Evidence
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This document discusses different types of evidence used in law, including direct evidence like witness testimony, and physical evidence like tangible objects collected from crime scenes. It explains that evidence can prove a crime was committed, corroborate statements, and help reconstruct events. Both direct and circumstantial evidence can establish facts, but circumstantial evidence implies events rather than directly proving them. The credibility of expert witnesses and admissibility of evidence is determined based on standards like Frye and Daubert.
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The document discusses different types of evidence used in legal cases, including testimonial evidence from eyewitnesses and physical evidence found at crime scenes. It notes that eyewitness testimony can be unreliable due to factors like stress, biases, and memory errors over time. Physical evidence is considered more reliable and can include trace evidence like fibers, fingerprints, DNA, tool marks, firearms evidence, and more. The document emphasizes how physical evidence can be analyzed and compared to help determine its origin and link it to people or places associated with a crime.
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The goal of a crime scene investigation is to recognize, document, and collect evidence. Evidence can be direct, like eyewitness accounts, or circumstantial. Physical evidence includes fingerprints, DNA, and trace evidence. Following Locard's exchange principle, investigators look for transfers between people and objects. Proper documentation through photography, sketching, and note taking is important. Evidence must be properly packaged and maintained in the chain of custody to be useful in reconstructing the crime.
Types of Evidence
Oral, documentary, circumstantial, direct, real, primary, secondary, hearsay, judicial, and non-judicial evidence are some of the main types of evidence discussed in the document. Oral evidence refers to witness testimony, documentary evidence includes presented documents, and circumstantial evidence allows inferences to be made. Direct evidence involves eyewitnesses while real evidence consists of physical objects. Primary evidence is original documents and secondary evidence is presented in the absence of primary. Hearsay is reported but not directly witnessed, and judicial versus non-judicial refers to evidence presented inside or outside of court.
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Oral, documentary, circumstantial, direct, real, primary, secondary, hearsay, judicial, and non-judicial evidence are some of the main types of evidence discussed in the document. Oral evidence refers to witness testimony, documentary evidence includes presented documents, and circumstantial evidence allows inferences to be made. Direct evidence involves eyewitnesses while real evidence consists of physical objects. Primary evidence is original documents and secondary evidence is presented in the absence of primary. Hearsay is reported but not directly witnessed, and judicial versus non-judicial refers to evidence presented inside or outside of court.
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It is the beginning point for obtaining evidence which will be used by the crime scene investigator and the forensic expert
A thorough investigation of the crime scene must be completed
Crime scene is basically a scene of occurrence of crime. It is a place where a particular crime has been committed.
It is starting point for the investigator.
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Digital emerging trends in computer engineering Evidences.pptx
This document discusses digital evidence and its characteristics. Digital evidence refers to any probative information stored or transmitted in a digital form that can be presented in a court case. It includes various forms like text messages, emails, pictures, videos, internet searches, and information stored on devices. For digital evidence to be admissible, it must be authenticated and the chain of custody maintained to show it has not been contaminated. Maintaining the chain of custody is important to preserve the integrity of the evidence.
Digital emerging trends in computer engineering Evidences.pptx
This document discusses digital evidence and its characteristics. Digital evidence refers to any probative information stored or transmitted in a digital form that can be presented in a court case. It includes various forms like text messages, emails, pictures, videos, internet searches, and information stored on devices. For digital evidence to be admissible, it must be authenticated and the chain of custody maintained to show it has not been contaminated. Maintaining the chain of custody is important to preserve the integrity of the evidence.
Chapter8
Here are the six basic steps of an appeal:
1. Notice of Appeal - The losing party files a notice of appeal with the trial court clerk.
2. Record on Appeal - The clerk prepares the record of documents and transcripts from the trial for the appeals court.
3. Appellant's Brief - The appellant files a brief explaining any errors made in the trial court.
4. Appellee's Brief - The appellee, or opposing party, files a brief responding to the appellant's claimed errors.
5. Oral Argument - Each side may present oral arguments to a panel of appeals judges.
6. Decision - The appeals court issues a written decision either upholding or overturning the lower court's
Gathering and managing evidence
This document discusses the importance of properly gathering, managing, and preserving evidence. It defines evidence as any material that can prove or disprove a matter under investigation. Evidence includes direct evidence like testimony, real evidence, documents, photos/videos, and expert testimony. Statements should be clear, concise, relevant, accurate, and attributable. Exhibits must be correctly labeled and their chain of custody documented to show they have not been tampered with. The integrity of evidence is critical, so it must be handled as little as possible.
Chapter4
This document discusses reasons for believing or doubting claims and the reliability of different sources of information. It notes that claims should be doubted if they conflict with other accepted claims or background information. Personal experience may not be reliable due to factors like impairment, expectation, and innumeracy. Expert opinions are only credible sources if the experts agree and are speaking to their area of expertise. News reports should be evaluated critically by considering biases and checking alternate sources. Advertising claims often use persuasive but misleading tactics and should generally be viewed skeptically.
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Fingerprints and ridge characteristics
Fingerprints are formed between the third and fourth month of fetal development when sweat glands in the skin link together to form unique ridge patterns. The basal layer of skin grows at a different rate than the layers above and below it, causing it to fold into intricate ridge shapes. Materials secreted from sweat pores, like oils and water, are left behind on surfaces when fingerprints are transferred. There are three types of fingerprints found at crime scenes: latent prints that require processing to see, patent prints that are visible, and plastic prints that make three-dimensional impressions. Fingerprints are analyzed by their ridge characteristics like endings, forks, islands, dots and used by AFIS to identify matches on file.
Dna in forensics
DNA contains genetic information that can be used to identify individuals. DNA profiling isolates variable regions of DNA to create unique fingerprints. Samples are collected, amplified through PCR, separated via electrophoresis, and compared to reference profiles to identify matches or eliminate suspects. DNA analysis is a highly accurate forensic technique used to solve crimes and identify remains.
Scientific method forensics
This document discusses the scientific method as applied to forensics. It notes that forensics involves both crime scene investigators who collect evidence and laboratory technicians who analyze it. The scientific method involves making observations, forming a hypothesis, performing experiments, developing a theory or law, and presenting conclusions. In forensics, this process includes collecting evidence at a crime scene, forming a hypothesis about what occurred, conducting analyses in the lab, revising the hypothesis based on results, and presenting the case in court. Eyewitness accounts are often unreliable due to human perception and biases. Lab write-ups for this class should include title, background, purpose, hypothesis, procedure, data collection, data presentation, and conclusion.
Practicing sceintific method
This document outlines the steps of the scientific method, including developing a hypothesis, identifying variables, designing a controlled experiment with procedures, collecting and analyzing quantitative data, and drawing conclusions. It provides examples of key components like the background, variables, experimental design, data collection, and conclusion. The scientific method guides experiments to test hypotheses and further scientific understanding.
Fingerprint patterns
There are three main fingerprint patterns: loops, whorls, and arches. Loops make up 60-65% of patterns and contain one delta. Whorls consist of 30-35% of patterns and contain two or more deltas. Arches are the rarest at up to 5% and contain no deltas. Within these categories there are also sub-patterns like double loops, central loops, tented arches, and accidental patterns. The document instructs to label fingerprints from hands based on their pattern type and identify three points within right hand prints.
Feeding relationships
Organisms in an ecosystem are interconnected through feeding relationships. Producers, such as plants and algae, can create their own food through photosynthesis, obtaining energy from the sun and nutrients from their environment. Consumers, or heterotrophs, obtain food by eating other organisms and pass sunlight energy through the food chain. There are different levels of consumers, including primary, secondary, and tertiary. Decomposers help release nutrients by breaking down waste and dead organisms, recycling carbon, nitrogen, and phosphorus back into the ecosystem.
Homeostasis
1. Homeostasis is the maintenance and regulation of the internal environment within the body through feedback mechanisms that keep conditions within a narrow range.
2. Feedback mechanisms can be negative, which counteracts changes away from normal conditions, or positive, which increases the rate of change away from normal. Negative feedback is more common in the body.
3. When homeostasis is disrupted in the short term by things like exercise or illness, the body uses feedback mechanisms to return conditions to normal; however, long term disruptions like diabetes can cause lasting damage throughout the body if not regulated.
Blood typing
This document discusses blood typing and composition. It explains that blood is made up of plasma, red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets. The two major blood type systems are A, B, AB, and O, and Rh+ and Rh-. Blood types vary in distribution between populations, with O+ being the most common in the USA at 36.55% of the population. Blood typing is determined by antigens on red blood cells and the presence or absence of agglutination reactions between blood cells and specific anti-A and anti-B antibodies.
Speciation
The document discusses several types of speciation including genetic isolation, reproductive isolation, behavioral isolation, geographic isolation, temporal isolation, convergent evolution, divergent evolution, and coevolution. Genetic isolation occurs when genetic transfer ceases between populations. Reproductive isolation is caused when members of different populations can no longer produce offspring. Behavioral isolation is caused by differences in courtship behaviors preventing reproduction. Geographic isolation is due to physical barriers separating populations. Temporal isolation is due to differences in reproductive/courtship timing between populations. Convergent and divergent evolution describe how closely and distantly related species respectively evolve over time in response to their environments. Coevolution describes how two species evolve in response to each other.
Microevolution
This document discusses microevolution and the processes that cause evolution at the population level, including mutation, gene flow, genetic drift, non-random mating, and natural selection. It provides examples of each, such as Darwin's finches to illustrate natural selection and cheetahs to demonstrate the bottleneck effect of genetic drift. The document seeks to explain how populations evolve over time through changes in allele frequencies from these various evolutionary forces.
Impression evidence
Impression evidence refers to objects or materials that retain characteristics of other objects through direct contact. Examples include shoeprints, tire tracks, tool marks, and bite marks. Investigators analyze unique characteristics in impressions to link evidence found at crime scenes to objects associated with suspects. Impression evidence can be collected using various methods like photography, casting, electrostatic dusting, and gel lifting to preserve dimensional characteristics for analysis.
Responsibilities at the crime scene
Crime scene processing involves three key steps: (1) collecting physical evidence by experts to aid the investigation, (2) securing the crime scene by the first responding officer who isolates the area and excludes unauthorized access, (3) evaluating the crime scene by the lead investigator who develops an examination strategy.
Fingerprint patterns
Fingerprint patterns can be categorized into three main types: loops, whorls, and arches. Loops comprise 60-65% of patterns and contain a single delta, whorls make up 30-35% and contain two or more deltas, and arches are the rarest at 5% as they contain no deltas. Within each category are subtypes determined by specific characteristics like direction of the loop, number and placement of deltas, or a mix of pattern features. The number and location of deltas is key to determining which main category a given fingerprint pattern falls under.
Fingerprint development and Ridge Characteristics
Fingerprints are formed during fetal development when sweat glands form in the skin and link together to form unique ridges. Materials secreted from the skin pores, including water, oils, and residues from touched objects, are collected in the ridges and can be transferred to leave fingerprints. There are three types of fingerprints: latent (invisible), patent (visible), and plastic (three-dimensional impressions). Latent prints require chemical processing while patent prints are photographed and lifted. Fingerprints are now digitally scanned and analyzed based on ridge characteristics like endings, forks, dots, and spurs, and compared using the Automated Fingerprint Identification System database.
Searching the crime scene
A crime scene must be searched thoroughly and systematically to avoid accusations of negligence. The search method used depends on the size and location of the scene. Common search patterns include spiral, grid, line, and quadrant searches. Evidence must be carefully collected and packaged to prevent changes and contamination. Proper documentation of the chain of custody is also crucial.
Scientific method
The document discusses the scientific method as it applies to forensics. It explains that forensics involves both crime scene investigators who collect and interpret evidence at crime scenes, and laboratory technicians who analyze the evidence using techniques from various scientific fields like chemistry, biology, and physics. The scientific method is used to answer questions about evidence - observations are made, hypotheses are formed and experiments are conducted, which can lead to theories or modifications of hypotheses based on the experimental results and new evidence. Lab write-ups in forensics follow the scientific method and provide thorough documentation of procedures, data, analysis, and conclusions.
Responsibilities at the crime scene
Physical evidence found at crime scenes can be used to establish that a crime occurred and link the crime to victims or perpetrators. For evidence to be effective, it must be recognized and selectively collected at the crime scene by experts, and then analyzed. Securing and isolating the crime scene is the first officer's responsibility to prevent unauthorized access and contamination according to Locard's exchange principle. The lead investigator then evaluates the scene and develops a strategy for thorough examination and documentation.
Recording a crime scene
Recording a crime scene accurately is vital for presenting evidence in court. There are several methods for documenting a scene, including photography, computer drafts, and sketches. Photographs should show the entire scene and evidence in its original, unaltered state before anything is moved or collected. All details, measurements, and relative positions must be fully captured to establish the facts of the case.
Deductive reasoning and logic
Crime scene analysis involves making observations that lead to questions, then using logic and deductive reasoning to reach conclusions. Deductive reasoning assembles evidence to logically deduce an explanation, like concluding a body was moved based on limited blood at the scene. Sound reasoning considers all factors to avoid false conclusions, while suspicious yet objective analysis helps solve crimes.
Structure and function of cell membrane
The cell membrane is made of a phospholipid bilayer that is selectively permeable. It controls what enters and leaves the cell. The fluid mosaic model describes the cell membrane as being made up of phospholipids, proteins, and cholesterol that move fluidly within the bilayer. The membrane contains transport proteins that allow substances to pass through, including ion channels, carrier proteins, receptor proteins, and enzymes. Carrier proteins can facilitate diffusion or active transport of molecules in or out of the cell.
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Evidence
- 1. Evidence
- 2. What is evidence? • In the law evidence can be broken down into two categories… – Direct evidence – Physical evidence
- 3. Direct evidence • Direct evidence is made in the form of a statement made under oath, such as a witness pointing out a person that they believe committed a crime • We also call this testimonial evidence
- 4. Physical evidence • Physical evidence is any object or material that is relevant to a crime including small and large tangible objects, and/or smells and odors. • This evidence is collected by the CSI then processed by a lab technician
- 5. Why is it important? • Physical evidence can… – Prove a crime has been committed – Corroborate testimony – Link a suspect with a victim or crime scene – Establish the identity of associated persons – Allow reconstruction of events at a crime
- 6. • Evidence can also be broken down more by how much “weight” it carries in court proceedings.
- 7. Indirect evidence • Indirect evidence is evidence that does not prove a fact; it only establishes a hypothesis based on facts…most evidence falls into this category
- 8. Circumstantial evidence • Circumstantial evidence implies a fact or event…such as possession of narcotics • The greater the volume/amount of circumstantial evidence there is the more likely it is that it is factual (probability and statistics.
- 9. What is good evidence? • The rules of evidence define what evidence is admissible and what evidence is not
- 10. • Material evidence is all evidence that is relevant to a particular crime • Evidence that proves something in a case is what we call probative. • You want to convict someone then you better have material evidence that is probative
- 11. Inadmissible evidence • Hearsay is a form of evidence that is not permissible in court because the person was not under oath when the statement was made
- 12. Credibility • The expert witness is the person that is the expert in the field of science…they are the presenter of information in court • Credibility is established through credentials, background, and experience in the topic.
- 13. What makes it admissible? • There are two court rulings that have largely governed the admissibility of evidence in court – Frye vs. the United States – Daubert vs. Merrell Dow Pharmaceutical, Inc.
- 14. The Frye Standard • The Frye standard states that in order to be probative – Testimony must be given by an expert witness – The techniques used must have gained general acceptance within its own field
- 15. The Daubert Ruling • The Daubert ruling stated that the Frye standard was not an absolute prerequisite for admissibility in court, and that it was the judge that was responsible for determining validity • The Frye standard was to be used only as a guideline
- 16. Why did it change? • The Daubert ruling changed the previous Frye standard to help keep up with technological advances in the field. • The guideline is: – The technique or theory must be testable – The theory must be subject to peer review – Potential error, and rate of error must be stated – The techniques must follow a standard – Consideration of the widespread acceptance, or lack of, within the scientific community must be taken