In the present review, we discuss works that have been published in the last 15 – 20 years that are based on the computational and experimental analysis of thermal properties of disc brake rotor of various types; new applications of the theory of heat conduction, convection and radiation. As the rapid development of computer engineering have led to a considerable increase in the number of solvable problems, and the refining of mathematical methods and approaches enables one to construct analytic solutions of these problems. In the paper, we outline the main directions of investigation of the processes of interaction of bodies with regard for heat release. We describe computational methods in more detail as compared with other approaches, because, to our mind, they are very promising for deriving simple engineering relations for braking processes on the basis of the equations of the thermal dynamics of friction; also the actual braking system is much transient and a lot of variable changes at a time which becomes very difficult to calculate experimentally.

1. IJSRD - International Journal for Scientific Research & Development| Vol. 2, Issue 07, 2014 | ISSN (online): 2321-0613
All rights reserved by www.ijsrd.com 390
Experimental Analysis and Investigation for Thermal Behavior of
Ventilated Disc Brake Rotor: A Review
Deepak Biradar1
M. R. Chopade2
Dr. S. B. Barve3
1,3
MIT College of Engineering, University of Pune
2
Bhrati Vidhyapeeth, BVDU College of Engineering, Pune
Abstract— In the present review, we discuss works that have
been published in the last 15 – 20 years that are based on the
computational and experimental analysis of thermal
properties of disc brake rotor of various types; new
applications of the theory of heat conduction, convection
and radiation. As the rapid development of computer
engineering have led to a considerable increase in the
number of solvable problems, and the refining of
mathematical methods and approaches enables one to
construct analytic solutions of these problems. In the paper,
we outline the main directions of investigation of the
processes of interaction of bodies with regard for heat
release. We describe computational methods in more detail
as compared with other approaches, because, to our mind,
they are very promising for deriving simple engineering
relations for braking processes on the basis of the equations
of the thermal dynamics of friction; also the actual braking
system is much transient and a lot of variable changes at a
time which becomes very difficult to calculate
experimentally.
Key words: Disc Brake, Heat Transfer, CFD, Number of
Vanes.
I. INTRODUCTION
It is important to consider technology in automobiles due to
the vast number of cars on the road today. The brakes are
one of the most important aspects of a vehicle since it
fulfills all the stopping functions and requirements. As
trivial as brakes may appear to be, many issues surround
their heating characteristics when it comes to their
development, including material choice, contact region
properties, development of hot spots, associated physical
geometry, and thermo-elastic deformations. This paper
describes current research and findings with regards to disc
braking and offers possible topics for future research within
the field.
Braking is a process which converts the kinetic
energy of the vehicle into mechanical energy which must be
dissipated in the form of heat. During the braking phase, the
frictional heat generated at the interface disc - pads can lead
to high temperatures. This phenomenon is even more
important that the tangential stress as well as the relative
sliding speeds in contact is important.
The heat dissipation and thermal performance of
ventilated brake discs strongly depends on the aerodynamic
characteristics of the air flow through the rotor passages.
The objective of the research was to develop an
understanding of how aerodynamics could be used to
improve the cooling of automotive disc brakes.
II. OBJECTIVES
 Study and investigation of thermal behaviour of disc
brake rotor.
 To find the optimum disc brake geometry for maximum
cooling and minimum thermal stresses.
III. LITERATURE REVIEW
The aim of this investigation is to study automotive disc
brake cooling characteristics experimentally and analytically
using various methods. Some of the recent studies related to
the topic are mentioned here.
G P Voller et. al. [1] analysed all three modes of
heat transfer (conduction, convection and radiation) along
with the design features of the brake assembly and their
interfaces; experiments enabled the determination of the
thermal contact resistance between the disc and wheel
carrier. The thermal contact resistance is calculated in the
form of hcond at the disc–wheel carrier interface. And it is
found that hcond is increases linearly with average contact
pressure.
It is important to consider the type temperature,
since overheating of the type can lead to extremely
dangerous conditions, which must be avoided.
Convection is considered to be the most important
mode of heat transfer, dissipating the highest proportion of
heat to surrounding air in most vehicle operating conditions.
Conduction is the least studied mode of heat transfer,
whereas radiation significantly contributes to heat
dissipation at high temperatures.
An emissivity of 0.2 was found for a new,
machined brake disc surface, at temperatures between 20
and 200 °C. For a corroded disc surface, the emissivity
value was much higher, over 0.9 for the wide temperature
range from 20 to 600 °C.
The hconv values increase radially, from disc inner
diameter to disc outer diameter, with disc surface speed.
The asperity bearing heat energy will cause TEI
that accelerates brake wear and fatigue damage, severely
weakens the material mechanical properties.
Xue Jing et. al. found that the temperature of actual
contact point is much higher than the mean contact surface
[2].
SungBong Park et. al. says, the local Nusselt
numbers decrease with a distance away from both windward
and leeward crests of the helical flute and reach a minimum
value near its valley for all Re's and z/d's tested [3].
Disc braking is a very dynamic and highly transient
phenomenon in which extremely large temperature gradients
can be generated at the vicinity of disc/pad interface in a
fraction of a second during a high deceleration and result in
excessive thermal stresses, a phenomenon termed as
“thermal shock”. Thermal shock can give rise to surface
cracks and plastic deformation on the disc, making disc
surfaces uneven. As a consequence, the heat dissipation area
at the disc-pad interface is largely reduced and becomes
non-uniform [4].

2. Experimental Analysis and Investigation for Thermal Behavior of Ventilated Disc Brake Rotor: A Review
(IJSRD/Vol. 2/Issue 07/2014/087)
All rights reserved by www.ijsrd.com 391
Yu-Ching Yang et. al. says the specific heat and
thermal conductivity are functions of temperature; hence
heat transfer through disc brake should be considered as a
nonlinear inverse problem. Thermal cracks, plastic
deformation, brake fluid vaporization, and premature wear,
and the life span of a disc brake could be shortened as a
result. Second, asperities and wear particles can accumulate
and form a thin layer called “third body” at the disc-pad
interface. The presence of the third body not only changes
friction properties at the disc-pad interface but also acts as a
thermal resistance to the heat dissipated into the disc [4].
Adam Adamowicz et. al. says that the temperature
of disc on the contact surface of two-dimensional model and
averaged solution of spatial solution during braking with the
constant deceleration sharply rises at the beginning of the
process, reached its maximal value and eventually stops on
the lower level, whereas if the velocity of the vehicle is
constant the temperature after the initial moment of time
increases approximately linearly. The character of
temperature evolution on the contact surface of disc and its
influence in depth reveals high coincidence with regard to
the three-dimensional model and simplified two-
dimensional representation of the considered problem.
Therefore validation of the outcomes of previously
conducted study of frictional heating of disc with uniformly
distributed heat flux has been made [5].
Xianjie Meng te. al. [7]. says friction coefficient
has prominence impact on the production of bake noise.
Friction coefficient is the important factor that makes for the
frequency superposition of the two adjacent modals, the
bigger the friction coefficient, the more the frequency
superposition of the adjacent modals tends to be and the
bigger the real part of complex eigen value, this indicates
the instable tendency increased and the brake squeal may
occur, in other words, the greater friction coefficient would
result in more instable modals [7].
S. Artus et. al. [8] says the connection between disc
temperature and vehicle safety operates through the braking
friction coefficient. This parameter is the ratio between the
effective braking force (brake torque) and the braking force
desired by the driver (control). Thus, a lack in the braking
efficiency can appear when a disc reaches high
temperatures. This phenomenon is known as "fading". As
mechanical links become wires, drivers have no more
physical feedback of what really happens on their vehicle
(e.g. brake pedal oscillations when an overheating of the
discs occurs). But, there are other direct consequences of the
excessive disc temperatures. First, they are a source of
premature wear of the brake pads. Secondly, they can cause
strong damages on components nearby the discs. So, the
safety and the security of the vehicles are really influenced
by the temperature levels of the brake discs. Thus,
overheating could lead to vehicle immobilization
(interruption of the exploitation). The prevention of these
kinds of failures has an economical impact.
S. Artus et. al calculated the power developed by
the braking action and expressed in equation (1).
P = F .V (1)
Where,
P: the power developed by the braking action [W],
F: the braking force at road/tyre interface [N],
V: longitudinal vehicle speed [m/s].
S. Artus et. al considered three modes of this
heat/power dissipation
A. Forced and Free Convection
Newton's law on thermal exchange expresses the forced
convection phenomenon expressed by the equation (2).
qfc = H (Vfe).Sd .(Td - Ta ) (2)
Where,
qfc: the convection heat flux from external surface of a disc
in [W].
H(Vfe): the convection parameter which depends on the air
flow velocity in the surface area [W/m²-°K].
Sd: The disc surface in [m²].
Td: The disc external surface temperature in [°K].
Ta: The ambient temperature in [°K].
B. Heat Radiation
The heat transfer addresses the heat dissipation under an
electromagnetic form. The quantification of heat flow
exchanged by radiation is also complex. It is expressed by
equation (3):
qrad = 𝜀 σ(T4
d - T4
a) (3)
Where,
qrad : the heat flux dissipated by radiation [W],
: the emissive factor of the surface,
σ: the Stefan-Boltzman constant which is about 5.6688 × 10-
8
[W/m²-K-4
].
Td : the disc surface temperature [°K]
Ta : the surrounding temperature [°K]
C. Heat Conduction
Most of the heat dissipated by conduction is conducted into
the contact surface between the disc and the steering
knuckle. This phenomenon is described by the following
equation (4)
= (4)
Where,
T: the temperature of the material [K],
Z: the depth at which the temperature is computed [m],
D: the thermal diffusivity of the material [m²/s]
M. Tirovic et. al. studied the air flow and
convective heat dissipation from a wheel-hub-mounted
railway brake disc using computational fluid dynamics
(CFD). The analyses enabled detailed insight into air flow,
temperature, speed, pressure, and convective heat transfer
coefficient distributions, never before available to a brake
designer. Such results are practically impossible to
experimentally obtain at reasonable cost. Particularly
interesting finding is the existence of relatively considerable
secondary flow, circumferential flow behind the vanes.
Although this effect may reduce air pumping, and therefore
radial air speed, it increases turbulence by promoting airflow
between channels. Average values of the convective heat
transfer coefficients obtained using CFD are practically
identical to the experimental values derived from cooling
tests performed on dynamometer and spin rig. Compared
with other railway disc designs, this disc demonstrates
exceptionally good convective cooling characteristics, in
particular considering its size and investigated operating
condition (rotation in still air). The computational studies of
air flow and heat dissipation characteristics are an excellent

3. Experimental Analysis and Investigation for Thermal Behavior of Ventilated Disc Brake Rotor: A Review
(IJSRD/Vol. 2/Issue 07/2014/087)
All rights reserved by www.ijsrd.com 392
base for development work in improving existing and
generating new disc designs with high heat dissipation
characteristics. Future work is concentrated on conducting
additional analyses of the current disc design, in order to
investigate [9].
D. Majcherczak et. al. says the complete
mechanical system has to be considered with the individual
components and coupling between them.
The dynamic excitation may be external or internal.
For the latter, the contact interface has to be introduced at a
micro or macro-level. Distortions of the surface induced by
the thermo-mechanical behaviour of the components must
also be included at a macro-level [10].
The simulation made by Xun Yang at. el. indicates
that the increase of temperature and the deformation of
rotor, also the velocity and the acceleration during the
braking and the influence of TEI towards fluctuation of
brake torque and contact. Conclusions by Xun Yang at. el.
are drawn below:
 Mentioned emergency brake of the disc brake,
before running, costs 3.35sec, with average
deceleration of 8.29m/s2
(> 5.2 m/s2
) and brake
torque stability coefficient 0.624 (> 0.55).
 As the angular velocity decreases and the
temperature rises, the deformation mode of rotor
during braking changes from corrugation to coning
gradually. This change leads to fluctuation of
contact area, and finally affects the brake torque
and brake deceleration.
 Without considering initial disc-thickness variation
(DTV) and installing DTV, brake torque
fluctuation of rotor is mainly because of thermo-
elastic instability TEI [11].
For an anisotropic material, Jarlen Don et. al. found
third-body material partially covering the worn surfaces.
The worn surface of the P13-protected sample, however,
was practically not covered with the third-body material and
was heavily associated with cracks. The coverage of the
third-body material on the friction surface seemed to have
great effect on the landing Coefficient of Friction (COF). The
anti-oxidant of BS6 is superior to the P13, especially when
minimal Anti-oxidant (AO) migration effects are required.
[12]
The CS-SG disc showed the best performance in
terms of braking force output. However, the maximum
stress generations were shown on the same disc [13]. FEA
results demonstrated that the maximum stresses mainly
localized outwardly in the radial direction of the friction
surface around the edge of the cooling holes and channels
on the ventilated discs [13].
The maximum temperature decreased by 7.48 %
and the maximum thermal deformation reduced by 5.24 %
after optimization. [14]
A.D. McPhee et. al. says the resulting flow rate
varies linearly with rotor rpm. This result is identical to the
linear relationship obtained for the heat transfer coefficients.
While this confirms the presence of a relationship between
volume flow rate and convection, it does not guarantee a
direct relationship. For example, an increase in volume flow
rate might act to increase turbulent kinetic energy (TKE),
subsequently enhancing convection. This point illustrates
that when dealing with designs subject to different
turbulence kinetic energies, the design with the higher
volume flow rate may not facilitate greater convection. To
characterize the convective heat transfer for a brake rotor,
transient experiments were conducted over a range of rotor
speeds by A.D. McPhee et. al. The temperature profiles for
each of the nominal speeds conformed to anticipated
exponential decay [16].
M. W. Shin et. al. [18] concluded the following:
 Corrosion of the burnished gray iron brake discs
begins at the graphite flakes through a graphite
corrosion mechanism.
 In order to simulate disc corrosion in a parked
vehicle, corrosion has to be carried out by making
the disc temperature lower than the atmosphere to
make a condensing environment.
 The thickness of the oxide layer after corrosion is
affected by the type of friction material and friction
film developed during the burnishing procedure.
 The friction force fluctuation during braking is
affected by the oxide removal rate, which is
dependent on the aggressiveness of the friction
materials.
 The friction force fluctuation can last for extended
periods of time when non-steel friction materials
are used while a low-steel friction material cleaned
the rusted surface quickly but tended to generate
DTV due to the aggressiveness of the steel-
containing friction materials [18].
Mesut Duzgun et. al. found that the thermal stress
formations are higher with ventilated brake discs (CD, CS
and CS-SG discs) in comparison to those with solid discs.
However, maximum stress formation is reduced to 11% and
19% in an alternative CS-SG disc configuration in
comparison to other ventilated disc designs. Thus, CS-SG
discs can more effectively reduce heat generation and
thermal stresses among ventilated brake discs [19].
Adam Adamowicz et. al. says the highest
difference of temperatures on the contact surface of a disc
(mean radius of the rubbing path) subjected to continuous
frictional sliding process for the applied extreme boundary
convective conditions (range from 0 to 100 W/(m2
K)) is
lower than 3%. Thus in terms of single braking process the
convective heat transfer mode doesn’t allow to significantly
lower the temperatures of the rotor for typical operation
conditions of passenger vehicle [20].
Pyung Hwang et. al. says the temperature field
affects the thermal expansion and leads to variation of
contact pressure distribution. Due to the heat generation
ratio decrease, conduction in the disc and convection on the
surface of brake disc, temperature field presents
approximately axi-symmetric in the end stage of the braking
operation. Lower temperature in the vanes is due to the
effect of disc conductivity and higher convection in the
vanes. The node temperature on the work surface in the disc
is presenting fluctuation. The thermal strain and thermal
stress distributions are in accordance with the temperature
distribution [21].
V. P. Sergienko et. al. says the suppression of noise
and vibration level in friction joints is one of the main trends
in improving operating safety, quality, and competitiveness
of vehicles. The currently available experimental methods
for determining the NVH characteristics of brakes and for

4. Experimental Analysis and Investigation for Thermal Behavior of Ventilated Disc Brake Rotor: A Review
(IJSRD/Vol. 2/Issue 07/2014/087)
All rights reserved by www.ijsrd.com 393
data accumulation and processing, as well as the procedures
for simulating vibro-acoustic processes in the frictional
contact, serve the base for achieving design and scientific
solutions aimed at suppressing noise in braking systems of
vehicles. The question of the adequate simulation of the
external factors influencing vibro-acoustic processes in
brakes in the course of their bench tests remains open [23].
V. P. Sergienko et. al. also put forward the hypothesis that
the level of vibration on a frictional contact is related to the
friction force, wear, and fatigue strength of the rubbing
bodies. Investigations of noise and vibration generation
mechanisms in friction joints, as well as elaboration of the
methods hindering vibro-acoustic effects have not lost their
urgency. The discrete property of the actual contact is the
cause of instability in the real friction process at the micro-
level. Multiple elastic and inelastic pulse deformations of
micro-asperities, surface areas, and micro-volumes of
surface layers, along with competing processes of wearing
and regeneration of thin films result in micro-oscillations on
the surface contact within a wide frequency range [23].
Takashi Nakae at. al. says the in-plane squeal mode
exists over a wide range of pad temperatures. Chatter is
generated only in the high temperature range. The natural
frequencies of the out-of-plane modes of the disc decrease
with increasing pad temperature. When the frequency ratio
of the squeal to a certain out-of-plane mode of the disc
reaches about 2:1 at high temperature, chatter occurs. The
chatter vibration is generated in both the in-plane and out-
of-plane directions of the disc simultaneously through
internal resonance relationships and is evidence that the
phenomenon is nonlinear. Squeal and chatter are related not
only to the brake unit, but also to the spokes and the hub of
the wheel [26].
Ryoichi Chiba at. el. Says the reduction in the disc
thickness along the radial direction is effective in improving
the robustness because discs with such variable thicknesses
are less affected by randomness in the HTCs (heat transfer
coefficients) than constant thickness discs in the thermal
stress fields [27].
R. L. Hecht et. al. shown that thermal diffusivity is
influenced by changes in chemical composition of gray cast
iron, and that a roughly linearly increasing relationship
exists between room temperature diffusivity and Carbon
Equivalent (CE) within the carbon range of gray cast iron.
The data obtained by R. L. Hecht et. al. suggest that higher
diffusivities and thermal benefits may be achieved through
control of the casting process to produce gray cast iron
rotors with long Type A graphite flakes for a particular alloy
composition [31].
S. Ramousse et.al. says the oxidation of the iron
within sample X occurs in two steps whereas the analysis of
the raw material shows a continuous oxidation of the iron.
This is due to the carbon oxidised preferentially before the
iron or the formation of a corrosion protection on the surface
of the iron particles. The oxidation of iron starts at around
500 and continues slowly until 800°C when it becomes very
fast [32]
Liuchen Fan et. al. says the stress field can
apparently lead to the acute fluctuation of the temperature of
the rotor, tending to form a hot-spot in a partial area. On the
contrary, the increase in temperature further intensifies the
concentration of the stress, and gradually shows the
tendency of transformation from compressive stress to
tensile stress. When there is defect in brake material or the
stress value reaches the yield limit of the material, it is
inclined to cause the fatigue failure of the brake [33].
The experiments of Chongdu Cho et. al. have
shown hot spots and banding during chattering where the
temperature profile does not change with respect to the disc.
The disc bulk temperature severely affects the brake judder
speed with inversely linear relationship; that is, the critical
speed decreases linearly with increasing disk bulk
temperature [34].
Xinhua WANG et. al. says when the friction
temperature is low, the wear mechanism and spalling of the
surface film are abrasive wear and fatigue spalling,
respectively. When the friction temperature is high, the wear
mechanism and spalling of surface film are adhesive wear
and adhesive tear, respectively. Moreover, thermal cracking,
thermal oxidization, carbonization and cyclization of
organic substances can increase wear of the brake block and
leave pores or cracks on the friction surface during friction,
leading to cracks on the surface of the brake block and
eventually fatigue wear [37].
IV. CONCLUSSION
After a wide literature review; Ventilated Disc Brake Rotor
gives the maximum cooling effect compared to the other
types of disc brake rotor. But even for ventilated disc brake
rotor are having some limitations. Under heavy braking load
and high deceleration some problem arises in brakes namely
hot spot, thermal shock, themo-elastic instability, crack
formation. Finally all these phenomenon leads to failure of
braking system. The basic reason behind this is high heat
generation and low cooling rate.
For to have safe braking system the heat transfer
from the disc should be enhanced. The conduction and
radiation modes of heat transfer are having some limitations
so the only way that remains is convection. Heat transfer
from the disc can be increased by the change in the
geometry of the vanes of the ventilated disc brake rotor.
Hence there is enough scope for the research in thermal
behaviour of ventilated disc brake rotor.
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