The fire safety manual provides comprehensive guidelines on various aspects of fire safety, including fire classification, prevention, protection systems, and firefighting methods. It outlines the fire triangle, modes of fire spread, sources of ignition, and the importance of fire alarms and detection systems. Additionally, the manual emphasizes the significance of understanding fire load and using fire-resistant materials in safety practices.

1. FIRE SAFETY
MANUAL
AS PER IS 2190
C-15, Industrial Area, Phase-1,
SAS Nagar, Mohali,
Punjab, Pin- 160055 India
Ph.: +91 172 4187379, +91 9814931961
Email: info@northstar-ehs.com
Website: www.northstar-ehs.com

2. NORTHSTAR SAFETY SYSTEMZ PVT. LTD.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
1. OVERVIEW
1.1 Fire
1.2 Classification of fire
1.3 Fire Triangle
1.4 Fire Extinction
1.5 Modes of spread of fire
1.6 Factors contributing to fire
2. FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION
2.1 Source of ignition
2.2 Fire Hydrant
2.3 Fire Hose
3. INVESTIGATION OF FIRE
3.1 Fire protection system
3.2 Sprinkler
3.3 Standpipe
3.4 Alarm and detection system
3.5 Fire fighting system
3.6 Fire loads
3.7 Fire resistant materials
4. FIRE TESTING
4.1 Fire test methods
4.2 Structural fire protection
4.3 Types of structures
4.4 Structural integrity’
4.5 Fire exits
4.6 Fire egress
5. FIRE SAFETY CERTIFICATE

3. 6. GENERAL FIRE SAFETY REQUIREMENTS
1. OVERVIEW
1.1 Fire
Fire, is a process involving rapid oxidation at elevated temperatures accompanied by the
evolution of heated gaseous products of combustion, and the emission of visible and invisible
radiation. In other words, it is a process in which substances combine chemically with oxygen
from the air and typically give out bright light, heat, and smoke; combustion or burning.
Oxidation, in the strict chemical sense, means the loss of electrons. For an oxidation reaction
to occur, a reducing agent the fuel, and an oxidizing agent, usually oxygen must be present.
As heat is added, the ignition source, the fuel molecules and oxygen molecules gain energy
and become active.
This molecular energy is transferred to other fuel and oxygen molecules which creates a chain
reaction. A reaction takes place where the fuel loses electrons and the oxygen gains electrons.
This exothermic electron transfer emits heat and/or light. If the fire is in a fire grate/ or furnace
we refer to this process as a controlled fire, and it is a building on fire we refer to this process
as an uncontrolled fire.
1.2 Classification of fire
Fire has been classified as Class A, Class B, Class C, and Class D by IS: 2190. However, the
most widely accepted classification of fire is as follows:
a. Class A Fire
• Fire in easily combustible solid materials of organic nature such as wood, grass,
paper, cloth and products thereof. In such cases, fire is extinguished by reducing
the temperature of burning materials by water spraying the residue is always
carboneous materials.

4. b. Class B Fire
• Fire in volatile and inflammable liquids which provide a homogenous media of
fire expansion in materials like all petroleum products (petrol, kerosene, naphtha,
etc.), Chemicals, Paints, Oils, Grease, Lubricants, fats, etc.
c. Class C Fire
• Fire involving flammable gases under pressure including liquefied gases, where
it is necessary to inhibit the gas at fast rate with an inert gas powder or vaporizing
liquid for extinguishments.
d. Class D Fire
• Fire involving evolution of heat by chemical reaction in combustible materials
such as magnesium, aluminum, zinc, sodium, potassium when the burning metals
are reactive to water containing agents; and in certain cases, carbon dioxide,
halogenated hydrocarbons and ordinary dry powders.
e. Class E Fire
Fires involved in electrical equipment due to short circuit or over loading. Fire fighting
medium must be non-conductive and non-magnetic. (BIS does not include Class E Fire,
but makes a mention of this type of fire)
1.3 Fire Triangle

5. The fire triangle or combustion triangle is a simple model for understanding the necessary
ingredients for most fires. The triangle illustrates the three elements a fire needs to ignite:
• heat
• fuel
• an oxidizing agent (usually oxygen).
A fire naturally occurs when the elements are present and combined in the right
mixture, meaning that fire is an event rather than a thing. A fire can be prevented or
extinguished by removing any one of the elements in the fire triangle. For example, covering
a fire with a fire blanket removes the oxygen part of the triangle and can extinguish a fire.
1.4 Fire Extinction
a. Starvation
Removal of un-burnt material from fire area.
Without fuel, a fire will stop. Fuel can be removed naturally, as where the fire has
consumed all the burnable fuel, or manually, by mechanically or chemically removing the
fuel from the fire. Fuel separation is an important factor in wildland fire suppression, and
is the basis for most major tactics, such as controlled burns. The fire stops because a lower
concentration of fuel vapor in the flame leads to a decrease in energy release and a lower
temperature. Removing the fuel thereby decreases the heat.
b. Smothering
Cutting off the supply of oxygen from the area.
Without sufficient oxygen, a fire cannot begin, and it cannot continue. With a decreased
oxygen concentration, the combustion process slows. Oxygen can be denied to a fire using
a carbon dioxide fire extinguisher, a fire blanket or water.
Ignition
Source Oxidant

6. c. Cooling
Removal of heat from the burning material/fire area.
Without sufficient heat, a fire cannot begin, and it cannot continue. Heat can be removed
by the application of a substance which reduces the amount of heat available to the fire
reaction. This is often water, which requires heat for phase change from water to steam.
Introducing sufficient quantities and types of powder or gas in the flame reduces the
amount of heat available for the fire reaction in the same manner. Scraping embers from a
burning structure also removes the heat source. Turning off the electricity in an electrical
fire removes the ignition source.
d. Breaking of chain reaction
1.5 Modes of spread of fire
• Conduction- it occurs only in solids i.e. Metallic objects
• Convection- it occurs in both liquids and gases.

7. • Radiation- it is neither conductor nor convection. These are heated rays emanating
from the hot objects.
1.6 Factors contributing to fire
They are many. Some are easily detectable while some are hidden. Easily detectable
factors contributing to fire are as under:
1. Easy availability of combustible material like rubbish, solvent, paper, wood etc.
2. Easy availability of air, oxygen or any oxidizing material.
3. Sources of ignition like spark, static discharge, contact of hot surfaces, friction etc.
4. Continuous running machinery without proper lubrication and maintenance.
5. Non-flame proof electrical fitting in flammable areas.
6. Habit of smoking in flammable areas.
7. No provision of fire detectors in fire prone areas.
8. No provision of fire extinguishers in fire prone areas.
9. Open handling of flammable substances.
10. No compliance of fire safety rules.
Some hidden factors contributing to fires are as under:
• Chemical reaction going out of control.
• Sudden stoppage of cooling media protecting flammable reaction or distillation of
• solvent.
• Trapping of metal parts, nails etc. in rollers or moving machinery giving sudden
spark.
• Non-availability of inert material on reaction of flammable substances.
• Sudden lightning from the sky.

8. 2. FIRE PREVENTION & PROTECTION
2.1 Source of ignition
Ignition: Which Causes initiation of combustion. It provides heat necessary for the fire
combustion to be initiated.
Source of Ignition
• A Spark
• Static electricity
• Arcs from electrical equipment, faulty or otherwise
• A lighting cigarette
• A hot light bulb
2.2 Fire Hydrant
A connection to a water main for supplying water to the hose or other fire protection apparatus.
• Fire hydrant is a device used to extract water from a pressurized network. You may call
this as fire Plug.
• FH generally has 3 nozzles.
• There are some hydrants which has a single nozzle also.
Classification:
• Dry Barrel Fire Hydrants.
▪ Under Ground Fire Hydrants.
▪ Above Ground Fire Hydrant
• Wet Barrel Fire Hydrants.
▪ Under Ground Fire Hydrants.
▪ Above Ground Fire Hydrant

9. 2.3 Fire Hoses
It is most basic requirement of firefighting equipment. It is necessary to convey either from
open water supplies or pressure supplies
It is divided into-
▪ Suction hose
▪ Delivery hose
2.3.1 Suction Hose
Partially embedded suction hose:
Usually made of tough rubber lining embedded fully as a spiral, from tempered galvanized
steel wires. This embedded is so arranged that it provided a full water way and a relatively
smooth internal surface.

10. The wall of hose is prepared from several layers of canvas and rubber lining in such a way
that turns of each one lies midway between two turns of the others.
Fully embedded (smooth bore) suction hose:
This has thick internal lining embedded fully with a spiral wire. The walls built up in normal
way with piece of fabric and rubber as partially embedded type. Suction hose can be
constructed to withstand the pressure of 10.5 bar.
2.3.2 Delivery Hose
Percolating hose:
It is mainly used for forest fire fighting applications. The seepage of water through the hose
provides protection to the hose against damage by glowing embers falling on to it or the hose
being laid on hot ground. It is made from jacket which contains a proportion of cotton yarns
to provide wetting and wicking properties. It is lined with thin lining which will allow water
to seep through without jetting. This keeps the outer jacket wet.
Non-Percolating Hose:
It is generally used for delivering water. These consist of reinforced jacket, made from
polyester or nylon yarns. This type of hose has inner lining of vulcanized rubber fixed to the
jacket by an adhesive. Coated lining is inserted into the jacket and steamed with supper heated
steam. The use of Non-percolating hose is recommended as friction losses will be much lesser
than that of percolating hoses.
3. INVESTIGATION OF FIRE
3.1 Fire protection system
Fire protection is the study and practice of mitigating the unwanted effects of
potentially destructive fires. It involves the study of the behavior, compartmentalization,

11. suppression and investigation of fire and its related emergencies, as well as the research and
development, production, testing and application of mitigating systems. Firefighters, fire
investigators, and other fire prevention personnel called to mitigate, investigate and learn from
the damage of a fire. We will discuss about the various fire protection system.
3.2 Sprinklers
A fire sprinkler or sprinkler head is the component of a fire sprinkler system that discharges
water when the effects of a fire have been detected, such as when a predetermined temperature
has been exceeded. Fire sprinklers are extensively used worldwide, with over 40 million
sprinkler heads fitted each year. In buildings protected by fire sprinklers, over 99% of fires
were controlled by fire sprinklers alone.
3.2.1 Operation of sprinklers
▪ Each closed-head sprinkler is held closed by either a heat-sensitive glass bulb or a two-
part metal link held together with fusible alloy such as Wood's metal and other alloys
with similar compositions.
▪ The glass bulb or link applies pressure to a pipe cap which acts as a plug which prevents
water from flowing until the ambient temperature around the sprinkler reaches the
design activation temperature of the individual sprinkler.
▪ Each sprinkler activates independently when the predetermined heat level is reached,
the number of sprinklers that operate is limited to only those near the fire, thereby
maximizing the available water pressure over the point of fire origin.
▪ The bulb breaks because of the thermal expansion of the liquid inside the bulb.
▪ The time it takes before a bulb breaks is dependent on the temperature. Below the design
temperature, it does not break, and above the design temperature it breaks, taking less
time to break as temperature increases above the design threshold.

12. 3.2.2 Temperature ratings of sprinklers
Maximum
Ceiling
Temperature
Temperature
Rating
Temperature
Classification
Color Code (with
Fusible Link)
Liquid Alcohol in
Glass Bulb Color
100°F / 38°C
135-170°F / 57-
77°C
Ordinary
Uncolored or
Black
Orange (135°F /
57°C) or Red
(155°F / 68°C)
150°F / 66°C
175-225°F / 79-
107°C
Intermediate White
Yellow (175°F /
79°C) or Green
(200°F / 93°C)
225°F / 107°C
250-300°F / 121-
149°C
High Blue Blue
300°F / 149°C
325-375°F / 163-
191°C
Extra High Red Purple
375°F / 191°C
400-475°F / 204-
246°C
Very Extra High Green Black
475°F / 246°C
500-575°F / 260-
302°C
Ultra-High Orange Black
625°F / 329°C 650°F / 343°C Ultra-High Orange Black
3.3 Standpipe
A standpipe is a type of rigid water piping which is built into multi-story buildings in a vertical
position or bridges in a horizontal position, to which fire hoses can be connected, allowing
manual application of water to the fire.
Dry Stand Pipes
When standpipes are fixed into buildings, the pipe is in place permanently with an intake
usually located near a road or driveway, so that a fire engine can supply water to the system.
The standpipe extends into the building to supply fire fighting water to the interior of the
structure via hose outlets, often located between each floor in stairwells in high rise buildings.
Dry standpipes are not filled with water until needed in fire fighting. Fire fighters often

13. bring hoses in with them and attach them to standpipe outlets located along the pipe
throughout the structure.
Wet Stand Pipes
A "wet" standpipe is filled with water and is pressurized always. In contrast to dry standpipes,
which can be used only by firefighters, wet standpipes can be used by building occupants. Wet
standpipes generally already come with hoses so that building occupants may fight fires
quickly. This type of standpipe may also be installed horizontally on bridges.
3.4 Alarm and detection system
Fire alarm can be raised automatically by a detection system or manually by a person in the
affected building. Such an alarm will generally be either wholly manual or manual electric,
not forgetting that an alarm can be raised vocally.
Manual Systems:
The purely manual means for raising an alarm involves the use of basic devices namely
▪ Rotary Gongs sounded by simply leading the handle around the rim of the gong
▪ Hand Strikers. E.g. iron triangles suspended from a wall accompanied by a metal bar
which is used to strike the triangle and produce a long clanging noise.
▪ Hand bells
▪ Whistles
Manual Electric Alarm Systems:
It consists of manual call points or pill boxes provided at various locations. These call points
are connected to the zonal or central control panels. In case a fire or hazard situation is noticed,
the call points can be actuated by breaking the glass cover which is done by means of
Chromium plated hammer. The call points and the control panel are powered by emergency
and, standby UPS battery system. A red light will glow at the control panel and indicate
the location of the call point and an alarm hooter will sound off.
Installation:
▪ On each floor one or more manual call point should be installed preferably on exit
routes.

14. ▪ Call point should be installed at a height of 1.4m above the floor at an easily accessible
well-lit position free of all obstructions. The call point should form an integral part of the
fire detection systems.
▪ MCP should be of wall mounting type. The housing should be dust proof and moisture
proof sealed with rubber lining.
▪ The glass surfaces should be minimum 30sq.cm in area and glass thickness should not
exceed 2mm. Once it is broken the alarm should sound on the floor as well as on the control
and Indicating equipment.
3.5 Fire fighting system
The two basic aspects of fire fighting systems are extinguishing the fire and reducing the loss
due to fire. These two aspects are entirely dependent on the efficiency of the fire fighting
systems installed and the awareness about the usage and principles of fire protection by the
operating personnel. The best way to fight fires from flammable liquids and gases is to stop
flow of the fuel whenever possible. Do not use water on burning metals and chemicals. They
may react with water. Water must never be used when the fires involves electrical equipment
which are energized.
3.6 Fire load
Fire load, also called fire loading, refers to the amount of flammable material and the amount
of heat that can be generated by a substance if ignited within a given area. It is most commonly
used to refer to the amount of heat that can be generated by the materials in an enclosed area,
such as a compartment or room. The fire load of a room or other area can be used to quantify
the potential severity of a fire in that location and so is an important concept in fire safety,
firefighting, and construction.
Formula for Calculation:
Fire Load= (Weight of combustible material in kg x Calorific Value in kj/kg)
Area of compartment in square metres
3.7 Fire resistant materials
▪ A fire-resistant material is one that is designed to resist burning and withstand heat.

15. ▪ It is used in the bunker gear worn by firefighters to protect them from the flames of a
burning building.
▪ It is a passive fire protection measure.
▪ Asbestos is one material used for fireproofing, either on its own, or together with
binders such as cement, either in sprayed form or in pressed sheets, or as additives to a
variety of materials and products, including fabrics for protective clothing and building
materials.
▪ Because the material has proven to cause cancer in the long run, a large removal and
replacement business has been established.
▪ Endothermic materials such as gypsum, concrete and other cementitious products are
also used as fire resisting materials.
▪ More highly evolved versions of these are used in aerodynamics, intercontinental
ballistic missiles (ICBMs) and re-entry vehicles, such as the space shuttles.
▪ Sprayed fire resistive materials (SFRM) were introduced as a lower labor cost, lighter
weight alternative to concrete and lath/plaster.
▪ The SFRM also derived its fire resistive properties from water of hydration contained
in the gypsum or Portland cement used to bind various fibers and other fillers.
4. FIRE TESTING
A fire test is a means of determining whether fire protection products meet minimum
performance criteria as set out in a building code or other applicable legislation.
Successful tests in laboratories holding national accreditation for testing and certification
result in the issuance of a certification listing. The listing is public domain, whereas the test
report itself is proprietary information belonging to the test sponsor. There are many different
types of fire tests apart from those on fire stops. Walls and floors themselves can be tested,
closures within them, such as windows, fire doors, fire dampers and structural steel.
Fire tests are conducted both on active fire protection and on passive fire protection items.
Each have different test methods and scales. There are full scale, small scale and bench scale
tests. There are tests on systems, tests on materials, such as intumescent, to be sure of
components that may be used within a system. Fire testing must consider all applicable
provisions of the intended product certification.
ADHOC Fire Testing:

16. ▪ A fire test can also mean an adhoc test performed to gather information in order to
understand a specific hazard, such as a construction or storage configuration.
▪ Tests can be bench scale (e.g., flammable liquid flash point), medium scale (e.g., storage
commodity classification), or full scale (e.g., replication of an entire rack storage
configuration).
4.1 Fire test methods
1. Fire Tube Method
2. Calorimetric Method
3. Non-Combustibility Test
4.2 Structural fire protection
A structure fire is a fire involving the structural components of
various residential buildings ranging from single-family detached homes and
townhouses to apartments and tower blocks, or various commercial buildings ranging
from offices to shopping malls. Structure fires have a similar response from the fire
department that include engines, ladder trucks, rescue squads, chief officers, and an EMS unit,
each of which will have specific initial assignments. The actual response and assignments
will vary between fire departments.
4.3 Types of structures
Structures are divided in to 5 types for fire fighting:
Type I: Fire Resistive- Used in High Rises. The material comprising the structure is either
able to withstand significant exposure to fire (concrete), or a fire resistive covering is applied
to steel structural members.
Type 2: Combustible- Used in strip shopping center malls and Roofs are constructed out of
steel rafters.
Type 3: Ordinary Construction- Brick and mortar walls, wood frame floors.
City rowhouses are made of this type of construction.

17. Type 4: Heavy Timber- Often used in churches or other community-based buildings.
Type 5: Wood Frame- used in recent construction of single-family dwellings, townhouses,
garden apartments with four floors or less.
4.4 Structural integrity
Structural integrity and failure is an aspect of engineering which deals with
▪ The ability of a structure to support a designed load (weight, force) without breaking,
▪ Tearing apart, or collapsing
▪ Includes the study of breakage that has previously occurred to prevent failures in future
designs.
▪ Structural integrity is a performance characteristic which is applied to a component, a
single structure, or a structure consisting of different components.
4.5 Fire exits
An emergency exit in a structure is a special exit for emergencies such as a fire. The combined
use of regular and special exits allows for faster evacuation, while it also provides an
alternative if the route to the regular exit is blocked by fire. All doors on escape routes leading
towards a final exit should be quick and easy to open without the need for a key. For instance,
you simply operate the door handle of the door leading from an office and pass through.
However, the final exit door of a building frequently presents problems because this type of
door requires more security while still having to be to be opened easily from within.
• Exit doors, of course, only need to be easy to open during the time the premises are
occupied, and additional security can be added when the premises are vacated.
• This usually takes the form of barrel bolts or pad locks with chains but with a few crucial
provisions.
• Barrel bolts, for example, should have the stop, which prevents the bolt being withdrawn
too far, removed at installation, so that the bolt can be withdrawn altogether when the
building is occupied.
• The reason for this is that, as soon as the premises are occupied, all the additional security
devices must be removed and must be placed on a security board.
• This board consists of hooks for all the barrel bolts, pad locks and chains for each device.
• Panic bars are specifically designed for use by members of the public who are unfamiliar
with a building and who might panic if they suddenly must evacuate the premises.

18. • Panic bars are very effective where large numbers of people are attempting to travel at
speed through a fire exit as minimal pressure on the bar releases the locking mechanism,
which can be a latch and / or vertical bolts.
4.6 Fire Egress
• Egress is defined as a means of exit or a way of leaving, and fire egress is more specifically
defined as methods for exiting a structure during a fire.
• There are laws on the municipal, state, and federal level that determine what standards a
structure must meet to be considered safe for fire exit, and several agencies may contribute
to these laws.
• They also may be variable depending on location, and compliance with any of these laws
could be evaluated by different agencies, like fire departments.
• Moreover, buildings may be checked for more than one type of egress component and
could be inspected for egress during other disasters, natural or manmade.
Fire egress standards have evolved over a considerable timed period, and often due to massive
fires where people did not survive.
Some of the specific features of fire egress:
1. Clearly marked exits, so that people know where to go to leave if a fire happens.
2. There must be at least two exits, and there may need to be more if occupancy in the building
is high.
3. The exits should be made with materials that can withstand fire for an hour to two hours
and they can never be inaccessible or locked.
4. Doors that aren’t exits should be marked properly to avoid confusion and going in a wrong
direction.
5. Stairs must be well lit and stairs of a certain length require handrails.
6. An additional requirement in fire egress standards is typically alarms, which help to
Panic bars

19. notify people if a fire is underway.
7. Engineers or architects should design the building based on the fire Egress standards.
5. FIRE SAFETY CERTIFICATE
A certificate is also required for material changes of use and certain alterations and extensions
to buildings. A fire safety certificate must be obtained before work starts.
Before beginning any work or make a material change of use, you should apply to the local
building control authority for a fire safety certificate.
Application form should be submitted with the following:
▪ Plans, calculations and specifications for works or building
▪ Details of the nature and extent of the proposed use and, where appropriate of the
existing use of the building
▪ The appropriate fee, based on floor area.
▪ A Technical report demonstrating that the design would comply with Part B of the
Second Schedule to the Building Regulations.
Duration to get the certificate:
• The statutory period allowed to a building control authority to process a fire safety
certificate application is two months.
• However, all the information must be made available to the authority, so that they have
sufficient information to decide before this statutory period starts.
• If the application documentation is incomplete, this will delay the decision on the
application.
6. GENERAL FIRE SAFETY REQUIREMENTS
Fire Alarm System:
i. Buildings should contain a fire alarm system designed to alert occupants when
activated.
ii. Types of fire alarm devices should include smoke detectors, thermal detectors and
sprinkler flow switches.

20. iii. Immediately activate a red manual pull station near a stairwell and leave the floor in
case of fire.
iv. This will identify the specific location at the lobby alarm panel to responding
firefighters.
Stairway fire escapes:
i. Buildings should have interior fire-separated stairwell shafts.
ii. Signs should be posted within stairwells indicating which floor level you are on, and
identify the nearest crossover floors, if certain floors are not accessible.
iii. If you encounter smoke while descending a stairwell, you can crossover to an
alternate stairwell.
iv. Keep stairwell doors closed always to preserve the safety of these escape stairs.
Access Roadways for Fire/Emergency Vehicle Apparatus:
i. Building shall be accessible on one side for fire department apparatus by way of
access roadways with all-weather driving surface of not less than 20ft unobstructed
width with adequate roadway turning radius.
ii. Roadways shall not be less than 10 feet or more than 30 feet from the building.
iii. Approved “No Parking Fire Lane” signs may be required for access roadways and
shall be maintained.