The document discusses various causes of facial pain, particularly focusing on conditions like temporomandibular joint syndrome (TMJ), trigeminal neuralgia, Eagle's syndrome, and Sjögren's syndrome. It details the anatomy involved, symptoms, diagnostic methods, and treatment options for these conditions. The document emphasizes that accurate diagnosis is crucial as symptoms can overlap between different syndromes, necessitating specific imaging and therapeutic approaches.

1. Facial Pain from Various Sources-
Diagnoses and Differential
Diagnoses
Course # 4
Nelson Hendler, MD, MS,
Former Assistant Professor of Neurosurgery
Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine
Former Associate Professor of Physiology
University of Maryland School of Dental Surgery
Past president-American Academy of Pain Management
www.DiagnoseMyPain.com

2. Sensory Nerve Chart
for nerves which
cause pain to the
face. Not only do
many of the 12 cranial
nerve (nerve which
come directly off of
the brain) have
painful conditions, but
the nerve roots (nerve
which come off of the
spinal cord) also can
cause face pain. The
C2-3 root may refer
pain to the angle of
the jaw, or to an area
behind the eye. The
occipital nerve may
give pain like a stripe
up the back of the
head.

3. What is temporomandibular (TMJ)
joint syndrome?
• Damage to the ligaments and/or disc of the joint
between the skull and the head of the jaw.
• The temporomandibular (TMJ) joint is a very unusual
joint. It is formed by the head of the condoyle of the
jaw (mandible) inserting into a recess in the skull right
beneath the temporal bone.
• The jaw bone is held to the skull by this joint, and the
ligaments that hold the jaw to the skull are the strong
lateral temporomandibular ligaments and two weaker
medial ligaments(Guralnick, W, Kaban, L, and Merrill, R,
Temporomandibular joint afflictions, New England
Journal of Medicine, Vol. 299, No. 3, pp 120-129, July
20, 1978).

4. What is temporomandibular (TMJ)
joint syndrome?
• The nerves that supply the joint are the
auriculotemporal and massetric branches of
the third division of the trigeminal nerve
(Guralnick, W, Kaban, L, and Merrill, R,
Temporomandibular joint afflictions, New
England Journal of Medicine, Vol. 299, No. 3,
pp 120-129, July 20, 1978).
• Irritation of these nerves produces pain in the
jaw, cheek, and/or temple

5. How do you diagnosis temporomandibular
(TMJ) joint syndrome?
• Typical symptoms are:
• facial pain, in the cheek,
• in the area of the joint,
• in the jaw line,
• ringing in the ear,
• dizziness,
• Pain in the temple and
• clicks in the jaw on opening or closing the jaw
(Gelb, H, TMJ Syndrome: The tell-tale click,
Behavioral Medicine, March, 1978).

6. How do you diagnosis temporomandibular
(TMJ) joint syndrome?
• TMJ is often diagnosed as something else, such as Menierre’s
syndrome, or trigeminal neuralgia. (Commentary:The Great
Imposter: Diseases of the Temporomandibular (TMJ) joint,
JAMA, Vol. 235, No. 22, May 31, 1976).
• Sometimes MRIs with the jaws open and shut, or even better
cine MRIs (MRI movies) will reveal a displaced meniscus,
between the jaw and the skull.
• Injection of ¼ cc of .05% bupivicaine in the the
sternocleidomastoid muscle may give temporary relief, thereby
confirming the diagnosis (Travell, J. Temporomandibular Joint
Pain Referred from Muscles of the Head and Neck. Journal of
Prosthetic Dentistry, Volume 10, No. 4, 1960, pp. 745 – 763,
and Travell, J.G. Guest Editorial: A Conjoint Attack on the
Causes of Craniomandibular Pain. Journal of Craniomandibular
Practice, March – May 1984, 2:109 – 110).

7. How do you treat temporomandibular
(TMJ) joint syndrome?
• Muscles relaxants and anti-inflammatory drugs such as
iboprophen, or naproxen are helpful. (Guralnick, W,
Kaban, L, and Merrill, R, Temporomandibular joint
afflictions, New England Journal of Medicine, Vol. 299,
No. 3, pp 120-129, July 20, 1978).
• The use of a Kil-Brux night guard may help, which is a
bite guard, which fits over teeth on one side, and with a
smooth side on the other side, so the opposing teeth
can slide over the smooth surface.
• The dentist should never grind down the teeth, which
alters the bite and repositions the jaw.
• Only in rare instances is surgery recommended, to repair
the disc, or ligaments, and rarely does it improve the
condition.

9. Temporal Bone
JAW
BONE
SKULL
Normal TMJ
anatomy. The
condyle is the part
of the jaw bone
which inserts into
the recess in the
skull. Ligaments
hold the jaw bone
into the recess, or
fossa (another name
for recess). The
fossa is an
indentation in the
skull bone which
accepts the condyle
of the jaw bone.
Think of ligaments
like stretched rubber
bands, holding the
condyle into the
fossa.
The disc is like a
cushion and a shock
absorber. The disc is
sort of like a water
filled balloon, which
allows the condyle to
roll around in the
fossa, while being
held in place by
ligaments. The jaw
can slide forward or
back, side to side or
pivot-a 3 way joint.

10. In TMJ, either the
disc or ligaments are
torn, and this allow
the condyle to move
more than it should.
Sometime the disc
moves too, and gets
trapped between the
front of the fossa and
the condyle, when
the jaw is opened.
This causes the click
heard with TMJ,
which is sort of like
snapping your
fingers
Condyle
Disc
Fossa
ligaments

11. What is trigeminal neuralgia?
• There are two main etiologies to the pain of trigeminal
neuralgia.
• In both types, the pain can be constant, or intermittent, and
follows the path of the sensory branches of the trigeminal
nerve, into the forehead, along the cheek bone, or in the
jaw line or any combination of the three (Empting, L,
Hendler, N, Kolodny, L, Kraus, H, Tips on hard to manage
pain syndromes, Patient Care, page 26-46, April 30, 1990).
• One etiology is a congenital compression of the trigeminal
nerve by the middle cerebral artery in the skull. This was
well researched by Peter Janetta, MD and his team at Uni.
of Pttisburgh.
• (Sekula RF, Marchan EM, Fletcher LH, Casey KF, Jannetta PJ.
Microvasculardecompression for trigeminal neuralgia in
elderly patients. J Neuro Neurosurg.2008 Apr;108(4):689-
91)

12. SENSORY DISTRIBUTION
OF THE TRIGEMINAL
NERVE. V IS FOR ROMAN
NUMERAL FIVE. THERE
ARE THREE SENSORY
BRANCHES. V1 or the
ophthalmic branch, V2 or
the maxillary branch, AND
V3, or the mandibular
branch. Notice all the
sensory sensation is in the
jaw, cheek and forehead,
nose and eye.

13. What is trigeminal neuralgia?
• A second form of trigeminal neuralgia is a
herpetic-like viral irritation of the trigeminal
nerve. (Empting, L, Hendler, N, Kolodny, L,
Kraus, H, Tips on hard to manage pain
syndromes, Patient Care, page 26-46, April
30, 1990)
• Interestingly, the pain of trigeminal neuralgia
from both sources is clinically the same
• This is an example of “convergence,” which is
a single clinical manifestation due to several
etiologies

14. How do you diagnose trigeminal
neuralgia?
• The pain of both types of trigeminal neuralgia can
be constant, or intermittent, and follows the path
of the sensory branches of the trigeminal nerve,
into the forehead, along the cheek bone, or in the
jaw line or any combination of the three
(Empting, L, Hendler, N, Kolodny, L, Kraus, H, Tips
on hard to manage pain syndromes, Patient Care,
page 26-46, April 30, 1990).
• The pain is sensitive to light touch, and may occur
in burst of pain, rather than being constant. This
occurs in both types of trigeminal neuralgia.

15. How do you diagnose trigeminal
neuralgia?
• In order to differentiate between the two forms of
trigeminal neuralgia, an MRI of the brain, with
vascular enhancement is useful.
• If there is no vessel compression, it is highly likely the
cause of the pain is post-herpetic
• In addition to an MRI with vascular enhancement, an
MRI of the brain, with thin-sections (2 mm slices),
through the trigeminal nerve, and an MRA (Magnet
resonance angiography) may be helpful in
differentiating the post-viral etiology from the
compression of the nerve by the blood vessel.

16. What is the treatment of trigeminal
neuralgia?
• Since there are two main etiologies to the pain of
trigeminal neuralgia, there are two types of
treatment.
• If the etiology is compression of the trigeminal nerve
by the middle cerebral artery in the skull, then the
treatment is intra-cranial decompression of the nerve,
by inserting a sponge between the artery and the
nerve (Sekula RF, Marchan EM, Fletcher LH, Casey KF,
Jannetta PJ. Microvascular decompression for
trigeminal neuralgia in elderly patients. J Neuro
Neurosurg.2008 Apr;108(4):689-91).

17. What is the treatment of trigeminal
neuralgia?
• If the etiology is due to a herpetic-like viral irritation
of the trigeminal nerve. (Empting, L, Hendler, N,
Kolodny, L, Kraus, H, Tips on hard to manage pain
syndromes, Patient Care, page 26-46, April 30, 1990),
then the treatment is the use of medications.
• Some people respond to low dose anti-depressants,
but the most useful medication is an anti-convulsant,
such as gaba-pentin (Neurontin), or Tegretol. .
• Anti-viral drug, such as acyclovir will also help.
• Rarely, radio-frequency lesions of the retro-
gausserian ganglion can be employed if all else fails.

18. What is Eagles syndrome?
• Eagles Syndrome is characterized by an a specific
orofacial pain secondary to calcification of the
stylohyoid ligament or elongated styoid process.
In about 4% of general population an elongated
styloid process occurs, while only about 4% of
these patients are symptomatic. The stylo-hyoid
bone is considered abnormal if it is greater than
25 mm. in length., (Casale M, Rinaldi V,
Quattrocchi C, Bressi F, Vincenzi B, Santini D,
Tonini G, Salvinelli F. Atypical chronic head and
neck pain: don't forget Eagle's syndrome. Eur Rev
Med Pharmacol Sci. 2008 Mar-Apr;12(2):131-3).

19. 3D-CT of a very long
stylo-hyoid
bone….much longer
than 25 mm. Follow
the numbers 1,2,3
and 4 on both sides of
the 3D-CT, and the is
the stylo-hyoid bone,
which is about 39 mm
in this 3D-CT. The
bone marked H is the
hyoid bone. In this
3D-CT, the stylo-hyoid
bone is so long that is
spontaneously broke
between 2 and 3 but it
is still symptomatic,
and causes pain with
swollowing. Removal
of the bone from the
break to 4 on the 3D-
CT will relieve
symptoms.

20. What are the symptoms of Eagles
syndrome and how do you diagnosis it?
• The patient has a sensation of a foreign body localized at
the tonsillar fossa, associated with a dull intermittent pain
• Pain is usually worse with swallowing
• A bony projection is usually palpable with bimanual trans-
oral exploration
• Basically, you put your finger in the mouth of the patient,
down their throat, and push towards the outside, where
the stylohyoid bone is. If this reproduces the pain, this
confirms the diagnosis
• A lateral radiograph and a computed tomography scan of
head and neck will show an elongated styloid process of at
least 25 mm. (Casale M, Rinaldi V, Quattrocchi C, Bressi F,
Vincenzi B, Santini D, Tonini G, Salvinelli F.Atypical chronic
head and neck pain: don't forget Eagle's syndrome. Eur Rev
Med Pharmacol Sci. 2008 Mar-Apr;12(2):131-3)

21. How do you treat Eagles syndrome?
• Medical treatment represents the first choice
• Use non-steroidal anti- inflammatory drugs
• If this is not effective, then surgical resection of
the styloid process may help (cutting off the tip)
• In the case of persistence or ingravescence of the
complaint, surgery may be the only option
• Symptoms may overlap with glossopharyngeal
neuritis (presented later)
• (Casale M, Rinaldi V, Quattrocchi C, Bressi F, Vincenzi B, Santini D, Tonini G,
Salvinelli F. Atypical chronic head and neck pain: don't forget Eagle's syndrome. Eur
Rev Med Pharmacol Sci. 2008 Mar-Apr;12(2):131-3).

22. What is Sjogren’s Syndrome?
• Sjogren syndrome is an autoimmune disorder in
which the glands that produce tears and saliva
are destroyed, causing dry mouth and dry eyes
• Symptoms may include itching eyes, feeling that
something is in the eye, difficulty swallowing,
loss of sense of taste, thick saliva, mouth sores,
many cavities in the teeth, and pain in the face,
usually in the trigeminal or facial nerve
• (Kruszka P, O'Brian RJ. Diagnosis and
management of Sjogren syndrome. Am Fam
Physician . 2009;79:465-470)

23. What are symptoms of Sjogren’s Syndrome?
• Can be mistaken for trigeminal neuralgia.
• When there is unexplained pain in the face, take a
careful history. Ask about dry mouth, itchy eyes, lots of
cavities, trouble swallowing, SICCA complex (1)
• Trigeminal sensory neuropathy can occur with Sjogren’s
and may be characterized by progressive sensory
complaints on the face. They could start on one side and
subsequently become bilateral (2)
• (1) Wu AJ. Optimizing dry mouth treatment for individuals with
Sjögren's syndrome. Rheum Dis Clin North Am . 2008
Nov;34(4):1001-1010
• (2) Steven Mandel, M.D., Clinical Professor of Neurology, Jefferson
Medical College)

24. Laboratory Tests to Diagnose Sjogren’s
• SSA and SSB, ANA, sed rate, rheumatoid
factor, (RF) Schirmer test, corneal fluorescein
staining, conjunctival lissamine green staining,
tear-film breakup time, and lip biopsy are
useful methods of diagnosing Sjogren’s but
not always reliable.
• Yang Z, Liang Y, Zhong R, Is identification of anti-SSA and/or -
SSB antibodies necessary in serum samples referred for antinuclear
antibodies testing? J Clin Lab Anal. 2012 Nov;26(6):447-51. Br J
Ophthalmol. 2012 Dec;96(12):1498-503. doi: with aqueous-deficient dry
eye.
• Liew MS, Zhang M, Kim E, Akpek EK , Prevalence and predictors
of Sjogren's syndrome in a prospective cohort of patients with aqueous-
deficient dry eye. Br J Ophthalmol. 2012 Dec;96(12):1498-503.

25. Treatment of Sjogren’s
• Conventional immunosuppressive therapies
such as corticosteroids have been used in
some patients with variable benefit.
• Current therapy for dryness is
principally symptomatic.
• The greatest experience in pSS is with
rituximab, an anti-CD20 (expressed on a
subset of B-cells) monoclonal antibody.
(Bowman S, Barone F. Biologic treatments in Sjögren's syndrome. Presse
Med. 2012 Sep;41(9 Pt 2):e495-509)

26. Symptoms of Glossopharyngeal Neuritis
• Glossopharyngeal neuralgia is classically described as
“stabbing,” or “electrical shock-like” in nature. Episodes
are typically brief, lasting a couple of seconds up to a
few minutes and can be quite debilitating. They can
occur in the tongue, throat, ear, and tonsils on one side
of the head, but in rare cases may be bilateral. Painful
attacks may occur spontaneously but are more often
associated with a specific stimulus such as chewing,
speaking, coughing, swallowing or laughing. The attacks
can occur frequently throughout the day or once every
couple of weeks and they can also disturb sleep.
• http://www.columbianeurosurgery.org/conditions/glossopharyngeal-
neuralgia/

28. Causes of Glossopharyngeal Neuralgia
• Neuralgia is typically caused by compression of the
glossopharyngeal nerve.
• Compression of the nerve by an adjacent artery
and/or vein can occur near the brainstem.
• Compression of the nerve more distally in the neck
by an elongated styloid process (a bone in the neck)
can cause this pain syndrome as well, and this is
called Eagle syndrome.
• Glossopharyngeal neuralgia can be caused by a
tumor or infection in the region of ninth cranial
nerve or by multiple sclerosis.
• http://www.columbianeurosurgery.org/conditions/glossopharyngeal-
neuralgia/

29. Differential diagnosis of
Glossopharyngeal Neuritis (IX)
• The diagnosis is made on clinical grounds alone;
• no specific test can be done to prove the diagnosis in any given
patient. Episodic ear and/or throat pain, often triggered by
touching the palate or tonsil is strongly suggestive of the disorder.
• High resolution MRI or CT imaging of the brainstem may reveal
vascular compression, tumors, or demyelinating lesions involving
the ninth cranial nerve.
• High resolution CT scanning of the neck can reveal an elongated
styloid process, suggestive of Eagle syndrome.
• Pain that distinctly involves the ear, rear 1/3 of the tongue and/or
throat is the classic pain distribution seen in glossopharyngeal
neuralgia (ninth cranial nerve or IX N)
http://www.columbianeurosurgery.org/conditions/glossopharyngeal-neuralgia/

30. Treatment of Glossopharyngeal Neuritis
• Most treatment for Glossopharyngeal Neuralgia is
pharmacological. Anticonvulsant medications, including
oxcarbazepine, carbamazepine, gabapentin, and pregabalin
Some antidepressants can also be helpful either alone or in
combination with the seizure medications. If medications
fail, surgical intervention is indicated.
• The first-choice treatment microvascular decompression
(MVD), as it has the highest initial and long-term success rates.
Patients unable to tolerate such an operation may consider one
of the many less invasive options including Gamma Knife
radiosurgery.
• Eagles syndrome, TMJ and Trigeminal neuralgia can co-exist
with glossopharyngeal neuritis, and mask the diagnosis, or be
mistaken for it.
http://www.columbianeurosurgery.org/conditions/glossopharyngeal-neuralgia/