Excessive levels of arsenic in drinking water is a vast health problem affecting 100 million people across South Asia. In Bangladesh, tube wells were widely installed to provide safe drinking water but many ended up containing high levels of arsenic. National testing identified millions of contaminated wells but most new wells remain untested. The two most effective approaches at reducing exposure have been well switching, which impacted 29% of people, and installing deep community wells tapping deeper aquifers with lower arsenic, affecting 12% of those with unsafe wells. However, over half the initially exposed population of 28-35 million people still face risks due to lack of ongoing monitoring and limited use of viable options like deep wells. Periodic testing, encouraging deep wells
This document provides information about groundwater contamination at the Massachusetts Military Reservation (MMR) in Cape Cod, Massachusetts. It discusses the Air Force's efforts to investigate and treat 11 groundwater plumes and monitor additional areas through its Installation Restoration Program. While some exposure pathways have been eliminated by connecting residences to municipal water, the Air Force also tests private wells and ponds in the area for contamination. The primary health risk is from ingesting contaminated groundwater, but as long as exposure pathways are addressed, there is no risk to human health.
This document describes a study that tested a prototype point-of-use water filter designed to remove both harmful bacteria and arsenic from drinking water. The filter combined a clay pot filter, which is effective at removing bacteria, with a bone char attachment designed to also reduce arsenic levels. Testing exposed the filters to water containing 500 parts per billion of arsenic, far exceeding safety standards. Results showed the prototype filter significantly reduced arsenic concentrations to below safety standards, while the clay filter alone did not reduce arsenic as effectively. The simple and low-cost prototype filter design has potential to improve access to safe drinking water in areas impacted by both bacterial and arsenic contamination.
Improving the feasibility of on site wastewater treatment systems in areas of...Arne Backlund
The 11th IWA Conference on Small Water & Wastewater Systems and Sludge Management
Page 1 of 10
Improving the feasibility of on-site wastewater treatment systems in areas of low permeability subsoils by means of water saving technologies
Donata Dubber1, Laurence Gill1
1 Department of Environmental Engineering, Trinity College Dublin, Ireland Presenting Author: Donata Dubber
Eilon Adar. Zuckerberg Institute for Water Research. J.B. Institutes for Desrt Research. Ben Gurion University of the Negev. Foro "Promoviendo una Minería Sostenible"
ASSESSMENT OF WASTE WATER TREATMENT IN CANAANLAND, OTA, OGUN STATE, NIGERIA.O...Felix Oginni
Effluent from a sewage treatment plant in Covenant University, Canaanland is made to pass through a series of constructed wetland before discharging into a gully that drains into River Iju (also known as Atuara). This river is used as a source of drinking water and also provides food in form of fish for hundreds of thousands of people downstream and eventually enters the lagoon, some 60km away. Effectiveness and adequacy of the wastewater treatment facility in place was assessed in order to improve sanitation within this watershed, thereby alleviating environmental challenges in this coastal region of Nigeria. Waste water is gravity drained to the southwest portion of the campus where the solid is removed and the liquid is allowed to flow through six sets of constructed wetlands, each with four chambers. Within each chamber are water hyacinth plants put in place to remove nutrients from the waster water.
A quick survey of the facility shows the system to be effective in reducing and removing solids and dissolved solids from the waste water. The pH ranged between 6.6 and 6.8, conductivity from 530 to 600, and total dissolved solids (TDS) ranged from 360 – 400 ppm. The data obtained indicate that some modifications need to be made as the waste water treatment system is not very efficient in reducing the amount of TDS and nutrients. The flow rate is considered to be very high from cell to cell, thereby not allowing time for the plants and microbes to reduce the TDS. It is suggested that some method be devised to slow down the flow rate to allow the plants and microbes to work on reducing the TDS. Parameters also also considered included DO, E. Coli. Nitrate and Phosphates.
This document discusses a proposed method for dynamically varying water flows to balance the needs of landholders and aquatic ecosystems. Sensors and cloud computing could be used to better meet the flow needs of ecosystems identified by recent research, like certain flows acting as cues for breeding. A case study shows DNRM currently uses cloud software to automate notifications to landholders based on flow data. The proposal aims to maximize benefits for both stakeholders by restricting extraction only when flows provide little ecosystem benefit, while ensuring total annual water availability for irrigation is not reduced.
Austin Water is engaged in aggressive water conservation and climate programs aimed at reducing water use and addressing the water-energy nexus, while continuing to provide reliable and sustainable water and wastewater service to customers. The programs include: mandatory watering restrictions; installation of renewable energy at plants and facilities; and implementing employee ideas to save energy in operations – all while dealing with the worst drought since the historic drought of the 1950s.
The document summarizes the history, current state, and future plans of the Hanover Water Works Company. It describes how the original gravity flow water system was established in 1892 in response to fires. It also discusses how the system has expanded over time to meet increasing demand, with improvements like new reservoirs, raising dams, and adding chlorination and fluoridation in the 1950s. Currently, the aging pipes contribute to water quality issues. The Company plans to address this by implementing a $7 million capital improvement plan, including installing a membrane filtration system to improve water quality for customers.
This document provides information about groundwater contamination at the Massachusetts Military Reservation (MMR) in Cape Cod, Massachusetts. It discusses the Air Force's efforts to investigate and treat 11 groundwater plumes and monitor additional areas through its Installation Restoration Program. While some exposure pathways have been eliminated by connecting residences to municipal water, the Air Force also tests private wells and ponds in the area for contamination. The primary health risk is from ingesting contaminated groundwater, but as long as exposure pathways are addressed, there is no risk to human health.
This document describes a study that tested a prototype point-of-use water filter designed to remove both harmful bacteria and arsenic from drinking water. The filter combined a clay pot filter, which is effective at removing bacteria, with a bone char attachment designed to also reduce arsenic levels. Testing exposed the filters to water containing 500 parts per billion of arsenic, far exceeding safety standards. Results showed the prototype filter significantly reduced arsenic concentrations to below safety standards, while the clay filter alone did not reduce arsenic as effectively. The simple and low-cost prototype filter design has potential to improve access to safe drinking water in areas impacted by both bacterial and arsenic contamination.
Improving the feasibility of on site wastewater treatment systems in areas of...Arne Backlund
The 11th IWA Conference on Small Water & Wastewater Systems and Sludge Management
Page 1 of 10
Improving the feasibility of on-site wastewater treatment systems in areas of low permeability subsoils by means of water saving technologies
Donata Dubber1, Laurence Gill1
1 Department of Environmental Engineering, Trinity College Dublin, Ireland Presenting Author: Donata Dubber
Eilon Adar. Zuckerberg Institute for Water Research. J.B. Institutes for Desrt Research. Ben Gurion University of the Negev. Foro "Promoviendo una Minería Sostenible"
ASSESSMENT OF WASTE WATER TREATMENT IN CANAANLAND, OTA, OGUN STATE, NIGERIA.O...Felix Oginni
Effluent from a sewage treatment plant in Covenant University, Canaanland is made to pass through a series of constructed wetland before discharging into a gully that drains into River Iju (also known as Atuara). This river is used as a source of drinking water and also provides food in form of fish for hundreds of thousands of people downstream and eventually enters the lagoon, some 60km away. Effectiveness and adequacy of the wastewater treatment facility in place was assessed in order to improve sanitation within this watershed, thereby alleviating environmental challenges in this coastal region of Nigeria. Waste water is gravity drained to the southwest portion of the campus where the solid is removed and the liquid is allowed to flow through six sets of constructed wetlands, each with four chambers. Within each chamber are water hyacinth plants put in place to remove nutrients from the waster water.
A quick survey of the facility shows the system to be effective in reducing and removing solids and dissolved solids from the waste water. The pH ranged between 6.6 and 6.8, conductivity from 530 to 600, and total dissolved solids (TDS) ranged from 360 – 400 ppm. The data obtained indicate that some modifications need to be made as the waste water treatment system is not very efficient in reducing the amount of TDS and nutrients. The flow rate is considered to be very high from cell to cell, thereby not allowing time for the plants and microbes to reduce the TDS. It is suggested that some method be devised to slow down the flow rate to allow the plants and microbes to work on reducing the TDS. Parameters also also considered included DO, E. Coli. Nitrate and Phosphates.
This document discusses a proposed method for dynamically varying water flows to balance the needs of landholders and aquatic ecosystems. Sensors and cloud computing could be used to better meet the flow needs of ecosystems identified by recent research, like certain flows acting as cues for breeding. A case study shows DNRM currently uses cloud software to automate notifications to landholders based on flow data. The proposal aims to maximize benefits for both stakeholders by restricting extraction only when flows provide little ecosystem benefit, while ensuring total annual water availability for irrigation is not reduced.
Austin Water is engaged in aggressive water conservation and climate programs aimed at reducing water use and addressing the water-energy nexus, while continuing to provide reliable and sustainable water and wastewater service to customers. The programs include: mandatory watering restrictions; installation of renewable energy at plants and facilities; and implementing employee ideas to save energy in operations – all while dealing with the worst drought since the historic drought of the 1950s.
The document summarizes the history, current state, and future plans of the Hanover Water Works Company. It describes how the original gravity flow water system was established in 1892 in response to fires. It also discusses how the system has expanded over time to meet increasing demand, with improvements like new reservoirs, raising dams, and adding chlorination and fluoridation in the 1950s. Currently, the aging pipes contribute to water quality issues. The Company plans to address this by implementing a $7 million capital improvement plan, including installing a membrane filtration system to improve water quality for customers.
This document summarizes a student's health risk assessment of using rainwater for toilet flushing. The student assessed potential health risks by employing a Quantitative Microbial Risk Assessment. The literature review found mixed results on the safety of consuming rainwater, with some studies finding rainwater safe and others finding potential pathogens. The student conducted their own designed experiment and theoretical modeling study to estimate microbial risks. Their results showed the risk of infection from inhaling Campylobacter and Salmonella after flushing a toilet supplied with rainwater was very low.
Bacteria & viral indicator contamination of stormwater - a multi-watershed studyTom Mahin
This document summarizes a study that analyzed stormwater samples from 18 locations across 4 watersheds in Massachusetts. A total of 131 samples were collected during 4 storm events and analyzed for various bacterial and viral indicators as well as water chemistry parameters. The results showed that enterococci levels were much higher than E. coli levels. Bacterial indicators correlated with each other but not with viral indicators. Viral indicators also did not correlate with water chemistry or land use. The study aimed to help prioritize stormwater enforcement and remediation efforts.
Evaluation of Constructed Wetland as Secondary Wastewater Treatment, Source f...Marwan Haddad
The document summarizes a study that evaluated using a constructed wetland as a secondary wastewater treatment system and source for tertiary treatment in Palestine. Key findings:
- The constructed wetland achieved average BOD and TSS removal rates of 73.4% and 82%, meeting standards for secondary treatment.
- An ultrafiltration/reverse osmosis system further improved water quality but had high fouling and costs of $5.65/cubic meter, making it unsuitable for small communities.
- Spineless cactus and bananas grew well in the wetland, indicating its potential for economic crops, while orchard trees struggled.
- The wetland provided low-cost, low-maintenance secondary
This study analyzed isotopic signatures of dissolved inorganic carbon and water to trace natural and anthropogenic sources of groundwater recharge in Orange County, California. Preliminary findings showed that production wells HB-1 and CM-3 had elevated levels of carbon-14, suggesting recharge from Colorado River water, recent precipitation, and possibly recycled water. The goals were to determine if treated water used for replenishment carries a unique isotopic signature that could be used to monitor its movement within the aquifer system. Ongoing analysis is assessing the contribution of different recharge sources over time.
Tertiary Treated Waste water as a Promising Alternative for Potable Water for...IJERA Editor
WatersecurityisavitalissueinaridcountrieslikeKuwait,wheredesalinatedwateristhe solesupplyoffresh water.Thispaper isacontributiontotheongoingefforts towardsrationalizationin potablewater consumption.In addition,itdiscusses therole of high-quality effluent water, from wastewater treatment plants in Kuwait, as a potential replacementfor potable water for non-contact domesticapplications as a oneway in savingin thisvaluablecommodity.
This document analyzes upgrading the Ashbridges Bay Wastewater Treatment Plant to tertiary treatment in order to reduce nutrient loads discharged into Lake Ontario. It discusses the plant's current secondary treatment processes and effluent quality. Tertiary treatment technologies are compared, with denitrifying filters identified as the best option due to their relatively small footprint and high removal rates of nitrogen and phosphorus. Implementing tertiary treatment could significantly reduce nutrient loads into Lake Ontario if adopted by all plants discharging into the lake, but each plant would need to lower effluent nutrient limits and have sufficient space for the required tertiary processes.
This document summarizes a study on microcystin levels in raw and treated municipal drinking water sources in Alberta. Microcystin is a toxin produced by some cyanobacteria (blue-green algae) that can be harmful to human health. The study analyzed water samples from 18 municipalities over 10 weeks and found microcystin present in 67% of raw water samples, with concentrations up to 14.8 μg/L in some sources. Microcystin was detected less often and at lower levels in treated water, indicating conventional treatment removes some toxin. All samples complied with Health Canada guidelines. The study recommends further sampling of rural communities to fully evaluate microcystin occurrence in municipal surface drinking water supplies.
This document provides an overview of the history and development of water supply systems. It discusses how early Rome had indoor plumbing systems using aqueducts and pipes. In the 18th century, growing populations in London fueled the establishment of private water companies. Water treatment began in the early 19th century to purify water and stop the spread of diseases like cholera. By the 20th century, water chlorination and other advanced treatment processes were used globally. Today, most people have access to treated water supplies, though billions still lack consistent access to clean water.
Organic Growth -- In a Manner of SpeakingDon Talend
Large-scale wastewater purification systems supplement natural water supplies, Water Efficiency magazine, by Don Talend, brand storytelling, content management and demand generation expert. Water engineering industry
Human civilizations have long depended on rivers for survival, with early civilizations in regions like Mesopotamia, Egypt, India, and China developing along major river valleys. However, as human populations and activities have increased, they have placed growing stress on rivers through activities like water extraction, waste dumping, and infrastructure development. This has degraded river ecosystems and impacted their ability to provide services. Parameters like water flow, sediment levels, pollution, and biodiversity are used to measure a river's health and the human impacts on it. The case of the Yamuna River in India illustrates how urban and industrial waste dumping can turn a major river highly toxic, reducing it to a local extinction of its natural ecosystems. Experts recommend various
This document evaluates the use of ultraviolet (UV) radiation and ozone for disinfecting primary municipal wastewater effluents. Experiments tested different ozone concentrations and UV fluencies at varying pH levels. Ozone doses near 20 mg/min achieved 72-78% removal of fecal and total coliforms, and removed up to 36% of chemical oxygen demand (COD). UV achieved over 80% inactivation of bacteria. Both treatments were most effective against bacteria at pH levels other than 7. UV treatment had lower energy requirements than ozone treatment. The study demonstrates the potential for UV and ozone processes to generate safely reusable or releasable effluents from primary wastewater treatment.
CCAA IRIS - Water and-sanitation-projectShawn Lennie
This document summarizes an environmental water and sanitation project in the Maxaquene A neighborhood of Maputo, Mozambique. The neighborhood faces issues with access to potable water and sanitation. Black waters from rain often flood the low-lying area, potentially spreading illness. The water distribution system has many leak points where water is lost. The project aims to analyze the water supply system, assess access to potable water, identify leak points and their causes, and evaluate measures to minimize black waters. Through surveys, interviews and observation, the project will work to increase community awareness of water issues and promote more sustainable water use and management. The expected results include greater community involvement in problem-solving and the adoption of new policies to
1) The document discusses the effect of climate change on water related disasters in Indonesia. It notes that climate change has led to increasing temperatures, more intense rainfall, rising sea levels and more extreme conditions like flooding and drought.
2) It outlines Indonesia's water resources law and the government's holistic approach to integrated water resources management that includes conservation, utilization and disaster control.
3) The document proposes strategies for mitigating and adapting to climate change impacts like improving water infrastructure, reforestation, and water management.
This document provides a summary of a project report on water testing and distribution for a civil engineering diploma. It discusses various aspects of the project including water sources, treatment processes, and distribution systems. Specifically, it examines intake wells and surface water sources, the treatment plant and processes for filtration, and the use of gravity-fed distribution to supply consumers. Water quality tests covered include pH, turbidity, hardness, chlorine residual, chlorides, and sulfates. The report also discusses infiltration works, groundwater sources, and pump houses and treatment works.
This document provides background information on tritium contamination at the Savannah River Site and the current phytoremediation efforts using forest irrigation. It outlines a proposal to enhance remediation by installing an artificial lighting system to increase tree transpiration rates. Key points include:
- Tritium contamination from waste storage has entered the groundwater and forest irrigation is used to remove it through evapotranspiration.
- Increased transpiration could further reduce tritium levels in local waterways.
- An artificial lighting design and installation plan will be developed and modeled to boost transpiration efficiency.
- The objective is to evaluate lighting options and their impacts on transpiration to enhance the existing remediation process.
IMPROVEMENT OF LATERAL CONNECTIVITY IN A SECTOR OF RIVER HÂRTIBACIU (OLT/DANU...Răzvan Voicu
This document discusses a proposed project to improve lateral connectivity in a sector of the Hârtibaciu River in Romania. Currently, the river's lateral connectivity is disturbed due to embankments, negatively impacting fish communities. The project involves creating a new wetland area connected to the river to increase habitat quality, especially for protected fish species. Water would be supplied to the wetland gravitationally via an existing canal or new rectangular canal from the river. Planting woody and grassy vegetation along the wetland banks would provide habitat and help stabilize the soil. The wetland is expected to benefit fish, birds, and other wildlife by providing an accessible passage and buffer during dry or cold periods.
The document discusses alternatives to wastewater management in Boston, focusing on aquatic plants and greywater reuse. It provides background on Boston's history of wastewater management and pollution of Boston Harbor. The author's research has found that aquatic plants can effectively filter pollutants from waterways, as seen in case studies. Greywater reuse also reduces wastewater pollution by reusing water from household sources for irrigation. The author proposes studying these alternatives for Boston Harbor to provide a more sustainable solution compared to the current system.
This document summarizes a university student's investigation into desalination and its brine waste. It provides background on desalination processes like reverse osmosis and multi-stage flash distillation. These produce brine waste that is more concentrated than seawater and can harm coastal ecosystems if discharged untreated. The document examines environmental impacts like altered ecosystems and erosion from brine discharge. It then evaluates potential solutions like precipitating silver chloride from brine or electrolyzing sodium chloride to produce useful byproducts. The student concludes electrolysis of sodium chloride is the best option as the gases produced could be sold to offset costs while lowering brine chlorine levels and fossil fuel use.
The River Nile delta shallow lakes namely, Edku, Burullus and Manzala are natural wetland ecosystems, connected to fresh water sources at the south and to the open sea at the north. Throughout their relatively short geological and hydrological history, the lakes received unpolluted fresh water from the river Nile.
The document discusses the global health issues caused by arsenic contamination of groundwater. It estimates that between 94-220 million people worldwide are at risk of drinking well water with arsenic concentrations above 10 μg/L. Most of these people live in Asia. Statistical models are used to identify areas at risk of high arsenic levels where testing has not been conducted. While many countries have made progress reducing exposures, widespread testing of domestic wells is still needed to properly address this public health crisis. Long-term or repeated exposure to arsenic in drinking water has been linked to various cancers and other adverse health effects.
ARSENIC MITIGATION FOR SAFE GROUNDWATERSiti Mastura
This document summarizes the global issue of arsenic contamination of groundwater sources and the health risks posed by consumption of arsenic-contaminated drinking water. It notes that millions of people across multiple countries in Asia and Latin America have been exposed to high levels of arsenic in drinking water. Common health effects include various cancers and skin lesions that develop over long periods of exposure. The document reviews mitigation strategies including using alternative uncontaminated water sources, deeper wells, and arsenic removal technologies like ion exchange, filtration, and activated alumina that have been applied at the community level. Effective and sustainable solutions require addressing social and behavioral factors through communication programs.
This document summarizes a student's health risk assessment of using rainwater for toilet flushing. The student assessed potential health risks by employing a Quantitative Microbial Risk Assessment. The literature review found mixed results on the safety of consuming rainwater, with some studies finding rainwater safe and others finding potential pathogens. The student conducted their own designed experiment and theoretical modeling study to estimate microbial risks. Their results showed the risk of infection from inhaling Campylobacter and Salmonella after flushing a toilet supplied with rainwater was very low.
Bacteria & viral indicator contamination of stormwater - a multi-watershed studyTom Mahin
This document summarizes a study that analyzed stormwater samples from 18 locations across 4 watersheds in Massachusetts. A total of 131 samples were collected during 4 storm events and analyzed for various bacterial and viral indicators as well as water chemistry parameters. The results showed that enterococci levels were much higher than E. coli levels. Bacterial indicators correlated with each other but not with viral indicators. Viral indicators also did not correlate with water chemistry or land use. The study aimed to help prioritize stormwater enforcement and remediation efforts.
Evaluation of Constructed Wetland as Secondary Wastewater Treatment, Source f...Marwan Haddad
The document summarizes a study that evaluated using a constructed wetland as a secondary wastewater treatment system and source for tertiary treatment in Palestine. Key findings:
- The constructed wetland achieved average BOD and TSS removal rates of 73.4% and 82%, meeting standards for secondary treatment.
- An ultrafiltration/reverse osmosis system further improved water quality but had high fouling and costs of $5.65/cubic meter, making it unsuitable for small communities.
- Spineless cactus and bananas grew well in the wetland, indicating its potential for economic crops, while orchard trees struggled.
- The wetland provided low-cost, low-maintenance secondary
This study analyzed isotopic signatures of dissolved inorganic carbon and water to trace natural and anthropogenic sources of groundwater recharge in Orange County, California. Preliminary findings showed that production wells HB-1 and CM-3 had elevated levels of carbon-14, suggesting recharge from Colorado River water, recent precipitation, and possibly recycled water. The goals were to determine if treated water used for replenishment carries a unique isotopic signature that could be used to monitor its movement within the aquifer system. Ongoing analysis is assessing the contribution of different recharge sources over time.
Tertiary Treated Waste water as a Promising Alternative for Potable Water for...IJERA Editor
WatersecurityisavitalissueinaridcountrieslikeKuwait,wheredesalinatedwateristhe solesupplyoffresh water.Thispaper isacontributiontotheongoingefforts towardsrationalizationin potablewater consumption.In addition,itdiscusses therole of high-quality effluent water, from wastewater treatment plants in Kuwait, as a potential replacementfor potable water for non-contact domesticapplications as a oneway in savingin thisvaluablecommodity.
This document analyzes upgrading the Ashbridges Bay Wastewater Treatment Plant to tertiary treatment in order to reduce nutrient loads discharged into Lake Ontario. It discusses the plant's current secondary treatment processes and effluent quality. Tertiary treatment technologies are compared, with denitrifying filters identified as the best option due to their relatively small footprint and high removal rates of nitrogen and phosphorus. Implementing tertiary treatment could significantly reduce nutrient loads into Lake Ontario if adopted by all plants discharging into the lake, but each plant would need to lower effluent nutrient limits and have sufficient space for the required tertiary processes.
This document summarizes a study on microcystin levels in raw and treated municipal drinking water sources in Alberta. Microcystin is a toxin produced by some cyanobacteria (blue-green algae) that can be harmful to human health. The study analyzed water samples from 18 municipalities over 10 weeks and found microcystin present in 67% of raw water samples, with concentrations up to 14.8 μg/L in some sources. Microcystin was detected less often and at lower levels in treated water, indicating conventional treatment removes some toxin. All samples complied with Health Canada guidelines. The study recommends further sampling of rural communities to fully evaluate microcystin occurrence in municipal surface drinking water supplies.
This document provides an overview of the history and development of water supply systems. It discusses how early Rome had indoor plumbing systems using aqueducts and pipes. In the 18th century, growing populations in London fueled the establishment of private water companies. Water treatment began in the early 19th century to purify water and stop the spread of diseases like cholera. By the 20th century, water chlorination and other advanced treatment processes were used globally. Today, most people have access to treated water supplies, though billions still lack consistent access to clean water.
Organic Growth -- In a Manner of SpeakingDon Talend
Large-scale wastewater purification systems supplement natural water supplies, Water Efficiency magazine, by Don Talend, brand storytelling, content management and demand generation expert. Water engineering industry
Human civilizations have long depended on rivers for survival, with early civilizations in regions like Mesopotamia, Egypt, India, and China developing along major river valleys. However, as human populations and activities have increased, they have placed growing stress on rivers through activities like water extraction, waste dumping, and infrastructure development. This has degraded river ecosystems and impacted their ability to provide services. Parameters like water flow, sediment levels, pollution, and biodiversity are used to measure a river's health and the human impacts on it. The case of the Yamuna River in India illustrates how urban and industrial waste dumping can turn a major river highly toxic, reducing it to a local extinction of its natural ecosystems. Experts recommend various
This document evaluates the use of ultraviolet (UV) radiation and ozone for disinfecting primary municipal wastewater effluents. Experiments tested different ozone concentrations and UV fluencies at varying pH levels. Ozone doses near 20 mg/min achieved 72-78% removal of fecal and total coliforms, and removed up to 36% of chemical oxygen demand (COD). UV achieved over 80% inactivation of bacteria. Both treatments were most effective against bacteria at pH levels other than 7. UV treatment had lower energy requirements than ozone treatment. The study demonstrates the potential for UV and ozone processes to generate safely reusable or releasable effluents from primary wastewater treatment.
CCAA IRIS - Water and-sanitation-projectShawn Lennie
This document summarizes an environmental water and sanitation project in the Maxaquene A neighborhood of Maputo, Mozambique. The neighborhood faces issues with access to potable water and sanitation. Black waters from rain often flood the low-lying area, potentially spreading illness. The water distribution system has many leak points where water is lost. The project aims to analyze the water supply system, assess access to potable water, identify leak points and their causes, and evaluate measures to minimize black waters. Through surveys, interviews and observation, the project will work to increase community awareness of water issues and promote more sustainable water use and management. The expected results include greater community involvement in problem-solving and the adoption of new policies to
1) The document discusses the effect of climate change on water related disasters in Indonesia. It notes that climate change has led to increasing temperatures, more intense rainfall, rising sea levels and more extreme conditions like flooding and drought.
2) It outlines Indonesia's water resources law and the government's holistic approach to integrated water resources management that includes conservation, utilization and disaster control.
3) The document proposes strategies for mitigating and adapting to climate change impacts like improving water infrastructure, reforestation, and water management.
This document provides a summary of a project report on water testing and distribution for a civil engineering diploma. It discusses various aspects of the project including water sources, treatment processes, and distribution systems. Specifically, it examines intake wells and surface water sources, the treatment plant and processes for filtration, and the use of gravity-fed distribution to supply consumers. Water quality tests covered include pH, turbidity, hardness, chlorine residual, chlorides, and sulfates. The report also discusses infiltration works, groundwater sources, and pump houses and treatment works.
This document provides background information on tritium contamination at the Savannah River Site and the current phytoremediation efforts using forest irrigation. It outlines a proposal to enhance remediation by installing an artificial lighting system to increase tree transpiration rates. Key points include:
- Tritium contamination from waste storage has entered the groundwater and forest irrigation is used to remove it through evapotranspiration.
- Increased transpiration could further reduce tritium levels in local waterways.
- An artificial lighting design and installation plan will be developed and modeled to boost transpiration efficiency.
- The objective is to evaluate lighting options and their impacts on transpiration to enhance the existing remediation process.
IMPROVEMENT OF LATERAL CONNECTIVITY IN A SECTOR OF RIVER HÂRTIBACIU (OLT/DANU...Răzvan Voicu
This document discusses a proposed project to improve lateral connectivity in a sector of the Hârtibaciu River in Romania. Currently, the river's lateral connectivity is disturbed due to embankments, negatively impacting fish communities. The project involves creating a new wetland area connected to the river to increase habitat quality, especially for protected fish species. Water would be supplied to the wetland gravitationally via an existing canal or new rectangular canal from the river. Planting woody and grassy vegetation along the wetland banks would provide habitat and help stabilize the soil. The wetland is expected to benefit fish, birds, and other wildlife by providing an accessible passage and buffer during dry or cold periods.
The document discusses alternatives to wastewater management in Boston, focusing on aquatic plants and greywater reuse. It provides background on Boston's history of wastewater management and pollution of Boston Harbor. The author's research has found that aquatic plants can effectively filter pollutants from waterways, as seen in case studies. Greywater reuse also reduces wastewater pollution by reusing water from household sources for irrigation. The author proposes studying these alternatives for Boston Harbor to provide a more sustainable solution compared to the current system.
This document summarizes a university student's investigation into desalination and its brine waste. It provides background on desalination processes like reverse osmosis and multi-stage flash distillation. These produce brine waste that is more concentrated than seawater and can harm coastal ecosystems if discharged untreated. The document examines environmental impacts like altered ecosystems and erosion from brine discharge. It then evaluates potential solutions like precipitating silver chloride from brine or electrolyzing sodium chloride to produce useful byproducts. The student concludes electrolysis of sodium chloride is the best option as the gases produced could be sold to offset costs while lowering brine chlorine levels and fossil fuel use.
The River Nile delta shallow lakes namely, Edku, Burullus and Manzala are natural wetland ecosystems, connected to fresh water sources at the south and to the open sea at the north. Throughout their relatively short geological and hydrological history, the lakes received unpolluted fresh water from the river Nile.
The document discusses the global health issues caused by arsenic contamination of groundwater. It estimates that between 94-220 million people worldwide are at risk of drinking well water with arsenic concentrations above 10 μg/L. Most of these people live in Asia. Statistical models are used to identify areas at risk of high arsenic levels where testing has not been conducted. While many countries have made progress reducing exposures, widespread testing of domestic wells is still needed to properly address this public health crisis. Long-term or repeated exposure to arsenic in drinking water has been linked to various cancers and other adverse health effects.
ARSENIC MITIGATION FOR SAFE GROUNDWATERSiti Mastura
This document summarizes the global issue of arsenic contamination of groundwater sources and the health risks posed by consumption of arsenic-contaminated drinking water. It notes that millions of people across multiple countries in Asia and Latin America have been exposed to high levels of arsenic in drinking water. Common health effects include various cancers and skin lesions that develop over long periods of exposure. The document reviews mitigation strategies including using alternative uncontaminated water sources, deeper wells, and arsenic removal technologies like ion exchange, filtration, and activated alumina that have been applied at the community level. Effective and sustainable solutions require addressing social and behavioral factors through communication programs.
Nepal's history of water management_Dr. Hari Krishna ShreshthaSaciWATERs
Nepal’s History of Water Management Institutions: Is there a Role for them in Adapting to
Water Scarcity?
- Dr. Hari Krishna Shrestha, Nepal Engineering College
This document presents a case study on the impacts of backfilling and building in wetlands in Mount Barclay Community, Montserrado County, Liberia. The study finds that backfilling has led to environmental issues like flooding, biodiversity loss, and pollution of wetlands. It has also introduced water-borne diseases to the community. The research recommends increasing public awareness of wetlands, instituting educational programs, and ensuring proper monitoring by the Environmental Protection Agency to improve wetland practices in the community.
The Effects of Pipe Material and Age on the Formation of Disinfection By – Pr...Marwan Haddad
This document describes a study on the effects of pipe material and age on the formation of disinfection by-products (DBPs) in the Nablus water network in Palestine. Samples were taken from various locations in the network including sources, reservoirs, and the distribution system. The samples were analyzed for levels of trihalomethanes (THMs), a group of DBPs. The results showed that all but one sample had THM levels below the maximum contaminant levels set by the EPA and Palestinian standards, though one sample exceeded the EPA limit. The document provides background on water sources, treatment processes, the sampling plan and locations, analytical methods used to measure THMs, and a table of results.
Arsenic problem in Bangladesh can be seen as an example of how quick fix contribue to a policy failure and result in disaster. Sustainable policy intervention and mainstreaming the mitigation strategies can be the only effective sollution to this problem. The presentation is the answer of the question set at the outset of the slides.
A field experiment was conducted to determine the impact of low pH on the survival and settlement of dreissenid mussels. Water from Lake Ontario containing mussel larvae was pumped to a laboratory and divided into streams, with three streams having their pH adjusted to 7.3, 7.1, and 6.9 using phosphoric acid. The fourth stream served as a control. Adult mussels and settlement substrates were placed in tanks receiving each pH level or the control water. After 10 weeks, adult mortality reached 40% at pH 6.9. Adult mussels were significantly lighter at all pH levels compared to controls, indicating shell erosion and calcium loss. New settlement was essentially prevented at pH 7.1. The results suggest lowering pH
There is an intrinsic connection between biodiversity conservation, water and sanitation. With appropriate technologies, wastewater can be treated to produce fit-for-purpose water with recovery of nutrients to enhance biodiversity conservation in terms of flora and fauna. This project highlights a pilot subsurface flow Constructed Wetland unit in order to identify its performance in treating domestic wastewater and in recovering nutrients.
The project won the 1st Prize in National Quarry Life Award in 2012 in Tanzania.
Read more: http://www.quarrylifeaward.com/project/integrated-constructed-wetland-wastewater-treatment-rainwater-harvesting-nutrient-recovery
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Water Resources Center Archives
University of California
Title:
Sustainability in Water Resources Management: Changes in Meaning and Perception
Author:
Hermanowicz, S W
Publication Date:
12-01-2005
Series:
Working Papers
Publication Info:
Working Papers, Water Resources Center Archives, University of California Water Resources
Center, UC Berkeley
Permalink:
http://escholarship.org/uc/item/9h48p02k
Additional Info:
Sustainability in Water Resources Vol. 3
Keywords:
water resources, water quality, water demand, physical sustainability, water reuse, entropy,
energy
Abstract:
The meaning of sustainability in the context of water resources management has changed
through the time. Initially meeting water demand was the dominant concern. While later quality
issues became more important followed by wider water reuse, today sustainability must include
a whole range of aspects (e.g., energy, pollution, persistent chemicals), spatial and time scales.
New approaches to define sustainability metrics are needed. A possible approach is to use
fundamentallybased entropy and energy flows.
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1
Sustainability in Water Resources Management
Changes in Meaning and Perception
Slawomir W. Hermanowicz
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering
University of California
Berkeley, CA 94720-1710
March 2005
Abstract:
The meaning of sustainability in the context of water resources management has changed through
the time. Initially meeting water demand was the dominant concern. While later quality issues
became more important followed by wider water reuse, today sustainability must include a whole
range of aspects (e.g., energy, pollution, persistent chemicals), spatial and time scales. New
approaches to define sustainability metrics are needed. A possible approach is to use fundamentally-
based entropy and energy flows.
Keywords: water resources, water quality, water demand, physical sustainability, water reuse,
entropy, energy
The Beginnings
Through the human history, the meaning of sustainability in the context of water resources
management has been changing slowly but quite perceptibly. Originally, sustainability simply meant
meeting human demands by natural supplies. For this reason, all human settlements arose in a
proximity of sufficient water sources where even peak demands were smaller than the available
“base” flow in a river or groundwater supply. As the demand for human consumption, agriculture,
and later industry grew, the most easily reachable resources became insufficient. T ...
The Kailash Ecovillage project converting human excreta into organic foodstuf...Kimberly L. King
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Standard (WE-Stand) set out by the International Association of Plumbing and Mechanical Officials (IAPMO).
This system collects urine and hot composts human excreta in a dry-composting toilet system for eventual
use on the community’s organic gardens. The system design reduces the need to access municipal water,
sewer, and electrical infrastructure, enhancing emergency preparedness. It conserves an otherwise wasted
nutrient flow, and safely produces a valuable compost. The system consists of urine collection vessels, multiple
portable collection containers for excreta, toilet paper, and additive, and a compost processor. Urine diversion
has allowed the community to reclaim nitrogen and other nutrients otherwise lost in conventional sewage systems,
resulting in large savings of potable water and significant carbon sequestration via topsoil creation. Logs
showed thermophilic compost temperatures. Compost and urine pathogen testing met American National Standards
Institute and National Sanitation Foundation Standard 41 requirements.
Karkheh Basin Focal Project: Synthesis of approach, findings and lessons. Poolad Karimi on behalf of the BFP1 team 2nd International Forum on Water & Food Addis Ababa, Ethiopia November 2008
This document contains summaries of several topics related to global freshwater resources:
1) It discusses groundwater hydrology, which is the study of water beneath the earth's surface, and how it is important for water supply, irrigation, and understanding water development and conservation.
2) Several sections summarize topics like the distribution of freshwater, depletion of resources, water salinization, and diseases caused by lack of access to clean water.
3) The document also covers policies like the Reduction of Lead in Drinking Water Act and how stormwater runoff is regulated through the National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System permit program to prevent pollution of surface waters.
Africa; Performance Of Multistage Filtration Using Different Filter Media D7Z
This study evaluated the performance of multistage filtration (MSF) systems using different locally available filter media, compared to a conventional water treatment system. A pilot plant was constructed using gravel, charcoal maize cobs, and broken burnt bricks as pretreatment filter materials in horizontal flow roughing filters (HRF), followed by slow-sand filters (SSF). The MSF systems performed better than the conventional system at removing turbidity, suspended solids, E. coli, and total coliforms. The locally available materials were also effective as pretreatment media, allowing filter runs greater than 82 days. Despite the improved performance, the MSF systems still require chlorination for final disinfection, but with greatly reduced dos
This document summarizes four references related to the impacts of fracking on communities and livestock.
The first reference discusses how fracking fluid injections can potentially contaminate underground aquifers through natural gas pathways. Simulation models show risks can be reduced through subsurface mapping, setback distances from faults, monitoring wells, and verifying properties post-fracking.
The second reference outlines ecological risks like surface water impacts from pollutants released during fracking construction. Activities may profoundly affect regions' ecosystems and organisms.
The third reference examines impacts on drinking water in Germany. It finds varying amounts of fracking fluid can contaminate water from accidents, but dilutions are usually below health limits. Data on impacts to
Wastewater pretreatment methods for constructed wetland: Reviewpetro karungamye
One of the most interesting research topics has been the constructed wetlands (CWs) for wastewater treatment. The primary operating issue of CWs is medium clogging, which
is caused by the accumulation of varying sorts of solids, resulting in a reduction in the infiltration capacity of the gravel substrate. It is commonly recognized that effective wastewater pretreatment is necessary for the long-term operation of CW. Pre-treatment is crucial because it prepares the influent for CW treatment. The primary treatment's goal is to reduce the solid load on the wetland, and the suspended solids concentration should not exceed 100 mg L1. This review paper describes the methods employed for wastewater pretreatment for constructed wetland performance. Three technologies namely septic tank, coagulation waste stabilization ponds and biofilters have been described
AbstractThis researchs main purpose is to analyze the cost incu.docxdaniahendric
Abstract
This research's main purpose is to analyze the cost incurred for the nitrate contamination in the drinking water. The study focuses on the detail investigation for the health effect because of contact of nitrates in the underground reserves at “San Joaquin Valley”. This report provides detail information about the far-reaching effect of this contamination on the environmental well-being and economic vitality. The major effect of this issue is one of the low-income populations and Spanish oriented residents. San Joaquin Valley is highly contaminated due to the existence of nitrate. It is observed that most of the Californian” always take it forgiven the potable water is easily accessible. San Joaquin Valley has many communicates and agriculture areas. This nitrate contamination has a strong impact on drinking water as well as agriculture land. It is also observed that the drinking water which is served in the homes and schools is also highly contaminated. This contamination has an adverse impact on the overall health of the population in San Joaquin Valley. At the same time, it will also affect the environment along with agriculture. The nitrate contamination is very high as it leads to bring lots of problems for the infants as well as the older population. The focus of this research is to develop the clean water by using the method of cleaning nitrate contamination the results from each method will be analyzed in order to provide the most relevant method. Introduction
My main interest in research is in “Environmental Engineering”. The reason behind the selection of this field is my interest, i want to provide my services in order to make the planet batter. There are many issues faced by the earth which are still not investigated. Water is one of the basic needs of people. But it is also the fact that many people are getting water even for their drinking purpose. A research conducted by Pacific Institute” titled “The Human Costs of Nitrate-Contaminated Drinking Water in San Joaquin Valley” provides several evidences for the nitrate contaminations in the consumable water. Alone in San Joaquin Valley, 63% of the individuals are not getting water for drinking purposes. The groundwater in San Joaquin Valley is extensively contaminated with nitrate. During recent times, most of the world has been subjected to contaminated drinking water. According to the research contrite by Harter that 63% of the water in the valley is not acceptable for the drinking. The water is not usable for drinking purposes as it containsa large amount of “Pesticides, Arsenic, Nitrate, and Uranium”. At the same time, the communities using this water are also facing lots of health issues.
The nitrate has been developed from the nitrogen compound which is excreted from the industries. Nowadays, industrial waste is one of the common issues faced by the environment. As the airborne nitrogen is given off from the industries as well as the automobile it leads to cause l ...
Evaluation of Constructed Wetland as Secondary Wastewater TreatmentMarwan Haddad
This document summarizes a study that evaluated the performance and operational costs of a pilot UF/RO wastewater treatment and reuse plant near Nablus, Palestine over 2.5 years. The system consisted of a primary settling basin, vertical-flow constructed wetland (CW), secondary settling basin, and UF/RO pilot plant. The CW provided significant reductions in influent water quality parameters. However, the UF/RO membranes experienced rapid fouling that increased operational costs to an unacceptable $5.65/m3. While cactus and banana growth in the CW was good, orchard trees mostly died after two years. The CW was found to be a reliable and low-cost secondary treatment option, but
Algonquin College aims to reduce its environmental impact by decreasing wastewater production and stormwater runoff. It will retrofit facilities with low-flow toilets, urine-diverting toilets, automatic faucets, or vacuum toilets to decrease wastewater. It will also expand rooftop gardens, install rain gardens, use permeable pavement, and build a retention pond to decrease stormwater runoff entering the Ottawa River. These measures will help reduce beach closures at Westboro Beach downstream.
Save water and safe water evaluation of design and storage period on water qu...Alexander Decker
The document evaluates the design and water quality of rainwater harvesting systems installed in Chitra Topi, AJK. It finds that non-painted galvanized iron rooftops provide high quality rainwater, while painted roofs lead to unsafe lead levels. Water quality declines with storage time due to increased microbial activity in summer months. Turbidity exceeds standards in 96% of samples year-round. Total hardness and iron levels meet standards. The study concludes rainwater harvesting can improve access if systems use appropriate designs and management practices.
The document summarizes a study that was conducted to determine sources of water pollution in Appiakrom community, Ghana. The study examined a dam, pond, and two boreholes used by the community. Laboratory analysis of water samples found that the dam, which supplies water to the district, had been polluted by anthropogenic activities. The rusty nature of one borehole was attributed to underground parent materials. The pond interfaced with the dam, and pollution could flow between the two sources. The authors recommend blocking channels between the pond and dam, and practicing zero-fertilizer farming near the dam to reduce pollution.
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Ensuring safe drinking water in bangladesh
1. www.sciencemag.org SCIENCE VOL 314 15 DECEMBER 2006 1687
CREDIT:AMYSCHOENFELD POLICYFORUM
I
n the early 1980s, K. C. Saha from the
School of Tropical Medicine in Kolkata
attributed skin lesions in West Bengal,
India, to exposure to arsenic in groundwater
pumped from shallow tube wells (1). Despite
thesefindings,millionsoftubewellshavebeen
installed across the Bengal Basin, the geologi-
cal formation that includes West Bengal and
Bangladesh, and across river floodplains and
deltas in southernAsia.
The popularity of tube wells reflects the
reduced incidence of diarrheal disease when
drinking groundwater, instead of untreated sur-
face water, and the modest cost of installation
(about 1 month of household income). Today,
perhaps 100 million people in India, Bangla-
desh (see figure, right), Vietnam, Nepal, and
Cambodia (and possibly other countries) are
drinking water with arsenic concentrations up
to 100 times the World Health Organization
(WHO) guideline of 10 µg per liter (2–4).
Whereastechnologiesfortreatingeithersurface
water or groundwater periodically receive con-
siderable attention, the record to date suggests
thatmorewidespreadtestingofwellstoidentify
those aquifers that do not require treatment is
presently far more promising.
Arsenic can occur in groundwater naturally,
without an anthropogenic source. There is
broad agreement that arsenic release into
groundwater of the Bengal Basin is facilitated
by microbial metabolism of organic matter
contained in river floodplain and delta deposits
(3–6). Elevated concentrations of arsenic in
Bangladesh groundwater probably predate
agricultural practices that could plausibly have
caused the composition of groundwater to
change, such as the use of phosphate fertilizer
or large groundwater withdrawals for irrigation
(3, 7).This does not rule out the possibility that
irrigationisaffectingthedistributionandmobi-
lization of arsenic today (7–9). Although there
areremainingquestions,currentunderstanding
of the occurrence of arsenic is sufficient to
directnationalstrategiesforloweringexposure.
After studies established the scale of the
problem (2, 3), a massive campaign was initi-
ated in Bangladesh in 1999 to test tube wells
in the most affected portions of the country.
The field kits that were used had limitations,
but were reliable enough (10) to identify the
vast majority of tube wells that did not meet
the local standard for arsenic in drinking water
of 50 µg per liter. By 2005, the spouts of 1.4
million cast-iron pumps that draw groundwa-
ter with >50 µg per liter arsenic according to
thefieldtesthadbeenpaintedred.Another3.5
million wells with up to 50 µg per liter arsenic
had been painted green (11). Such testing did
not reduce the rate of private well installa-
tions, at least within areas that have been
recently resurveyed (12, 13). Sadly, most tube
wells that were installed after the national test-
ing campaign remain untested today.
The two interventions that have so far most
effectivelyloweredhumanexposureinBangla-
desh rely on the spatial heterogeneity of the
distribution of arsenic in groundwater, which
is controlled principally by the local geology
(3, 14).Testing alone had the biggest impact as
~29%ofthemillionsofvillagersinformedthat
their tube well was elevated in arsenic have
changed their water source (see the chart on
page 1688). Large variations in the proportion
of well-switching across villages reflect in part
the availability of safe wells that are within
walking distance. A recent comparison has
shown, however, that both additional educa-
tion and periodic reinforcement of the mes-
sage that arsenic is a health hazard can over-
come existing obstacles to nearly double the
proportion of switching (12, 13).
The intervention with the second largest
impact (~12% of users with unsafe wells)
has been the installation of tens of thousands
of deep wells by the government and by
nongovernmental organizations. Such wells
supplygroundwaterfromdeeper,usuallyolder,
aquifers that generally do not contain elevated
levels of arsenic (3, 14, 16). They are often
shared or community wells that require walk-
ing ~100 m several times a day.Yet these wells
can be very popular when placed in a central
location that, for instance, does not discourage
use by women. These community installations
have also had an indirect impact because
numerous households followed suit by rein-
stallingtheirownwelltogreaterdepth(12,13).
In 2004, Bangladesh issued a National
Policy forArsenic Mitigation (NPAM) accom-
panied by a more detailed Implementation
Plan forArsenic Mitigation (17). Well-switch-
ing was recognized by the NAPM in the sense
that alternative water supply was not proposed
for villages where <40% of tube wells are
unsafe. However, the NPAM considered deep
tube wells a low-priority option. Instead, the
document encouraged a return to the use of
surface or very shallow groundwater without
paying sufficient attention to the increased
likelihood of exposure to microbial pathogens.
Five other mitigation approaches promoted
by the NPAM have had a limited impact, each
reaching <1% of the population at risk (see
the chart on page 1688). The early record of
Excessive levels of arsenic in drinking water
is a vast health problem in Southeast Asia.
Several viable approaches to mitigation
could drastically reduce arsenic exposure,
but they all require periodic testing.
Ensuring Safe Drinking Water
in Bangladesh
M. F. Ahmed,1 S. Ahuja,2 M. Alauddin,3 S. J. Hug,4 J. R. Lloyd,5 A. Pfaff,6 T. Pichler,7 C. Saltikov,8
M. Stute,9,10 A. van Geen10*
EPIDEMIOLOGY
Woman using a tube well inAraihazar, Bangladesh.
1Bangladesh University of Engineering and Technology,
Dhaka -1000, Bangladesh. 2Ahuja Consulting, Calabash,
NC 28467, USA. 3Department of Chemistry, Wagner
College, Staten Island, NY 10301, USA. 4Department of
Water Resources and Drinking Water, Swiss Federal Institute
of Aquatic Science and Technology (Eawag), CH-8600
Duebendorf, Switzerland. 5School of Earth, Atmospheric
and Environmental Sciences, University of Manchester,
Manchester M13 9PL, UK. 6Earth Institute, Columbia
University, New York, NY 10027, USA. 7Department of
Geology, University of South Florida, Tampa, FL 33620,
USA. 8Environmental Toxicology, University of California,
Santa Cruz, Santa Cruz, CA 95064, USA. 9Department of
Environmental Sciences, Barnard College, Columbia
University, New York, NY 10027, USA. 10Lamont-Doherty
Earth Observatory of Columbia University, Palisades, NY
10964, USA.
*Correspondence to: avangeen@ldeo.columbia.edu
Published by AAAS
2. 1688
arsenic removal from ground-
water by adsorption and/or co-
precipitation is mixed. Failures
have arisen from inadequate
removal due to the challenging
composition of the groundwater,
logistical difficulties in ensuring
proper maintenance, and inconven-
ience to the users (18). Since four arsenic-
removal technologies have been provisionally
approved for marketing, however, treatment
may become more widespread. Dug wells are
used by thousands of villagers. Although the
shallowest aquifers tapped by these wells are
typically low in arsenic, a full-scale return to
thistraditionaltechnologyishamperedbycon-
cerns regarding the microbial quality of the
water and the need for regular maintenance
(16).Treatment of pond or river water by sand
filtration, a priority in the 2004 NPAM,
appears less promising. Ponds often directly
receive human waste from surrounding latrines
and are increasingly used for aquaculture.
Also, as industry develops throughout rural
Bangladesh, sand filtration alone is unlikely to
guarantee a treatment suitable for human con-
sumption. Rainwater harvesting by individual
householdscanprovidesafedrinkingwater.Its
main drawbacks are the potential for micro-
bial contamination and the high cost of stor-
age sufficient for Bangladesh’s 8-month
dry season. Last, piped-water supply is fre-
quently touted as the solution to the arsenic
problem. The high capital and maintenance
costs of such systems relative to those of
individual tube wells, however, is likely to
restrict this approach to urban areas or the
most affluent villages.
Recommendations
MorethanhalfofthepopulationinBangladesh
at risk from arsenic is still exposed (see chart,
above).To reach a greater fraction of the popu-
lation, we urge a revision of the NPAM to (i)
stimulate the periodic monitoring of water
quality no matter the mitigation option, (ii)
encourage rather than discourage the wise use
ofdeepaquifersthatarelowinarsenic,and(iii)
include the newly demonstrated effects of
arsenic on the mental development of children
in information campaigns (19).
Periodic field testing of numerous point
sources of drinking water would be an enor-
mous challenge for any government. We rec-
ommend consideration of alternative pro-
grams for well testing, in particular a national
certification program to license and monitor
entrepreneurs offering commercial field test-
ing to villages. Ideally, test results should indi-
cate actual concentrations. Households have
used this information to reduce arsenic expo-
sures even without access to a safe well. The
cost of testing tube wells for arsenic is signifi-
cant (~$1 per test) but is even higher for other
water-supply options that require water treat-
ment, because the performance of such sys-
tems is more likely to vary over time. Dug
wells, for instance, should be tested monthly
for microbial contamination, which is a con-
siderably more difficult measurement than a
field test for arsenic.
As the population of Bangladesh contin-
ues to grow, many shallow wells are likely
to become contaminated with human, agri-
cultural, and industrial waste. In addition,
groundwater pumped from a majority of shal-
low tube wells is naturally elevated in man-
ganese, another constituent of increasing
health concern because of its neurological
effects (3, 20). Several field kits are available
to determine whether a well meets the WHO
guideline of 0.4 mg per liter for manganese.
The systematic use of these field kits for test-
ing shallow and deep wells should be consid-
ered, even if the health implications of expo-
sure to manganese present in groundwater are
not yet fully understood.
Groundwater from deep wells is a good
source of drinking water in many parts of
Bangladesh because it does not require treat-
ment. Deep wells nevertheless should be
tested at least once a year, as a small fraction
are likely to fail over time. Presently, not even
deep wells installed by the government are
periodically tested for arsenic. One source of
confusion has been that the depth to older
aquifers that are systematically low in arsenic
varies from <30 m to >200 m across the coun-
try and can vary even between adjacent vil-
lages (3, 21). Thus, the depth to aquifers that
are low in arsenic must be determined at the
village level and attempts to establish the
depth to low-arsenic aquifers over larger areas
are misguided.
We believe that significant contamination
of deep aquifers with arsenic is unlikely unless
large amounts of water are withdrawn for
irrigation (22). Managing irrigation is there-
fore important.Although the incorporation of
arsenic into rice that has been grown on shal-
low groundwater appears to be limited (23,
24), potential long-term effects of irrigating
with groundwater that is elevated in arsenic
should be monitored.
In summary, water testing must be drasti-
cally expanded in Bangladesh. Eight years
after a major arsenic conference in Dhaka,
millions of people continue to drink ground-
water containing toxic levels of arsenic. With-
out discouraging any option, the NPAM
should be revised soon after the upcoming
elections to expand the scale of those inter-
ventions that have been most effective to date.
References and Notes
1. A. K. Chakraborty, K. C. Saha, Indian J. Med. Res. 85, 326
(1987).
2. R. K. Dhar et al., Curr. Sci. 73, 48 (1997).
3. D. G. Kinniburgh, P. L. Smedley, Eds., vol. 2 of Arsenic
Contamination of Ground Water in Bangladesh,
Final Report (BGS Technical Report WC/00/19,
British Geological Survey, Keyworth, UK, 2001).
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188819 (2005).
9. C. F. Harvey et al., Chem. Geol. 228, 112 (2006).
10. A. van Geen et al., Environ. Sci. Technol. 39, 299 (2005).
11. Bangladesh Arsenic Mitigation Water Supply Program,
www.bamwsp.org/Survey%20Results.htm.
12. A. Opar et al. Health Place 13, 164 (2007).
13. A. Schoenfeld, thesis, Columbia University, New York, NY
(2006), www.ldeo.columbia.edu/~avangeen/arsenic/.
14. P. Ravenscroft et al., Hydrogeol. J. 13, 727 (2005).
15. M. M. H. Sarker, M. A. Matin, A. Hassan, M. R. Rahman,
“Report on development of arsenic decision support
system” [Center for Environmental and Geographic
Information Services, United Nations Children’s Fund
(UNICEF), Dhaka, Bangladesh, 2005].
16. M. F. Ahmed et al., Risk Assessment of Arsenic Mitigation
Options (RAAMO) [Arsenic Policy Support Unit (APSU),
Dhaka, Bangladesh, 2005], www.apsu-bd.org/.
17. National Policy for Arsenic Mitigation, 2004,
www.sdnpbd.org/sdi/policy/doc/arsenic_policy.pdf.
18. M. A. Hossain et al., Environ. Sci. Technol. 39, 4300 (2005).
19. G. A. Wasserman et al., Environ. Health Perspect. 112,
1329 (2004).
20. G. A. Wasserman et al., Environ. Health Perspect. 114,
124 (2006).
21. A. Gelman et al., Risk Anal. 24, 1597 (2004); see also
www.ldeo.columbia.edu/welltracker/.
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(2005).
23. P. N. Williams et al., Environ. Sci. Technol. 39, 5531 (2005).
24. A. van Geen et al., Sci. Total Environ. 367, 769 (2006).
25. This paper is the outcome of discussions following a
symposium on arsenic in South Asia, convened by
S. Ahuja, at the 2006 American Chemical Society
meeting. We are grateful to K. M. Ahmed, G. Howard,
R. Johnston, D. Kinniburgh, K. Radloff, P. Ravenscroft,
P. Smedley, and R. Wilson for their helpful input. This is
Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory contribution 6989.
Supporting Online Material
www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/full/314/5805/1687/DC1
SOM Text
10.1126/science.1133146
Well switching
29%
Deep tube well
12%
Arsenic removal unit
Dug well
Pond sand filter
Rainwater collector
Piped water system
Population still exposed
57%
Impact of arsenic mitigation in Bangladesh (SOM
Text). The initially exposed population has been esti-
mated at 28 to 35 million relative to the local stan-
dard of 50 µg per liter arsenic in drinking water (3).
15 DECEMBER 2006 VOL 314 SCIENCE www.sciencemag.org
POLICYFORUM
Published by AAAS
3. www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/full/314/5806/1687/DC1
Supporting Online Material for
Ensuring Safe Drinking Water in Bangladesh
M. F. Ahmed, S. Ahuja, M. Alauddin, S. J. Hug, J. R. Lloyd, A. Pfaff, T. Pichler, C.
Saltikov, M. Stute, A. van Geen*
*Correspondence. E-mail: avangeen@ldeo.columbia.edu
Published 15 December 2006, Science 314, 1687 (2006)
DOI: 10.1126/science.1133146
This PDF file includes
Fig. S1
Table S1
References
4. 1
Table S1. Estimated impact of various forms of arsenic mitigation in Bangladesh and measures
of microbial contamination of these sources. The compilation relies primarily on reports from
the Arsenic Policy Support Unit with additional information from other listed studies.
1
BGS/DPHE estimate a range of 28-35 million exposed to >50 ug/L arsenic (S1). R. Johnston of
UNICEF (pers. comm., 2006) estimates a total of 20 million at risk based on the basis of
BAMWSP population and field kit data, corrected for kit bias.
2
In a highly studied area with 47% unsafe wells, 55% of 2539 households switched to a nearby
private well (S2, S3). In an area with 52% unsafe wells where only BAMWSP/DPHE intervened,
29% of 2087 households switched (S4). Testing and mitigation in 3 upazilas with 77% unsafe
wells under UNICEF led to switching by 38% of 6359 households (Table 5.18 in ref. S5).
3
From Table 1.1 in ref. (S6). The deep wells referred to in this context are distinct from shallow
irrigation wells equipped with a submersible pump, also sometimes referred to as deep wells in
Bangladesh although the term “deep-set” tubewells would be more appropriate.
4
Includes 3,771 households units reported in ref. (S6) and 29,303 SONO units deployed
according to A. Hussam (pers. comm., 2006)
5
Includes 33 pipe water supplies systems fed with deep tube well water reported in (S6), serving
an estimated population of 240, and 27 systems fed with dug well water (pop. 4400), and 5
systems fed by river filtration system (pop. 3200) installed by Dhaka Community Hospital (R.
Wilson, pers. comm., 2006).
6
Estimated average. Number of users per unit varies widely for community sources (S6, S7).
7
Mean values from Tables 4.1-4.4 in ref. (S6).
New water source No. installed Users/unit6
Estimated impact1
E. coli /100 mL7
% of population at risk dry/wet season (n)
Nearby private well2
- - 29 -
Deep tubewell3
74,809 50 12 0/0 (36)
Arsenic removal unit4
33,074 6 0.66 -
Dug well3
6,268 30 0.63 138/657 (36)
Pond sand filter3
3,521 50 0.59 31/51 (34/42)
Rainwater collector3
13,324 6 0.27 12/1 (24/42)
Piped water system5
65 240 0.05 -
5. 2
Fig. S1. Histogram of the year of installation of tubewells compiled in 2005 within 75 villages
of Araihazar upazila, Bangladesh, where the only significant intervention has been blanket-
testing for arsenic, carried out with field kits in 2003 (S4). Well status information with respect
to arsenic based on field kit measurements was compiled during the survey on the basis
interviews and the color of the paint applied to the spout of each well (or lack thereof). The rate
of installation of wells documented in this survey should be representative of the estimated total
of ~10 million wells installed in the country as a whole (S1, S8).
0
500
1000
1500
2000
up to 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005
Installation year
Numberofwells
Unsafe Safe UnknownWell status
6. 3
References
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P. L. Smedley, Eds., vol. 2, Final Report (BGS Technical Report WC/00/19, British
Geological Survey, Keyworth, UK, 2001).
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6500 households to arsenic mitigation in Araihazar, Bangladesh, Health and Place,
available on-line 9 January 2006.
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Ahsan, Can information alone change behavior? Response to arsenic contamination of
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tubewells in Araihazar, Bangladesh,” M.S. Thesis, Columbia University, New York, 2006.
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decision support system (Center for Environmental and Geographic Information
Services/UNICEF, Dhaka, 2005).
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Assessment of Arsenic Mitigation Options (RAAMO) (APSU, Dhaka, 2005); www.apsu-
bd.org/
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the current arsenic crisis in Bangladesh, Bull. World Health Organization 82, 632-638
(2003).
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A. Gelman, M. Stute, H. J. Simpson, S. Wallace, C. Small, F. Parvez, V. Slavkovich, N. J.
LoIacono, M. Becker, Z. Cheng, H. Momotaj, M. Shahnewaz, A. A. Seddique, J. H.
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