This document provides information about an upcoming lecture on selection, gene flow, and mutation. It includes the following:
1) Announcements about an upcoming workshop assessment and tutorial.
2) An outline of the lecture topics: types of selection, gene flow, mutation, and a review session.
3) Details about different types of selection including dominant, recessive, heterozygote advantage and disadvantage. It discusses examples like sickle cell anemia.
4) A discussion of gene flow and how it affects genetic differentiation between populations.
5) A definition of mutation and different types like point mutations, insertions, deletions, and larger events. It also discusses mutation's interaction with drift
The document discusses several key concepts related to evolution and gene frequencies:
1. Evolution occurs through genetic changes being passed down between generations within a population. The Hardy-Weinberg theorem states that allele frequencies will remain stable under certain assumptions, such as large population size and no migration, mutation, or selection.
2. Genetic drift, founder and bottleneck effects, and low population size can reduce genetic variation within a population. Gene flow between populations impacts allele frequencies.
3. Mutation introduces new variations and increases genetic diversity over time. Natural selection leads to changes in allele frequencies if some phenotypes are more successful at reproducing. Selection can be directional, disruptive, or stabilizing.
This document provides an overview of a lesson on evolution as genetic change in populations. It discusses how natural selection can affect single-gene and polygenic traits through directional, stabilizing, and disruptive selection. Genetic drift is described as random changes in allele frequency in small populations due to chance or events like bottlenecks. The conditions required to maintain genetic equilibrium according to Hardy-Weinberg principles are also outlined.
Gene frequency refers to the proportion of a particular allele within a population at a given locus. It can change over time due to various factors like mutation, migration, genetic drift, non-random mating, and selection. Genetic drift occurs when allele frequencies change due to chance rather than evolutionary influences, and can be seen through bottle neck effects when population sizes drastically decrease, or founder effects when new populations are established. Migration also impacts gene frequencies as individuals move between populations, carrying alleles with them. Mutation introduces new alleles, while selection influences which alleles increase or decrease in frequency based on their effects on fitness.
Microevolution Changing Allele FrequenciesTauqeer Ahmad
This document discusses microevolution and the processes that can cause changes in allele frequencies within a population over time, leading to evolution. It specifically discusses:
- Mutation, genetic drift, gene flow, and natural and artificial selection as the four processes that can cause changes in allele frequencies.
- Examples of how immigration or emigration of a few individuals can impact allele frequencies more in a small population compared to a large population.
- Genetic drift occurring more dramatically in small populations through bottlenecks or founder effects, impacting genetic diversity.
- Conditions for Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium when allele frequencies remain stable without evolution occurring.
This document provides an overview of key concepts in evolutionary theory, including heredity, variation, mechanisms of evolution, and outcomes of evolution. It discusses how evolution occurs through genetic changes in populations over generations, brought about by various mechanisms like natural selection, genetic drift, and gene flow. Mutation, sex, and recombination also introduce genetic variation in organisms that can then be acted upon by evolutionary forces. The document outlines processes like adaptation, coevolution, speciation, and extinction that are results of evolutionary change over time.
Population genetics considers the distribution and change in allele frequencies in a population over generations. Genetic change occurs through mutations, gene flow between populations due to migration, genetic drift when small populations become isolated, and natural selection which influences which genotypes leave more offspring. Tracking allele frequencies in populations can provide information about evolution and disease risk.
This document provides information about an upcoming lecture on selection, gene flow, and mutation. It includes the following:
1) Announcements about an upcoming workshop assessment and tutorial.
2) An outline of the lecture topics: types of selection, gene flow, mutation, and a review session.
3) Details about different types of selection including dominant, recessive, heterozygote advantage and disadvantage. It discusses examples like sickle cell anemia.
4) A discussion of gene flow and how it affects genetic differentiation between populations.
5) A definition of mutation and different types like point mutations, insertions, deletions, and larger events. It also discusses mutation's interaction with drift
The document discusses several key concepts related to evolution and gene frequencies:
1. Evolution occurs through genetic changes being passed down between generations within a population. The Hardy-Weinberg theorem states that allele frequencies will remain stable under certain assumptions, such as large population size and no migration, mutation, or selection.
2. Genetic drift, founder and bottleneck effects, and low population size can reduce genetic variation within a population. Gene flow between populations impacts allele frequencies.
3. Mutation introduces new variations and increases genetic diversity over time. Natural selection leads to changes in allele frequencies if some phenotypes are more successful at reproducing. Selection can be directional, disruptive, or stabilizing.
This document provides an overview of a lesson on evolution as genetic change in populations. It discusses how natural selection can affect single-gene and polygenic traits through directional, stabilizing, and disruptive selection. Genetic drift is described as random changes in allele frequency in small populations due to chance or events like bottlenecks. The conditions required to maintain genetic equilibrium according to Hardy-Weinberg principles are also outlined.
Gene frequency refers to the proportion of a particular allele within a population at a given locus. It can change over time due to various factors like mutation, migration, genetic drift, non-random mating, and selection. Genetic drift occurs when allele frequencies change due to chance rather than evolutionary influences, and can be seen through bottle neck effects when population sizes drastically decrease, or founder effects when new populations are established. Migration also impacts gene frequencies as individuals move between populations, carrying alleles with them. Mutation introduces new alleles, while selection influences which alleles increase or decrease in frequency based on their effects on fitness.
Microevolution Changing Allele FrequenciesTauqeer Ahmad
This document discusses microevolution and the processes that can cause changes in allele frequencies within a population over time, leading to evolution. It specifically discusses:
- Mutation, genetic drift, gene flow, and natural and artificial selection as the four processes that can cause changes in allele frequencies.
- Examples of how immigration or emigration of a few individuals can impact allele frequencies more in a small population compared to a large population.
- Genetic drift occurring more dramatically in small populations through bottlenecks or founder effects, impacting genetic diversity.
- Conditions for Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium when allele frequencies remain stable without evolution occurring.
This document provides an overview of key concepts in evolutionary theory, including heredity, variation, mechanisms of evolution, and outcomes of evolution. It discusses how evolution occurs through genetic changes in populations over generations, brought about by various mechanisms like natural selection, genetic drift, and gene flow. Mutation, sex, and recombination also introduce genetic variation in organisms that can then be acted upon by evolutionary forces. The document outlines processes like adaptation, coevolution, speciation, and extinction that are results of evolutionary change over time.
Population genetics considers the distribution and change in allele frequencies in a population over generations. Genetic change occurs through mutations, gene flow between populations due to migration, genetic drift when small populations become isolated, and natural selection which influences which genotypes leave more offspring. Tracking allele frequencies in populations can provide information about evolution and disease risk.
This document discusses population variation and selection. It provides an overview of key concepts:
1. Natural selection acts on individuals but only populations evolve over generations as allele frequencies change. This was shown using a population of finches where large-beaked birds survived a drought better.
2. Three mechanisms can cause changes in allele frequencies in a population: natural selection, genetic drift, and gene flow. Natural selection is the only mechanism that causes adaptive evolution.
3. Genetic variation within populations is required for evolution. Variation comes from new mutations and recombination during sexual reproduction. The Hardy-Weinberg principle describes populations where allele frequencies remain constant without evolutionary influences.
This document discusses the factors that can cause microevolution in a population. It defines microevolution as changes in a species' gene pool over a short period of time due to reproductive individuals. Five factors are described: 1) mutation pressure introduces new alleles, 2) immigration changes gene frequencies, 3) genetic drift impacts small populations, 4) non-random mating disrupts Hardy-Weinberg assumptions, and 5) selection pressure favors better adapted individuals who reproduce more. These factors disrupt genetic equilibrium and cause populations to evolve over multiple generations.
Populations evolve over time through natural selection and changes in gene frequencies. Individuals with traits that increase survival and reproductive success are more likely to pass on their genes to subsequent generations. For example, insect populations can evolve resistance to insecticides as individuals with resistant target sites are more likely to survive and pass on that resistant trait. Variation within populations, driven by factors like mutation and recombination, provides the raw material for natural selection to act upon as environments change over time.
The document discusses factors that can alter allelic frequencies in a population. It describes six main factors: 1) Mutation introduces new alleles, 2) Genetic drift like bottle neck effects can change frequencies randomly, 3) Migration through gene flow affects frequencies, 4) Natural selection increases frequencies of beneficial alleles and decreases unfavorable ones, 5) Non-random mating influences which individuals reproduce more, and 6) Inbreeding increases homozygosity. These genetic and evolutionary factors all impact the proportion of alleles in a population over time.
Evolutionary mechanisms population size, genetic drift, gene flowWajahat Ali
1. The document discusses five key evolutionary mechanisms: mutation, genetic drift, gene flow, non-random mating, and natural selection. Each mechanism affects traits and genetic diversity in a population differently.
2. Mutation introduces new genetic variation, while genetic drift causes random changes in allele frequencies regardless of fitness. Gene flow makes populations more similar by exchanging migrants. Non-random mating results from mate choice.
3. Natural selection occurs when some genotypes are more likely to survive and reproduce, passing on alleles to the next generation. It can drive directional evolution of traits or maintain genetic diversity through balancing selection.
The document discusses several concepts related to evolution in populations, including natural selection, genetic drift, gene flow, and speciation. It provides examples of how genetic drift can occur through bottlenecks or when founding new populations. Gene flow can increase genetic variation in small populations. Isolated populations can adapt differently and eventually become reproductively isolated, leading to speciation. The Hardy-Weinberg model describes unchanging populations and can predict genotype frequencies.
This document summarizes key concepts in population genetics and evolution. It discusses how population genetics combines Mendelian inheritance and natural selection. The modern synthesis combined findings from various fields to emphasize populations as units of evolution and natural selection as the main mechanism. It also describes genetic variation, Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium, factors causing microevolution like genetic drift and natural selection, and concepts like sexual selection and limits of natural selection.
This document discusses several evolutionary mechanisms: mutation, genetic drift, and natural selection. Mutation introduces heritable changes in DNA and is the ultimate source of genetic variation. Genetic drift is changes in allele frequencies that occur by chance, especially in small populations. It can reduce genetic variation over time. Natural selection leads to populations becoming locally adapted as individuals better suited to their environment leave more offspring.
This document discusses factors that influence natural selection:
1. Genetic variety within species, brought about by mutations and genetic recombination, allows for variation on which natural selection can act.
2. Gene expression influences how genes determine traits.
3. Excess reproduction, the ability of most species to produce more offspring than can survive, means individuals must compete for limited resources. Together, genetic variety, gene expression, and excess reproduction exert influence on the process of natural selection.
This document discusses the mechanisms of evolution, including natural selection and genetic variation. It explains how Darwin and Wallace proposed that evolution occurs through natural selection, where individuals with traits best suited to the environment leave more offspring, changing allele frequencies over time. The modern synthesis in the mid-1900s combined Mendelian genetics with Darwin's theory of evolution by natural selection. The document also introduces key concepts like fitness, gene pools, allele frequencies, and Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium.
Population genetics is the study of genetic variation within populations. A population's gene pool contains all the alleles of all individuals. Under Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium, allele frequencies remain constant between generations if there is no mutation, migration, genetic drift, or natural selection. Five agents cause evolution: mutation, gene flow, genetic drift, nonrandom mating, and natural selection, which is the only mechanism that leads to adaptation. Natural selection maintains genetic variation and can preserve polymorphisms through mechanisms like heterozygote advantage.
Microevolution is the evolution of local populations or demes through microevolutionary processes. The document discusses the five systemic forces that drive microevolution - mutation, gene flow, sexual recombination, genetic drift, and natural selection. It also discusses different levels of selection and provides examples of genetic variability, population structure, speciation, and reproductive isolation.
This document discusses genetic drift, which refers to random changes in allele frequencies between generations independent of natural selection. Genetic drift has a greater impact in small populations and can lead to the loss or fixation of alleles. The bottleneck effect and founder effect are examples where genetic drift in small populations causes allele frequency changes compared to the original larger population. The neutral theory of evolution proposes that most genetic variation arises from the accumulation of neutral mutations through genetic drift rather than natural selection.
1. The document discusses factors that can initiate microevolution by changing gene frequencies in populations.
2. It explains that microevolution occurs within populations and involves changes in gene frequency over time due to factors like mutation, natural selection, genetic drift, non-random mating, and gene flow.
3. For a population to evolve, at least one of the five conditions of Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium must be absent - no mutations, random mating, no natural selection, extremely large population size, or no gene flow.
Five factors drive evolution in populations: mutation, migration, genetic drift, natural selection, and nonrandom mating. Genetic drift is the change in allele frequencies that occurs due to random sampling error in small populations. It can cause alleles to be lost or fixed in a population by chance alone, independent of adaptive effects. The rate of genetic drift is influenced by population size, with smaller populations experiencing stronger drift effects due to increased sampling error. Effective population size is often much smaller than actual population size due to factors like unequal sex ratios. Genetic drift reduces genetic diversity over time and can cause maladaptive evolution if drift is stronger than selection.
This document discusses various topics related to rates and patterns of evolution. It describes divergent, convergent, and parallel evolution. It also discusses evolutionary trends over time, as well as factors that can influence the rate of evolutionary change such as mutation rates, selective pressure, and environmental stress. Examples are provided to illustrate different types of evolution, trends, and hypotheses about gradual versus punctuated change.
Bio 106
Lecture 11 Genes in Populations
A. Population Genetics
B. Gene Frequencies and Equilibrium
1. Gene Frequencies
2. Gene Pool
3. Model System for Population Stability (Hardy – Weinberg Law)
2
cces2015
C. Changes in Gene Frequencies
1. Mutation
2. Selection
2.1 Relative Fitness
2.2 Selections and Variability
2.3 Selection and Mating
3. Systems
4. Migration
5. Genetic Drift
3
cces2015
D. Race and Species Formation
1. The Concept of Races
2. The Concept of Species
2.1 Reproductive Isolating Mechanisms
2.2 Rapid Speciation
ASSORTIVE MATING AND GENE FREQUENCY CHANGES (POPULATION GENETICS)316116
This slide briefly the explanation of random mating as deviation from the Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium and also the changes in gene frequency as a result of violation of Hardy-Weinberg assumptions on gene frequency
This document discusses factors that affect genetic variation and change in populations, including evolution, natural selection, mutations, migration, and genetic drift. It provides details on each factor and how they influence allele frequencies in a gene pool over multiple generations, leading to evolution and potentially new species. Examples are given to illustrate concepts like founder effects and bottleneck effects on small populations.
The document provides guidance on writing a reflective essay. It begins with introductory activities to assess the reader's existing knowledge of reflective essays. It then provides more information on the key elements of a reflective essay, such as using personal experiences to demonstrate insights. The reader is expected to write their own reflective essay that will be graded based on criteria like focus, content, unity, and language usage. The overarching question introduced is "How are preferences, feelings, and insights communicated in a reflective essay?" to guide the reader in understanding the requirements of this essay type.
The document provides an overview of genetics and inheritance. Some key points:
1) Genetics describes how traits are passed from parents to offspring through genes located on chromosomes. Genes contain DNA instructions that determine traits.
2) An individual inherits half their chromosomes and genes from each parent. These genes may be dominant or recessive.
3) Gregor Mendel's experiments with pea plants in the 1800s established the basic principles of heredity and inheritance through dominant and recessive alleles.
4) Punnett squares can predict the probability of offspring inheriting different traits based on the parents' genotypes. Mendel demonstrated dominant and recessive inheritance through his pea plant experiments.
This document discusses population variation and selection. It provides an overview of key concepts:
1. Natural selection acts on individuals but only populations evolve over generations as allele frequencies change. This was shown using a population of finches where large-beaked birds survived a drought better.
2. Three mechanisms can cause changes in allele frequencies in a population: natural selection, genetic drift, and gene flow. Natural selection is the only mechanism that causes adaptive evolution.
3. Genetic variation within populations is required for evolution. Variation comes from new mutations and recombination during sexual reproduction. The Hardy-Weinberg principle describes populations where allele frequencies remain constant without evolutionary influences.
This document discusses the factors that can cause microevolution in a population. It defines microevolution as changes in a species' gene pool over a short period of time due to reproductive individuals. Five factors are described: 1) mutation pressure introduces new alleles, 2) immigration changes gene frequencies, 3) genetic drift impacts small populations, 4) non-random mating disrupts Hardy-Weinberg assumptions, and 5) selection pressure favors better adapted individuals who reproduce more. These factors disrupt genetic equilibrium and cause populations to evolve over multiple generations.
Populations evolve over time through natural selection and changes in gene frequencies. Individuals with traits that increase survival and reproductive success are more likely to pass on their genes to subsequent generations. For example, insect populations can evolve resistance to insecticides as individuals with resistant target sites are more likely to survive and pass on that resistant trait. Variation within populations, driven by factors like mutation and recombination, provides the raw material for natural selection to act upon as environments change over time.
The document discusses factors that can alter allelic frequencies in a population. It describes six main factors: 1) Mutation introduces new alleles, 2) Genetic drift like bottle neck effects can change frequencies randomly, 3) Migration through gene flow affects frequencies, 4) Natural selection increases frequencies of beneficial alleles and decreases unfavorable ones, 5) Non-random mating influences which individuals reproduce more, and 6) Inbreeding increases homozygosity. These genetic and evolutionary factors all impact the proportion of alleles in a population over time.
Evolutionary mechanisms population size, genetic drift, gene flowWajahat Ali
1. The document discusses five key evolutionary mechanisms: mutation, genetic drift, gene flow, non-random mating, and natural selection. Each mechanism affects traits and genetic diversity in a population differently.
2. Mutation introduces new genetic variation, while genetic drift causes random changes in allele frequencies regardless of fitness. Gene flow makes populations more similar by exchanging migrants. Non-random mating results from mate choice.
3. Natural selection occurs when some genotypes are more likely to survive and reproduce, passing on alleles to the next generation. It can drive directional evolution of traits or maintain genetic diversity through balancing selection.
The document discusses several concepts related to evolution in populations, including natural selection, genetic drift, gene flow, and speciation. It provides examples of how genetic drift can occur through bottlenecks or when founding new populations. Gene flow can increase genetic variation in small populations. Isolated populations can adapt differently and eventually become reproductively isolated, leading to speciation. The Hardy-Weinberg model describes unchanging populations and can predict genotype frequencies.
This document summarizes key concepts in population genetics and evolution. It discusses how population genetics combines Mendelian inheritance and natural selection. The modern synthesis combined findings from various fields to emphasize populations as units of evolution and natural selection as the main mechanism. It also describes genetic variation, Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium, factors causing microevolution like genetic drift and natural selection, and concepts like sexual selection and limits of natural selection.
This document discusses several evolutionary mechanisms: mutation, genetic drift, and natural selection. Mutation introduces heritable changes in DNA and is the ultimate source of genetic variation. Genetic drift is changes in allele frequencies that occur by chance, especially in small populations. It can reduce genetic variation over time. Natural selection leads to populations becoming locally adapted as individuals better suited to their environment leave more offspring.
This document discusses factors that influence natural selection:
1. Genetic variety within species, brought about by mutations and genetic recombination, allows for variation on which natural selection can act.
2. Gene expression influences how genes determine traits.
3. Excess reproduction, the ability of most species to produce more offspring than can survive, means individuals must compete for limited resources. Together, genetic variety, gene expression, and excess reproduction exert influence on the process of natural selection.
This document discusses the mechanisms of evolution, including natural selection and genetic variation. It explains how Darwin and Wallace proposed that evolution occurs through natural selection, where individuals with traits best suited to the environment leave more offspring, changing allele frequencies over time. The modern synthesis in the mid-1900s combined Mendelian genetics with Darwin's theory of evolution by natural selection. The document also introduces key concepts like fitness, gene pools, allele frequencies, and Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium.
Population genetics is the study of genetic variation within populations. A population's gene pool contains all the alleles of all individuals. Under Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium, allele frequencies remain constant between generations if there is no mutation, migration, genetic drift, or natural selection. Five agents cause evolution: mutation, gene flow, genetic drift, nonrandom mating, and natural selection, which is the only mechanism that leads to adaptation. Natural selection maintains genetic variation and can preserve polymorphisms through mechanisms like heterozygote advantage.
Microevolution is the evolution of local populations or demes through microevolutionary processes. The document discusses the five systemic forces that drive microevolution - mutation, gene flow, sexual recombination, genetic drift, and natural selection. It also discusses different levels of selection and provides examples of genetic variability, population structure, speciation, and reproductive isolation.
This document discusses genetic drift, which refers to random changes in allele frequencies between generations independent of natural selection. Genetic drift has a greater impact in small populations and can lead to the loss or fixation of alleles. The bottleneck effect and founder effect are examples where genetic drift in small populations causes allele frequency changes compared to the original larger population. The neutral theory of evolution proposes that most genetic variation arises from the accumulation of neutral mutations through genetic drift rather than natural selection.
1. The document discusses factors that can initiate microevolution by changing gene frequencies in populations.
2. It explains that microevolution occurs within populations and involves changes in gene frequency over time due to factors like mutation, natural selection, genetic drift, non-random mating, and gene flow.
3. For a population to evolve, at least one of the five conditions of Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium must be absent - no mutations, random mating, no natural selection, extremely large population size, or no gene flow.
Five factors drive evolution in populations: mutation, migration, genetic drift, natural selection, and nonrandom mating. Genetic drift is the change in allele frequencies that occurs due to random sampling error in small populations. It can cause alleles to be lost or fixed in a population by chance alone, independent of adaptive effects. The rate of genetic drift is influenced by population size, with smaller populations experiencing stronger drift effects due to increased sampling error. Effective population size is often much smaller than actual population size due to factors like unequal sex ratios. Genetic drift reduces genetic diversity over time and can cause maladaptive evolution if drift is stronger than selection.
This document discusses various topics related to rates and patterns of evolution. It describes divergent, convergent, and parallel evolution. It also discusses evolutionary trends over time, as well as factors that can influence the rate of evolutionary change such as mutation rates, selective pressure, and environmental stress. Examples are provided to illustrate different types of evolution, trends, and hypotheses about gradual versus punctuated change.
Bio 106
Lecture 11 Genes in Populations
A. Population Genetics
B. Gene Frequencies and Equilibrium
1. Gene Frequencies
2. Gene Pool
3. Model System for Population Stability (Hardy – Weinberg Law)
2
cces2015
C. Changes in Gene Frequencies
1. Mutation
2. Selection
2.1 Relative Fitness
2.2 Selections and Variability
2.3 Selection and Mating
3. Systems
4. Migration
5. Genetic Drift
3
cces2015
D. Race and Species Formation
1. The Concept of Races
2. The Concept of Species
2.1 Reproductive Isolating Mechanisms
2.2 Rapid Speciation
ASSORTIVE MATING AND GENE FREQUENCY CHANGES (POPULATION GENETICS)316116
This slide briefly the explanation of random mating as deviation from the Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium and also the changes in gene frequency as a result of violation of Hardy-Weinberg assumptions on gene frequency
This document discusses factors that affect genetic variation and change in populations, including evolution, natural selection, mutations, migration, and genetic drift. It provides details on each factor and how they influence allele frequencies in a gene pool over multiple generations, leading to evolution and potentially new species. Examples are given to illustrate concepts like founder effects and bottleneck effects on small populations.
The document provides guidance on writing a reflective essay. It begins with introductory activities to assess the reader's existing knowledge of reflective essays. It then provides more information on the key elements of a reflective essay, such as using personal experiences to demonstrate insights. The reader is expected to write their own reflective essay that will be graded based on criteria like focus, content, unity, and language usage. The overarching question introduced is "How are preferences, feelings, and insights communicated in a reflective essay?" to guide the reader in understanding the requirements of this essay type.
The document provides an overview of genetics and inheritance. Some key points:
1) Genetics describes how traits are passed from parents to offspring through genes located on chromosomes. Genes contain DNA instructions that determine traits.
2) An individual inherits half their chromosomes and genes from each parent. These genes may be dominant or recessive.
3) Gregor Mendel's experiments with pea plants in the 1800s established the basic principles of heredity and inheritance through dominant and recessive alleles.
4) Punnett squares can predict the probability of offspring inheriting different traits based on the parents' genotypes. Mendel demonstrated dominant and recessive inheritance through his pea plant experiments.
This document discusses several genetic elements and processes in bacteria, including:
1) Genetic elements like plasmids that can encode traits like antibiotic resistance and be transferred between bacteria.
2) Mechanisms of genetic variation like mutation, genetic recombination through conjugation, transduction by bacteriophages, and transposition of mobile genetic elements.
3) The processes of replication, transcription, and translation that underlie gene expression and flow of genetic information.
This document provides an overview of a guest lecture on molecular genetics and population genetics. The lecture aims to review Mendelian genetics and its relationship to population genetics. It will introduce the field of population genetics and its significance. The lecturer, Hasan Alhaddad, will provide background on his education and research experience. He will review theories of inheritance pre-Mendel, Mendel's experiments with pea plants, evolution by natural selection, and how population genetics integrates genetics and evolution.
DepEd k12 English 7 fourth quarter module 1Rachel Iglesia
This document provides an overview of Module 1 of an English course on essays. It outlines several introductory activities for students to complete that assess their existing knowledge of basic essay elements and features. These include a diagnostic test on essay concepts, exercises exploring key terms like ethos, logos and pathos, and identifying themes of Philippine essays. The final activity indicates that students will be expected to produce meaningful journal entries by the end of the module based on the essential question "How can journal entries be meaningful?".
A cline is a scale that shows a gradual change from one extreme to another across a range of similar items. For example, a cline could map modal verbs of probability from 100% sure to 100% not sure. Clines can help learners record information and help teachers check concepts. However, a learner's ability to use a cline does not mean they can use the language in real contexts.
Polysemous expressions are words or phrases that have multiple related meanings. They differ from homonyms, where the multiple meanings are unrelated. Newspaper and wood are examples of polysemous expressions, as newspaper can refer to the company, physical paper, or edited work, and wood can refer to tree material or a forested area. In contrast, a homonym is a word that shares spelling and pronunciation with another word but has an unrelated meaning, like bow as a gesture of respect or a weapon.
The document discusses legal and illegal migration. It defines legal migration as migration with formal permission, while illegal migration is defined as entering a country without formal permission, such as illegal aliens or boat people. Some reasons for illegal migration include overpopulation, poverty, trade liberalization, and economics/labor market factors. Effects of illegal migration include rising unemployment, tax reductions, increased crime rates, and threats to traditional culture from different cultures. Proposed solutions include policy changes and repatriation programs.
DepEd k12 English 7 fourth quarter module 4Rachel Iglesia
This folktale teaches about the importance of honesty between friends. A crow and sparrow make a bet to see who can eat the most peppers, but the crow cheats by hiding peppers under the mat without the sparrow seeing. When the crow claims victory and says he will eat the sparrow according to their bet, the sparrow insists the crow first wash his beak since crows eat nasty things. This leads the crow on a futile quest to get water, make a pot, and dig clay, exposing the crow's dishonest nature at each attempt. Ultimately, the greedy crow is burned to ashes when fire is placed on his back, while the honest sparrow lives to a ripe old age.
This document provides an outline and content for a lecture on the genetic basis of evolution. The key points covered include:
- Genetic drift and natural selection both influence evolution but selection does not explain everything, as the "pan-selectionist" view suggests.
- Genetic drift, the random changes in allele frequencies between generations due to chance events, is an important evolutionary process that occurs in all populations. It accounts for genetic differences between individuals, populations, and species.
- Other topics that will be covered include defining terms like genes, loci, alleles, genotypes and phenotypes, and exploring the concepts of genetic drift and natural selection in more detail. The goal is to move beyond a "just-so"
Mechanisms of Evolution: Population Selection and ChangePaulVMcDowell
The document discusses several key mechanisms of evolution:
1. Mutations introduce new genetic variations within populations.
2. Natural selection leads to changes in populations over generations as certain traits increase chances of survival and reproduction.
3. Gene flow spreads variations between populations through migration and interbreeding.
4. Genetic drift causes random fluctuations in allele frequencies that can accumulate over time, especially in small, isolated populations.
This document provides information about genetic variation and evolution. It discusses how genetic variation arises from mutations and gene shuffling during sexual reproduction. It also describes how natural selection and genetic drift can change allele frequencies in a population over generations, resulting in evolution. Key factors that can lead to the formation of new species like geographic isolation and reproductive isolation are also summarized. Studies on Darwin's finches provide evidence of natural selection shaping beak traits in response to environmental pressures like food availability.
Evolution on how Charles Darwin the father of evolution explained the different types of mechanisms of evolution these are by natural selection, genetic drift, gene flow and many more
This document provides an outline for a lecture on the genetic basis of evolution. It begins with introducing key terms like gene, locus, allele, genotype, and phenotype. It then discusses genetic drift and how drift is influenced by population size. Selection is also introduced and defined as a process where individuals with different genotypes have different fitnesses. The document emphasizes that both genetic drift and selection influence evolution, and neither process should be overemphasized. It aims to move people away from only considering selection (pan-selectionism) and highlights the importance of genetic drift.
This document provides an overview of lectures for Week 6 on the genetic basis of evolution. The lectures will cover general introductions, defining key terms, genetic drift, and natural selection. Students are advised to read additional material on evolution. The lectures aim to move students away from overly simplistic "pan-selectionist" views and help them understand how genetic drift and natural selection both shape evolution. Genetic drift, the random changes in allele frequencies due to chance events in small populations, is a major factor in evolution and occurs in all populations.
The document discusses several ways that the theory of evolution continues to be shaped, including:
1) Scientists now recognize that natural selection is not the only mechanism of evolution, with genetic drift, gene flow, mutation, and non-random mating also influencing changes within populations over time.
2) Two theories for the rate of speciation discussed are gradualism, where evolution proceeds in small gradual steps, and punctuated equilibrium, where species diverge rapidly during sporadic periods of genetic change.
3) Various patterns of evolution are examined, including adaptive radiation, coevolution, convergent evolution, and factors that can influence speciation like genetic isolation and the formation of new habitats.
This document provides information about evolution including:
- Natural selection causes evolution by favoring traits that increase survival and reproduction.
- Domestic plants like cabbage, broccoli and kale evolved from a common wild ancestor through artificial selection on different traits.
- There is direct evidence for evolution from observations of antibiotic resistant bacteria and other examples of adaptive evolution.
- Classification systems reflect evolutionary relationships as organisms with shared ancestry have similar characteristics.
- Homologous structures and vestigial traits provide evidence that organisms share a common ancestor.
- Transition fossils provide evidence of gradual evolution from one form to another over generations.
Population genetics is the study of genetic variation within populations. A population shares a gene pool containing all alleles of individuals. Different species that interbreed often produce sterile offspring. Microevolution occurs through changes in a population's gene pool over time due to processes like natural selection and genetic drift. The modern synthesis theory recognizes that genes are responsible for inheritance and that populations, not individuals, evolve through natural selection and genetic drift.
This chapter discusses the evolution of populations through microevolution and population genetics. It introduces key concepts like allele frequencies, the Hardy-Weinberg principle of equilibrium, and evolutionary forces such as natural selection, genetic drift, and gene flow that can influence a population's allele frequencies over time. The chapter also covers types of selection like stabilizing selection, directional selection, and frequency-dependent selection, as well as sexual selection and its role in sexual dimorphism.
This document summarizes several mechanisms of evolution including natural selection, genetic drift, mutation, gene flow, artificial selection, sexual selection, and macroevolution patterns like adaptive radiation and convergent evolution. Natural selection leads to adaptations that increase fitness while genetic drift, mutation, and gene flow cause random changes in allele frequencies. Recombination generates genetic variation and macroevolution transforms life over long time periods through mass extinctions and diversification.
Population Genetics_Dr Jagadisha TV.pptxJagadishaTV
1. Population genetics is the quantitative study of genetic variation in populations and how gene frequencies change over time.
2. Genetic variation results in alleles, which are alternate forms of genes that arise from mutations or polymorphisms.
3. Hardy-Weinberg law states that allele and genotype frequencies will remain constant in a population under ideal conditions such as large population size, random mating, and no evolutionary influences.
4. Factors like gene flow, genetic drift, non-random mating, and selection can disrupt Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium by changing allele frequencies between generations.
The document defines a gene pool as the collection of all genes in a population. It discusses how a large gene pool indicates greater genetic diversity and robustness, while a small pool risks reduced fitness and extinction. The document also describes gene pools in crop breeding, noting primary and secondary gene pools, and gives gene pool centres as areas where important crops originated.
Population genetics is the study of the distribution and change in frequency of alleles within populations. It examines how processes like natural selection, genetic drift, gene flow, and mutation cause evolution in a population over time. The key concepts are:
1) Hardy-Weinberg law states that allele and genotype frequencies remain constant in a population with no evolutionary influences.
2) Variation within populations arises through migration, recombination, mutation, and gene flow.
3) Gene pools are sets of genes found in related species that can be used in crop breeding. They are divided into primary, secondary, and tertiary pools based on ease of gene transfer.
Natural selection can act at different levels of biological organization beyond just the individual organism. It can favor cell lineages that reproduce more within an individual, as seen in cancer. It can also favor species that are more likely to speciate into new descendant species over long periods of time. The key requirements for natural selection to operate are variation, differential reproduction/survival, and heredity of traits. Examples are given of how selection can potentially work at the cellular level within the liver and at the species level over millions of years. Adaptive radiations, where a single ancestral species rapidly diversifies into many new species exploiting different ecological niches, are also discussed. Factors that can trigger these include ecological opportunities like colonizing empty islands
This document discusses recurrent selection, which is a breeding method used to improve cross-pollinated crops. It involves selecting single plants based on their phenotypes over multiple generations of selfing and intermating. There are different types of recurrent selection including simple recurrent selection, recurrent selection for general combining ability, and reciprocal recurrent selection. The document also discusses heterosis, inbreeding depression, hybrids, and methods for producing hybrid crops.
Microevolution refers to changes in allele frequencies in a population over time. Genetic variation arises through mutations and sexual reproduction. Natural selection, genetic drift, and gene flow can alter allele frequencies in populations. The founder effect is a type of genetic drift that can occur when a small group migrates and founds a new population, losing some genetic variation present in the original population. For example, certain genetic disorders are more common in Jewish and Amish communities due to the founder effect occurring in their small ancestral populations. [END SUMMARY]
This document discusses variation and evolution. It explains that variation exists between individuals and can be continuous or discontinuous. Variation can be influenced by genes, environment, or both. Evolution occurs as allele frequencies change over generations through natural selection and genetic drift. Speciation may occur when reproductive isolation develops between populations.
The document discusses genetic drift and inbreeding in the Amish population. It provides three key points:
1) The Amish population originated from around 400 founders and has since expanded, making it a valuable population for genetic studies due to excellent records and a restricted gene pool. This small founder population size has led to significant genetic drift.
2) Several disadvantageous alleles have drifted to high frequencies in the Amish despite being selected against, demonstrating that genetic drift affects all loci.
3) Inbreeding is defined as non-random mating between relatives, increasing identity by descent; however, the Amish avoid close cousin marriages, resulting in less inbreeding than expected from random mating.
Similar to Evolution lectures15&16 compatibility (20)
4. Lecture Outline
1) Types of Selection
2) Gene Flow
3) Allele Frequency Clines and the Formation of
Hybrid Zones
5. Darwin on Selection
In 1859 Darwin rocked the foundations of modern science
with the publication of his seminal work “On the Origin of
Species by Means of Natural Selection”
“When on board H.M.S. “Beagle”,
as a naturalist, I was much struck
with certain facts in the distribution
of the inhabitants of South America,
and in the geological relations of the
present to the past inhabitants of
that continent. These facts seemed to
me to throw some light on the origin
of species – that mystery of mysteries,
as it has been called by one of our Sold for £103,250 in 2009
greatest philosophers.”
6. Darwin on Selection
Darwin looked at selection, both artificially and in the wild,
and concluded that it could lead to systematic changes over
long timescales.
“That most skillful breeder, Sir John
Sebright, used to say, with respect to
pigeons, that ‘he would produce any given
feather in three years, but it would take him
six years to obtain a head and beak’”
“I can see no good reason to doubt that
female birds, be selecting, during thousands of
generations, the most melodious or beautiful
males, according to their standard of beauty,
might produce a marked effect.”
7. Darwin on Selection
Darwin was unaware of Gregor
Mendel’s work on heredity, and as
such many of the details of Darwin’s
theory were wrong (see
“Pangenesis”). However, the central
principles of evolution by natural
selection hold
true to this day.
We can use our rigorous notation
from earlier lectures to obtain a
more up-to-date perspective on
selection.
8. Darwin on Selection
Selection occurs at the level of
the…
Allele Population
Gene
Phenotype
Locus
Nucleotide
But genes can relate to phenotypes in various
different ways…
9. Types of Selection
If an allele is dominant then the heterozygote has the same phenotype as
the homozygote.
A is dominant
If an allele is recessive then the heterozygote has the same phenotype as
the other homozygote.
A is recessive
10. Types of Selection
If A is dominant then the heterozygote has the same fitness as the
homozygote
wAA = 1 wAB = 1 wBB = 0.8
If A is recessive then the heterozygote has the same fitness as the other
homozygote
wAA = 1 wAB = 0.8 wBB = 0.8
11. Types of Selection
Recall the picture of drift + selection from earlier lectures…
Don’t be seduced by the smoothness of these lines – drift is still occurring
in the background!
13. Types of Selection
When A is at high frequency B is rare, and
therefore B is most often present in
heterozygotes.
From a fitness point of view there is
nothing to differentiate AA from AB
individuals, and so there is very little
phenotypic variation for selection to
operate on.
This is the same reason it is difficult to
eliminate deleterious recessive alleles
from a population, for example in Ellis-
van Creveld syndrome.
15. Types of Selection
Even when the A allele is at high
frequency the B allele is always ‘visible’
From a fitness point of view selection is
always acting to drive out B alleles
Dominant disorders can be driven out of
a population more easily than recessive
disorders, and hence there are less of
them around.
Marfan syndrome
16. Types of Selection
Other types of selection include heterozygote advantage
(overdominance)…
wAA = 0.8 wAB = 1 wBB = 0.8
and heterozygote disadvantage (underdominance)…
wAA = 1 wAB = 0.8 wBB =1
18. Types of Selection
There is a balance between having enough A alleles and having
too many!
A alleles rare: mostly A alleles common:
present in mostly present in
heterozygotes homozygotes
Selection for A Selection against A
The equilibrium frequency is the
point at which these forces balance out
19. Types of Selection
A classic example of heterozygote advantage is sickle-cell anemia.
– The sickle-cell allele (HbS) is autosomal recessive; meaning only
homozygotes are affected
– However, HbS also confers partial resistance to malaria, meaning
in certain parts of the world the heterozygote has the highest
fitness
Historical distribution of malaria and HbS allele
22. Types of Selection
One cause of heterozygote disadvantage is the formation of
hybrids, but more on this later…
Questions?
23. Lecture Outline
1) Types of Selection
2) Gene Flow
3) Allele Frequency Clines and the Formation of
Hybrid Zones
24. Gene Flow
So far we have only looked at the effects of drift and selection within a single
panmictic population. To understand how evolution works across different
populations we must talk in terms of “gene flow”.
Gene flow describes the processes by which individuals genes (or
alleles) move from one population to another.
• Gene flow can be one-
directional or multi-directional
• Movement of individuals does
not necessarily imply movement
of genes!
25. Gene Flow
In the absence of gene flow populations tend to become genetically
differentiated from one another.
26. Gene Flow
In the absence of gene flow populations tend to become genetically
differentiated from one another.
27. Gene Flow
In the absence of gene flow populations tend to become genetically
differentiated from one another.
This is mainly visible in neutral loci, which are evolving under drift alone.
28. Gene Flow
Gene flow homogenises populations, and can recover lost genetic variation
29. Gene Flow
Many populations are isolated, experiencing limited or zero gene
flow. In this case we expect drift to lead to differentiation between
populations.
Smaller numbers of differences are expected between close branches,
larger differences between more distant branches
30. Gene Flow
• Branching patterns can also
be constrained by geographic
boundaries within species. In
this case, as before, drift leads
to differentiation between
distinct populations.
• Patterns reflect the consequences of the
spread of populations since the last ice age
(ending 10,000 years ago), at the height of
which most of Europe was inhospitable for
the species that currently inhabit it.
• Populations were restricted to refugia – a
relic population of a once more widespread
species
31. Lecture Outline
1) Types of Selection
2) Gene Flow
3) Allele Frequency Clines and the Formation of
Hybrid Zones
32. Allele Frequency Clines
• Biston betularia (the Peppered
Moth) exists in melanic and
wild-type phenotypes
• As the melanic (A) allele is
dominant: both AA and AB
individuals express the black
colouration – hence wAA = wAB
• Industrial melanism
hypothesis: selection in favour
of the melanic form post
industrial revolution
34. Allele Frequency Clines
Some evidence to support this: Mark recapture experiments found
that the fitness of the melanic morph is higher in areas where they
are prevalent.
35. Allele Frequency Clines
• The industrial revolution did not lead to
the blackening of all trees. The Delamere
Forest near Manchester and Liverpool is
relatively unaffected but the peppered
moths are predominantly melanic there.
• On the other hand the Gonodontis bidentata
(Scalloped Hazel), which are also melanic
right in the heart of the major industrial
centres, are predominantly non-melanic
in Delamere forest.
• The difference between the two species
may be explained by their dispersal rates.
HOW?
41. Hybrid Zones
Gene flow never gets far into the other population due to
the reduced fitness of heterozygotes
42. A Complete(ish) Picture
We can start to build up a picture of what
evolution really looks like…
• First and foremost there is genetic drift
• There may also be some selection
acting
• Gene flow homogenises allele
frequencies between populations
• Mutation introduces new
genetic variation into
populations that may have lost
it due to drift or selection
• There are still many processes
missing from this picture!