Enzymes definitions, types & classificationJasmineJuliet
Enzyme - Introduction, Biocatalysts, Definition of enzymes, Types of enzymes, classification of enzyme, Nomenclature of enzymes, EC number, Types of enzymes with examples, and reaction.
Enzymes definitions, types & classificationJasmineJuliet
Enzyme - Introduction, Biocatalysts, Definition of enzymes, Types of enzymes, classification of enzyme, Nomenclature of enzymes, EC number, Types of enzymes with examples, and reaction.
Enzymes principles and applications Likhith KLIKHITHK1
Enzymes are biological catalysts (also known as biocatalysts) that speed up biochemical reactions in living organisms. They can also be extracted from cells and then used to catalyse a wide range of commercially important processes. For example, they have important roles in the production of sweetening agents and the modification of antibiotics, they are used in washing powders and various cleaning products, and they play a key role in analytical devices and assays that have clinical, forensic and environmental applications. The word ‘enzyme’ was first used by the German physiologist Wilhelm Kühne in 1878, when he was describing the ability of yeast to produce alcohol from sugars, and it is derived from the Greek words en (meaning ‘within’) and zume (meaning ‘yeast’).In the late nineteenth century and early twentieth century, significant advances were made in the extraction, characterization and commercial exploitation of many enzymes, but it was not until the 1920s that enzymes were crystallized, revealing that catalytic activity is associated with protein molecules. For the next 60 years or so it was believed that all enzymes were proteins, but in the 1980s it was found that some ribonucleic acid (RNA) molecules are also able to exert catalytic effects.These RNAs, which are called ribozymes, play an important role in gene expression. In the same decade, biochemists also developed the technology to generate antibodies that possess catalytic properties. These so-called ‘abzymes’ have significant potential both as novel industrial catalysts and in therapeutics. Notwithstanding these notable exceptions, much of classical enzymology, and the remainder of this essay, is focused on the proteins that possess catalytic activity.As catalysts, enzymes are only required in very low concentrations, and they speed up reactions without themselves being consumed during the reaction.
This ppt describes the overview of enzyme regulation and Allosterism. Presented since October 23,2017GC at Addis Ababa University, School of Medicine, Department of medical biochemistry.
Here I have tried to cover the following terms--Enzymes, Definition of enzymes, properties of enzymes, substrates, cofactors, coenzymes, functions of cofactors and coenzmes, water soluble vitamins as coenzymes, definition of active site, features of active site, unit of enzyme
OBJECTIVE
The objective of this assignment is
• To have a detailed overview of Allosteric Enzymes
• To understand the mechanism and kinetics of Allosteric Enzyme
• To understand the importance of allosteric enzyme
Enzymes principles and applications Likhith KLIKHITHK1
Enzymes are biological catalysts (also known as biocatalysts) that speed up biochemical reactions in living organisms. They can also be extracted from cells and then used to catalyse a wide range of commercially important processes. For example, they have important roles in the production of sweetening agents and the modification of antibiotics, they are used in washing powders and various cleaning products, and they play a key role in analytical devices and assays that have clinical, forensic and environmental applications. The word ‘enzyme’ was first used by the German physiologist Wilhelm Kühne in 1878, when he was describing the ability of yeast to produce alcohol from sugars, and it is derived from the Greek words en (meaning ‘within’) and zume (meaning ‘yeast’).In the late nineteenth century and early twentieth century, significant advances were made in the extraction, characterization and commercial exploitation of many enzymes, but it was not until the 1920s that enzymes were crystallized, revealing that catalytic activity is associated with protein molecules. For the next 60 years or so it was believed that all enzymes were proteins, but in the 1980s it was found that some ribonucleic acid (RNA) molecules are also able to exert catalytic effects.These RNAs, which are called ribozymes, play an important role in gene expression. In the same decade, biochemists also developed the technology to generate antibodies that possess catalytic properties. These so-called ‘abzymes’ have significant potential both as novel industrial catalysts and in therapeutics. Notwithstanding these notable exceptions, much of classical enzymology, and the remainder of this essay, is focused on the proteins that possess catalytic activity.As catalysts, enzymes are only required in very low concentrations, and they speed up reactions without themselves being consumed during the reaction.
This ppt describes the overview of enzyme regulation and Allosterism. Presented since October 23,2017GC at Addis Ababa University, School of Medicine, Department of medical biochemistry.
Here I have tried to cover the following terms--Enzymes, Definition of enzymes, properties of enzymes, substrates, cofactors, coenzymes, functions of cofactors and coenzmes, water soluble vitamins as coenzymes, definition of active site, features of active site, unit of enzyme
OBJECTIVE
The objective of this assignment is
• To have a detailed overview of Allosteric Enzymes
• To understand the mechanism and kinetics of Allosteric Enzyme
• To understand the importance of allosteric enzyme
Enzymes mechanism of action, their specificity types, active center structure and action, inhibitor types, fisher and Koshlend theory are presented. Enzymes classification, a new class of enzymes discovered recently, detailed explanation of each class reaction types is presented as well
This power-point presentation will give a complete overview about enzymes, nomenclature of enzymes. Enzymes inhibition is also covered in this ppt. Along with some basin introduction to G- protein coupled receptors is also provided.
In this title include the the definition of the the enzymes, their naming , classification, inhibition, and regulation and clinical applications are briefly explained.
Unit 8 - Information and Communication Technology (Paper I).pdfThiyagu K
This slides describes the basic concepts of ICT, basics of Email, Emerging Technology and Digital Initiatives in Education. This presentations aligns with the UGC Paper I syllabus.
June 3, 2024 Anti-Semitism Letter Sent to MIT President Kornbluth and MIT Cor...Levi Shapiro
Letter from the Congress of the United States regarding Anti-Semitism sent June 3rd to MIT President Sally Kornbluth, MIT Corp Chair, Mark Gorenberg
Dear Dr. Kornbluth and Mr. Gorenberg,
The US House of Representatives is deeply concerned by ongoing and pervasive acts of antisemitic
harassment and intimidation at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT). Failing to act decisively to ensure a safe learning environment for all students would be a grave dereliction of your responsibilities as President of MIT and Chair of the MIT Corporation.
This Congress will not stand idly by and allow an environment hostile to Jewish students to persist. The House believes that your institution is in violation of Title VI of the Civil Rights Act, and the inability or
unwillingness to rectify this violation through action requires accountability.
Postsecondary education is a unique opportunity for students to learn and have their ideas and beliefs challenged. However, universities receiving hundreds of millions of federal funds annually have denied
students that opportunity and have been hijacked to become venues for the promotion of terrorism, antisemitic harassment and intimidation, unlawful encampments, and in some cases, assaults and riots.
The House of Representatives will not countenance the use of federal funds to indoctrinate students into hateful, antisemitic, anti-American supporters of terrorism. Investigations into campus antisemitism by the Committee on Education and the Workforce and the Committee on Ways and Means have been expanded into a Congress-wide probe across all relevant jurisdictions to address this national crisis. The undersigned Committees will conduct oversight into the use of federal funds at MIT and its learning environment under authorities granted to each Committee.
• The Committee on Education and the Workforce has been investigating your institution since December 7, 2023. The Committee has broad jurisdiction over postsecondary education, including its compliance with Title VI of the Civil Rights Act, campus safety concerns over disruptions to the learning environment, and the awarding of federal student aid under the Higher Education Act.
• The Committee on Oversight and Accountability is investigating the sources of funding and other support flowing to groups espousing pro-Hamas propaganda and engaged in antisemitic harassment and intimidation of students. The Committee on Oversight and Accountability is the principal oversight committee of the US House of Representatives and has broad authority to investigate “any matter” at “any time” under House Rule X.
• The Committee on Ways and Means has been investigating several universities since November 15, 2023, when the Committee held a hearing entitled From Ivory Towers to Dark Corners: Investigating the Nexus Between Antisemitism, Tax-Exempt Universities, and Terror Financing. The Committee followed the hearing with letters to those institutions on January 10, 202
How to Make a Field invisible in Odoo 17Celine George
It is possible to hide or invisible some fields in odoo. Commonly using “invisible” attribute in the field definition to invisible the fields. This slide will show how to make a field invisible in odoo 17.
Macroeconomics- Movie Location
This will be used as part of your Personal Professional Portfolio once graded.
Objective:
Prepare a presentation or a paper using research, basic comparative analysis, data organization and application of economic information. You will make an informed assessment of an economic climate outside of the United States to accomplish an entertainment industry objective.
2024.06.01 Introducing a competency framework for languag learning materials ...Sandy Millin
http://sandymillin.wordpress.com/iateflwebinar2024
Published classroom materials form the basis of syllabuses, drive teacher professional development, and have a potentially huge influence on learners, teachers and education systems. All teachers also create their own materials, whether a few sentences on a blackboard, a highly-structured fully-realised online course, or anything in between. Despite this, the knowledge and skills needed to create effective language learning materials are rarely part of teacher training, and are mostly learnt by trial and error.
Knowledge and skills frameworks, generally called competency frameworks, for ELT teachers, trainers and managers have existed for a few years now. However, until I created one for my MA dissertation, there wasn’t one drawing together what we need to know and do to be able to effectively produce language learning materials.
This webinar will introduce you to my framework, highlighting the key competencies I identified from my research. It will also show how anybody involved in language teaching (any language, not just English!), teacher training, managing schools or developing language learning materials can benefit from using the framework.
Introduction to AI for Nonprofits with Tapp NetworkTechSoup
Dive into the world of AI! Experts Jon Hill and Tareq Monaur will guide you through AI's role in enhancing nonprofit websites and basic marketing strategies, making it easy to understand and apply.
Read| The latest issue of The Challenger is here! We are thrilled to announce that our school paper has qualified for the NATIONAL SCHOOLS PRESS CONFERENCE (NSPC) 2024. Thank you for your unwavering support and trust. Dive into the stories that made us stand out!
Synthetic Fiber Construction in lab .pptxPavel ( NSTU)
Synthetic fiber production is a fascinating and complex field that blends chemistry, engineering, and environmental science. By understanding these aspects, students can gain a comprehensive view of synthetic fiber production, its impact on society and the environment, and the potential for future innovations. Synthetic fibers play a crucial role in modern society, impacting various aspects of daily life, industry, and the environment. ynthetic fibers are integral to modern life, offering a range of benefits from cost-effectiveness and versatility to innovative applications and performance characteristics. While they pose environmental challenges, ongoing research and development aim to create more sustainable and eco-friendly alternatives. Understanding the importance of synthetic fibers helps in appreciating their role in the economy, industry, and daily life, while also emphasizing the need for sustainable practices and innovation.
Embracing GenAI - A Strategic ImperativePeter Windle
Artificial Intelligence (AI) technologies such as Generative AI, Image Generators and Large Language Models have had a dramatic impact on teaching, learning and assessment over the past 18 months. The most immediate threat AI posed was to Academic Integrity with Higher Education Institutes (HEIs) focusing their efforts on combating the use of GenAI in assessment. Guidelines were developed for staff and students, policies put in place too. Innovative educators have forged paths in the use of Generative AI for teaching, learning and assessments leading to pockets of transformation springing up across HEIs, often with little or no top-down guidance, support or direction.
This Gasta posits a strategic approach to integrating AI into HEIs to prepare staff, students and the curriculum for an evolving world and workplace. We will highlight the advantages of working with these technologies beyond the realm of teaching, learning and assessment by considering prompt engineering skills, industry impact, curriculum changes, and the need for staff upskilling. In contrast, not engaging strategically with Generative AI poses risks, including falling behind peers, missed opportunities and failing to ensure our graduates remain employable. The rapid evolution of AI technologies necessitates a proactive and strategic approach if we are to remain relevant.
1. UNIT-5
Enzymes
Introduction, properties, nomenclature and IUB classification of
enzymes.
Enzyme kinetics (Michaelis plot, Line Weaver Burke plot)
Enzyme inhibitors with examples.
Regulation of enzymes: enzyme induction and repression,
allosteric enzymes regulation.
Therapeutic and diagnostic applications of enzymes and
isoenzymes.
Coenzymes –Structure and biochemical functions.
BY : Dr. Anjana Sharma,
Associate Professor,
MIET, Meerut
2. ENZYMES:
Enzymes are the biocatalysts that increase the rate
of reaction without itself undergoing any change in
the overall process.
Eg: aminotransferases, kinases.
***The functional enzyme is referred as
(holoenzyme) which is made up of protein part
(apoenzyme)
The co-enzymes are non-protein compound that is
necessary for the functioning of an enzyme. Eg:
NAD+ (Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide), CoA (
Coenzyme A).
1
3. ACTIVE SITE:
The active site or active centre of an enzyme , is an
area at which the substrate binds and participates in
catalysis. It has two sites:
1. Binding site: Substrate binds to active site.
2. Catalytic site: Which performs catalysis
2
4. The co-enzymes or cofactors are non-protein compound
that is necessary for the functioning of an enzyme. Eg:
NAD+ (Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide), CoA (
Coenzyme A).
3
5. CLASSIFICATION & NOMENCLATURE
(i) All known enzymes have been grouped into six major classes on the basis of
reaction type they catalyze,
(ii) Each class further sub-divided into subclasses and sub-subclasses,
(iii) Each enzyme is assigned two names i.e., recommended (trivial) name and
systematic name,
(iv) Each enzyme is identified by a unique four digit classification number.
For example, hexokinase is recommended name, its systematic name is glucose
phosphotransferase and its classification number in EC 2.7.1.1. Here, “EC” stands
for Enzyme commission,
the first number (2) stands for the major class,
the second number (7) stands for the sub class,
the third number (1) indicates sub-class and
the fourth number (1) denotes the serial number assigned in its sub-classes.
6. NOMENCLATURE OF THE ENZYMES:
I- INTRACELLULAR ENZYMES = NON-FUNCTIONAL
PLASMA ENZYMES
II-EXTRACELLULAR ENZYMES = FUNCTIONAL
PLASMA ENZYMES-DIGESTIVE ENZYMES
ENZYME NAME = SUBSTRATE + ASE
7.
8. FACTORS AFFECTING ENZYME ACTIVITY
1. Factor 1: Concentration of Enzyme
As the concentration of the enzyme is increased, the velocity of the reaction
proportionately increases. This property is used for determining the activities of
serum enzymes during the diagnosis of diseases.
10. FACTOR 3: EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE
The enzyme activity gradually lowers as the temperature rises more than the optimal
temperature until it reaches a certain temperature at which the enzyme activity stops
completely due to the change of its natural composition. the optimal temperature,
which ranges between 37 to 40C°.
11. FACTOR 4: EFFECT OF PH
Enzymes are protein substances that contain acidic carboxylic groups (COOH–) and
basic amino groups (NH2). So, the enzymes are affected by changing the pH value.
12. FACTOR 5: EFFECT OF ACTIVATORS
Some of the enzymes require certain inorganic
metallic cations, like
Mg2+, Mn2+, Zn2+, Ca2+, Co2+, Cu2+, Na+, K+ etc.,
for their optimum activity.
Rarely, anions are also needed for enzyme
activity, e.g. a chloride ion (CI–) for amylase.
17. ENZYME INHIBITION
An enzyme inhibition is a process by which any substance
binds with the enzyme and decreases the catalytic activity of
enzyme.
Reversible
Irreversible
Allosteric
Types of inhibition
Competitive inhibition
Non-Competitive inhibition
18.
19.
20.
21. ENZYME INDUCTION & REPRESSION:
Enzyme Induction: A process in which a molecule (e.g. a drug) induces (i.e. initiates
or enhances) the expression of an enzyme. An enzyme inducer is a type of drug
which binds to an enzyme and increases its metabolic activity. Example: lac operon
Examples of Enzyme Induction: The insulin hormone induces the synthesis of
glycogen synthetase, glucokinase, phosphofructokinase, and pyruvate kinase. All
these enzymes are involved in the utilization of glucose. Also, the hormone cortisol
induces the synthesis of various enzymes e.g. pyruvate carboxylase, tryptophan
oxygense, and tyrosine aminotransferase.
Enzyme repression: Effectors can associate with the operator and alter the
configuration so that the binding of the polymerase occurs less efficiently or not at
all. This effect is known as repression. Example: trp operon
Examples of Enzyme repression: In many cases substrate can repress the synthesis of
many enzymes. Pyruvate carboxylase is the key enzyme in the synthesis of glucose
from non-carbohydrate sources like pyruvate and amino acids. If there is sufficient
glucose available there is no necessity of its synthesis. This is achieved by the
repression of pyruvate carboxylase by glucose.
22. Allosteric regulation:
•Allosteric enzyme have one or more allosteric sites
•Allosteric sites are binding sites distinct from an enzyme
active site or substrate binding site
•Molecule that bind to allosteric sites are called effector or
modulator
•Effector may be positive or negative, this effector regulate
the enzyme activity. The enzyme activity is increased when a
positive allosteric effector binds at the allosteric site known as
activator site. On the other hand, negative allosteric effector
bind at the allosteric site called inhibitor site and inhibit the
enzyme activity.
•Binding to allosteric sites alter the activity of the enzyme,
this is called cooperative binding.
23. TYPES OF ALLOSTERIC REGULATION
•Heterotropic : A heterotropic allosteric modulator is a
regulatory molecule that is not also the enzyme's
substrate. It may be either an activator or an inhibitor of
the enzyme.
For example, H+, CO2, and 2,3-bisphosphoglycerate are
heterotropic allosteric modulators of hemoglobin
•Homotropic: A homotropic allosteric modulator is a
substrate for its target enzyme, as well as a regulatory
molecule of the enzyme's activity. It is typically an
activator of the enzyme.
For example, O2 is a homotropic allosteric modulator of
hemoglobin.
24. ISOENZYMES
Isoenzymes are enzymes that catalyze the identical chemical reactions but they differ
in their aminoacid sequence. They have different kinetic parameters or Km values or
different regulatory properties.
•They are used in the diagnosis of cardiac disease, Muscle disease, Bone disease,
hepatic disease
•LDH isoenzymes: It is test to check how much lactate dehydrogenase in the blood.
•They increase in myocardial infarction, Lung infarction, Hemolytic anemia,
Megaloblastic anemia, Acute pancreatitis, hypothyroidism.
•CPK isoenzymes : creatine phosphokinase , Creatine Kinase
CPK-1: higher than normal level in Brain cancer, brain injury, Electroconvulsive therapy,
Seizures.
CPK 2: Heart attack (there is significant rise in CPK-2 in firs 2-3 hrs. after a heart
attack), Myocarditis, Electrical injuries, Open heart surgeries, Heart fibrillation.
CPK 3:
Crush injuries of muscle, Muscular dystrophy, Myositis, Sternous exercise
25.
26.
27. VITAMINS AS CO-ENZYMES:
Vitamins (water soluble vitamin, fat soluble vitamin): an
organic substance needed in small amounts for normal
body functions that the body cannot synthesize in
adequate amounts
The vitamins are of two distinct types: water soluble and fat
soluble.
Water Soluble Vitamins : Thiamine (B1), Riboflavin (B2),
Niacin (B3), Pantothenic Acid (B5),
Pyridoxal, Pyridoxamine, Pyridoxine (B6), Biotin, Cobalamin
(B12) ,Folic Acid, Ascorbic Acid (Vitamin C)
Fat Soluble Vitamins : Vitamin A, Vitamin D, Vitamin E,
Vitamin K
28. •The vitamins cannot be synthesized
by mammalian cells and therefore
must be supplied in the diet in the
small quantities.
•Protein+coenzyme(vitamin) enzyme
•Protein+cofactor(metal ion) enzyme
29. THIAMINE (VITAMIN B1)
• It is a substituted pyrimidine & thiazole which is linked by methlyene
bridge (-CH2).
•It gets converted into active form Thiamine pyrophosphate (TPP).
Role of Thiamine :
•It act as a cofactor for pyruvate dehydrogenase and alpha-ketoglutarate
dehydrogenase.
•It involves in transketolase catalysed reactions in pentose phophate
pathway for transferring aldehyde or ketone group.
30. RIBOFLAVIN (VITAMIN B2)
•It is the precursor for the coenzymes, flavin mononucleotide (FMN)
and Flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD).
•Enzymes that require FMN & FAD as cofactors are known as
flavoproteins.
•They are involved in redox reactions eg: succinate dehydrogenase &
xanthine oxidase. The reduced form of FMN & FAD are FMNH2 and
FADH2 respectively.
31. NIACIN (VITAMIN B3)
•Active form of Vit B3 is Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide(NAD) and Nicotinamide
adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADP).
•They take part in oxidation reactions of our body.
•The NAD is required as a coenzyme for pyruvate dehydrogenase complex and alpha-
ketoglutarate dehydrogenase complex to mediate the reactions.
•The NADP is required as a coenzyme for glucoe-6-phosphte dehydrogenase and
6-phosphate gluconate dehydrogenase-mediated reactions.
32. VITAMIN B5 (PANTOTHENIC ACID)
FUNCTIONS:
•Active form is coenzyme (CoA-SH) form
•Its reactive group is sulfhydryl group (-SH)
•CoA-SH is required for the conversion of pyruvate to actyl CoA
by pyruvate dehydrogenase complex
•Fatty acid to acyl CoA by thiokinase.
33. PYRIDOXINE (VITAMIN B6)
Functions:
•It acts as coenzyme in
Transamination reactions
Glycogenolysis
Synthesis of neurotransmitter gamma amino butyric acid (GABA).
34. FUNCTIONS:
•Biotin itself act as coenzyme.
•It functions as a coenzyme in the carboxylation reactions .
For eg: 1. acetyl CoA to malonyl CoA
2. pyruvate to oxaloacetate.
35. FOLIC ACID
Functions:
• The active form of folic acid is tetrahydrofolic acid (THF).
•The is a carrier of single carbon and is involved in single
carbon transfer reactions.
•The single carbon may be in the form of formyl (-CHO), methyl
Methylene or formimino group.
36. VITAMIN B12 (COBALAMIN)
• It consist of of four pyrrrole ring (Corrin ring) and
Cobalt ion in the centre.
• Methylcobalamin and 5’deoxyadenosylcobalamin
are the two active form of cobalamin.
• Methylcobalamin is required in the conversion of
homocysteine to methionine.