine
Research findings have demonstrated that there is a linkage wages and salaries of employees.
between worker productivity and programs that improve the
quality of work life for workers by giving workers greater
involvement in and control over a variety of work tasks.
How should these problems of job dissatisfaction and mental
injury be dealt with? A few years ago, Hackman, Oldham, Jansen,
and Purdy argued that there are three determinants of job
satisfaction:
Experienced Meaningfulness. The individual must perceive his
work as worth- while or important by some system of values he
accepts.
Experienced Responsibility. He must believe that he personally is
accountable for the outcome of his efforts.
Knowledge of Results. He must be able to determine, on some
regular basis, whether or not the outcomes of his work are
satisfactory.
To influence these three determinants, the authors claim, jobs
must be ex-panded along five dimensions:
1. Skill Variety the degree to which a job requires the worker to
perform activities that challenge his skills and abilities.
2. Task Identity the degree to which the job requires a
completion of a whole and identifiable piece of work—
doing a job from beginning to end with a visible outcome.
3. Task Significance the degree to which the job has a substantial
and perceivable impact on lives of other people, whether in
the immediate organization or the world at large.
4. Autonomy the degree to which the job gives the worker
freedom, independence, and discretion in scheduling work
and determining how he will carry it out.
5. Feedback the degree to which a worker, in carrying out the
work activities re-quired by the job, gets information about
the effectiveness of his efforts.
In short, the solution to job dissatisfaction is perceivable
enlargement of the narrowly specialized jobs that give rise to
dissatisfaction: broadening the job “horizontally” by giving the
employee a wider variety of tasks, and deepening the job
“vertically” by allowing the employee more perceivable control
over these tasks. Jobs can be horizontally enlarged, for example,
by replacing sin-gle workers performing single repetitive tasks
with teams of three or four who are jointly responsible for the
complete assembly of a certain number of ma-chines. Delegat-
ing to the team the responsibility of determining their own
work assignments, work breaks, and inspection procedures can
vertically enlarge such team jobs.
Overview
• The basic moral obligation that the employer has toward
employees, accord-ing to the rational view of the firm, is to
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