This document summarizes a study that analyzed stormwater samples from 18 locations across 4 watersheds in Massachusetts. A total of 131 samples were collected during 4 storm events and analyzed for various bacterial and viral indicators as well as water chemistry parameters. The results showed that enterococci levels were much higher than E. coli levels. Bacterial indicators correlated with each other but not with viral indicators. Viral indicators also did not correlate with water chemistry or land use. The study aimed to help prioritize stormwater enforcement and remediation efforts.
Water Quality Monitoring Programs in Fairfax County, April 2014Fairfax County
This document summarizes the history of surface water quality monitoring in Fairfax County from 1969 to present. It outlines key milestones and studies conducted over time, including the health department's stream monitoring program in 1969, the ongoing Gunston Cove ecological study partnership since 1984, and the establishment of the Stream Protection Strategy in 1998. It also describes the current state of the county's monitoring program, which includes biological monitoring of streams, dry and wet weather screening of stormwater outfalls, watershed and lake studies, and an ongoing stream gaging study partnership with the USGS since 2007.
This study analyzed nutrient and bacterial concentrations in Bowne Park Pond over time. Algal blooms were previously observed, indicating potential eutrophication. Water samples were tested for nutrients and bacteria using various methods. Results showed high nutrient levels, likely due to surface runoff during heavy rainfall. Total coliform levels increased from 18 to 24 hours of incubation. Enterococcus levels remained relatively constant, suggesting it may be a more stable indicator of contamination than E. coli or total coliform. Future studies are needed to determine if the pond is prone to eutrophication, and if remedial actions are required to protect the marine habitat and public.
This document provides information about groundwater contamination at the Massachusetts Military Reservation (MMR) in Cape Cod, Massachusetts. It discusses the Air Force's efforts to investigate and treat 11 groundwater plumes and monitor additional areas through its Installation Restoration Program. While some exposure pathways have been eliminated by connecting residences to municipal water, the Air Force also tests private wells and ponds in the area for contamination. The primary health risk is from ingesting contaminated groundwater, but as long as exposure pathways are addressed, there is no risk to human health.
The document analyzes factors affecting the impingement of fish and shellfish at a coastal power plant in Texas. It finds that total impingement was most associated with dissolved oxygen concentration, sampling month, and sampling time. For fish specifically, sampling month and dissolved oxygen were most important, while for shellfish, sampling month and sampling time were the key factors. Operational factors like hourly water flow and number of operating screens did not significantly predict impingement levels.
Case study: Algae Control in Drinking Water ReservoirLG Sonic
Since the spring of 2014, four solar-powered algae control buoys are operating in the Canoe Brook Reservoir #1 in Short Hills, New Jersey to control algae and cyanobacteria in the raw water reservoir. The reservoir is managed by American Water, America’s largest publicly traded water and wastewater utility company.
Modeling of Predictive interaction of Water Parameters in Groundwaterijtsrd
The assessment presented in this article is centred on investigating the interaction of turbidity, total suspended solids and total dissolved solids interaction within the water bearing aquifer of Obite to Oboburu communities of Ogba/ Egbema/ Ndoni local government area of Rivers State, Nigeria. Experimental and modeled turbidity, total suspended solids and total dissolved solids investigated are within recommended standard of World Health Organization revealing the reliability of model equation in predicting groundwater parameters distribution upon influence of time, recharge, flow rate. Ottos C. G | Isaac E. O"Modeling of Predictive interaction of Water Parameters in Groundwater" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-2 | Issue-3 , April 2018, URL: http://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd11292.pdf http://www.ijtsrd.com/engineering/civil-engineering/11292/modeling-of-predictive-interaction-of-water-parameters-in-groundwater/ottos-c-g
Summary and interpretation of monitoring data for synthetic pyrethroids in U....Jeremiah Wilson
Summary and interpretation of monitoring data for synthetic pyrethroids in U.S. surface water and sediment - Presentation for the 13th IUPAC International Congress of Pesticide Chemistry.
LGC is addressing the UK's chemical and bio-measurement needs to support key industries like healthcare, food, and energy. LGC researchers are developing new methods to accurately measure pollutants like PBDEs in water samples to help enforce the EU Water Framework Directive and clean up rivers and lakes. They are also studying microbial communities as bioindicators of water quality to rapidly assess the impacts of pollution and help mitigate threats to water resources.
Water Quality Monitoring Programs in Fairfax County, April 2014Fairfax County
This document summarizes the history of surface water quality monitoring in Fairfax County from 1969 to present. It outlines key milestones and studies conducted over time, including the health department's stream monitoring program in 1969, the ongoing Gunston Cove ecological study partnership since 1984, and the establishment of the Stream Protection Strategy in 1998. It also describes the current state of the county's monitoring program, which includes biological monitoring of streams, dry and wet weather screening of stormwater outfalls, watershed and lake studies, and an ongoing stream gaging study partnership with the USGS since 2007.
This study analyzed nutrient and bacterial concentrations in Bowne Park Pond over time. Algal blooms were previously observed, indicating potential eutrophication. Water samples were tested for nutrients and bacteria using various methods. Results showed high nutrient levels, likely due to surface runoff during heavy rainfall. Total coliform levels increased from 18 to 24 hours of incubation. Enterococcus levels remained relatively constant, suggesting it may be a more stable indicator of contamination than E. coli or total coliform. Future studies are needed to determine if the pond is prone to eutrophication, and if remedial actions are required to protect the marine habitat and public.
This document provides information about groundwater contamination at the Massachusetts Military Reservation (MMR) in Cape Cod, Massachusetts. It discusses the Air Force's efforts to investigate and treat 11 groundwater plumes and monitor additional areas through its Installation Restoration Program. While some exposure pathways have been eliminated by connecting residences to municipal water, the Air Force also tests private wells and ponds in the area for contamination. The primary health risk is from ingesting contaminated groundwater, but as long as exposure pathways are addressed, there is no risk to human health.
The document analyzes factors affecting the impingement of fish and shellfish at a coastal power plant in Texas. It finds that total impingement was most associated with dissolved oxygen concentration, sampling month, and sampling time. For fish specifically, sampling month and dissolved oxygen were most important, while for shellfish, sampling month and sampling time were the key factors. Operational factors like hourly water flow and number of operating screens did not significantly predict impingement levels.
Case study: Algae Control in Drinking Water ReservoirLG Sonic
Since the spring of 2014, four solar-powered algae control buoys are operating in the Canoe Brook Reservoir #1 in Short Hills, New Jersey to control algae and cyanobacteria in the raw water reservoir. The reservoir is managed by American Water, America’s largest publicly traded water and wastewater utility company.
Modeling of Predictive interaction of Water Parameters in Groundwaterijtsrd
The assessment presented in this article is centred on investigating the interaction of turbidity, total suspended solids and total dissolved solids interaction within the water bearing aquifer of Obite to Oboburu communities of Ogba/ Egbema/ Ndoni local government area of Rivers State, Nigeria. Experimental and modeled turbidity, total suspended solids and total dissolved solids investigated are within recommended standard of World Health Organization revealing the reliability of model equation in predicting groundwater parameters distribution upon influence of time, recharge, flow rate. Ottos C. G | Isaac E. O"Modeling of Predictive interaction of Water Parameters in Groundwater" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-2 | Issue-3 , April 2018, URL: http://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd11292.pdf http://www.ijtsrd.com/engineering/civil-engineering/11292/modeling-of-predictive-interaction-of-water-parameters-in-groundwater/ottos-c-g
Summary and interpretation of monitoring data for synthetic pyrethroids in U....Jeremiah Wilson
Summary and interpretation of monitoring data for synthetic pyrethroids in U.S. surface water and sediment - Presentation for the 13th IUPAC International Congress of Pesticide Chemistry.
LGC is addressing the UK's chemical and bio-measurement needs to support key industries like healthcare, food, and energy. LGC researchers are developing new methods to accurately measure pollutants like PBDEs in water samples to help enforce the EU Water Framework Directive and clean up rivers and lakes. They are also studying microbial communities as bioindicators of water quality to rapidly assess the impacts of pollution and help mitigate threats to water resources.
Sulphate and Hardness_Elphick et al_ET&CGuy Gilron
This document presents the results of a study evaluating the chronic toxicity of sulfate in various aquatic organisms. A variety of test species, including invertebrates, fish, algae, moss, and an amphibian, were exposed to sulfate under different water hardness conditions. The results show that sulfate toxicity decreases with increasing water hardness. Based on these findings, the authors calculated water quality guidelines for sulfate separately for soft, moderately hard, and hard water. The guidelines ranged from 75 to 725 mg/L sulfate depending on the water hardness and calculation method. The study provides a robust dataset that can be used to establish scientifically defensible sulfate guidelines that account for the modifying effect of water hardness.
Effect of Seasonal Variation on Quality of Domestic Water Sources in Central ...theijes
The quality of water sources in the Central Gonja District in the Northern Region of Ghana has been questioned due to activities that pollute water in the area. This research analysed the quality of domestic water sources in the Central Gonja District in terms of pH, EC, Turbidity, Total hardness, Nitrate and Faecal coliform. One hundred and eight (108) water samples were collected from boreholes, rivers, rainwater and dam in the wet and dry seasons within six months. The samples were analysed in the laboratory according to the procedures and protocols outlined in the Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater for pH, turbidity, total hardness, nitrate and faecal coliform. Analysis of the water sources showed that the parameters of boreholes measured were seasonally affected except for conductivity which was high in the dry season. All the parameters for river and dam water varied with the seasons. In relation to faecal contamination, the borehole, river water and dam were seasonally affected, and unsuitable for drinking without treatment. Based on the WHO guidelines, rainwater in the area can be regarded as potable owing to its higher quality over the other water sources in the study area. Generally, rainwater can be recommended for drinking, cooking, bathing and washing for the people of Central Gonja District.
1) The document discusses the status of surface water and groundwater in Ireland according to the Water Framework Directive. It provides interim status assessments showing the percentage of water bodies with high, good, moderate, poor, or bad ecological status.
2) Wastewater treatment plants, agriculture, forestry, and urban areas are cited as the main causes of surface water bodies having "less than good" status. For groundwater, agriculture is contributing to poor chemical status in many areas.
3) Key issues discussed include nitrogen and phosphates in water impacting seaweed blooms, groundwater as both an input to and pathway for surface waters, and groundwater-dependent ecosystems.
Environmental Risks from bulk chlorine rev 4 3 16Nigel Harrison
This document summarizes an environmental risk assessment of potential chlorine releases from bulk storage installations at three Anglian Water treatment works. Six potential unmitigated accident scenarios were modeled and assessed as "Sub-MATTE", meaning they would not be considered major accidents to the environment. The assessment identified potential pathways between chlorine sources and environmental receptors. It determined severity levels and duration/recovery categories for receptors based on modeling and established tolerability thresholds. The document provides context on Anglian Water's COMAH regulations requirements and the chlorination systems. It outlines the accident scenarios modeled, including leak sizes and frequencies.
Multidisciplinary Research Week 2013 at the University of Southampton. #MDRWeek. World Water Day and International Year of Water Cooperation 2013.
Water quality: addressing global problems at source’, Presentation by Dr Jim Wright, Geography and Environment, University of Southampton.
See the latest videos, interviews, pictures, tweets and views from the floor at: www.southampton.ac.uk/multidisciplinary
This document presents the results of a study that used mobile mass spectrometry to measure ambient concentrations of benzene, toluene, and xylene compounds (BTEX) near unconventional oil and gas extraction sites in the Eagle Ford Shale region of Texas. The study found highly variable BTEX contamination events originating from specific sources on well pad sites, including natural gas flaring units, condensate tanks, compressor units, and hydrogen sulfide scavengers. Individual wellheads did not contribute significantly to BTEX levels. The detection of point sources indicates that mechanical inefficiencies, rather than the extraction process as a whole, are responsible for releasing these compounds into the air.
Substantial reductions in faecal indicator bacteria loads were found after sewerage improvements in seven shellfish water catchments in England and Wales. Specifically:
1) Loads from key sewage treatment works that installed ultraviolet disinfection were reduced to ≤0.6% of total loads impacting shellfish waters.
2) Loads from intermittent discharges like combined sewer overflows that installed screens and increased storage were reduced to ≤7% of total loads assuming a 90% flow reduction.
3) Additional data is still needed to accurately characterize loads from agriculture and other sources to inform future interventions.
This study investigated ecological processes in an urban stormwater lake during its ice-covered period from November to mid-April. Data from two winter seasons showed chlorophyll-a levels under ice were 22% of open-water levels, indicating primary productivity still occurs. Nutrients like nitrogen and phosphorus were significantly higher under ice, likely from road and urban runoff. Under ice, total phosphorus levels correlated positively with chlorophyll-a when nutrient ratios were low, suggesting phosphorus controls algal growth. The results provide evidence of active nutrient cycles in stormwater lakes during winter, contrary to assumptions of dormancy under ice cover.
This document presents research on approaches to mitigate pollution from the herbicide MCPA (2-methyl-4-chloro-phenoxyacetic acid) in water catchments used as drinking water sources. The research monitored MCPA concentrations spatially and temporally in an agricultural catchment in Ireland that supplies drinking water. Key findings include: MCPA concentrations exceeded drinking water limits and persisted in the system; concentrations increased downstream; and concentrations correlated positively with improved grassland and negatively with rough grazing land use. The research demonstrates the need for enhanced monitoring and questions the sustainability of certain land uses like improved grassland near drinking water sources.
This document summarizes the environmental effects monitoring program conducted during the remediation of one of Canada's most polluted sites in Sydney Harbour. The monitoring program included water quality sampling, sediment quality sampling, mussel tissue sampling, crab tissue sampling, and benthic community assessments. The results showed that most contaminant levels did not significantly change or decrease over time, consistent with predictions that remediation would not cause significant negative environmental impacts. Some lessons learned included issues with non-detect values and challenges conducting the monitoring program during large dredging activities.
The document describes the work of the Streamkeepers of Clallam County volunteer water quality monitoring program. It discusses the program's goals of collecting credible water quality data to track conditions, identify issues, and inform restoration efforts. It outlines the program's various monitoring activities including measuring physical, chemical and biological integrity. It also discusses the author's experiences assisting with projects monitoring stormwater runoff and conducting various other tasks to support the program.
This presentation was given at the EPA’s National Water Event 2019, which took place on 29 and 30 May 2019 in Galway. This presentation by Gary Free from the EPA is on measuring the environment from space using satellite images.
Volunteer citizen scientists partner with the South River Federation (SRF) in Maryland to collect water quality data along the South River and its tributaries. The volunteers are trained and follow rigorous protocols to gather precise data on factors like pH, dissolved oxygen, and algal blooms. The Maryland Department of the Environment relies on the SRF's data to assess pollution levels. By monitoring over 21 locations with frequent sampling, the volunteers significantly expand the scientific evidence available to regulators, with the goal of driving policies that reduce water pollution in the Chesapeake Bay watershed.
The City of Dania Beach routinely monitors its drinking water supply and submits reports on water quality. Testing in 2012 found the water safe within regulatory limits, except the City failed to complete all required lead and copper sampling between July and December. The water source is underground aquifers accessed by wells 65 feet deep. Water is treated through lime softening, filtration, disinfection and fluoride addition. About 17,000 customers receive water meeting health standards, though some groups may be at higher risk and should take precautions.
This document summarizes a study to identify tidal creeks in Beaufort County, SC that are most sensitive to changes in salinity from stormwater runoff. It outlines a partnership between Beaufort County, SCDNR, and other organizations to monitor salinity changes in 5 watersheds under different rainfall conditions. The goals are to determine which watersheds are most impacted, how far downstream effects occur, and how volume control strategies and development affect conditions. Monitoring involves rainfall and salinity data loggers over 9-10 months. Results will inform the county's stormwater management plan and protection of important fisheries habitats.
This document discusses the use of passive sampling as a screening tool for new and emerging chemicals in Irish water bodies. It provides background on relevant EU directives and Irish legislation. It then summarizes the status of Irish surface waters based on previous monitoring programs, highlighting issues like agricultural pollutants contributing to fish kills. The document proposes a new passive sampling project to screen for substances like pharmaceuticals, brominated flame retardants, and pesticides at sites across Ireland. The goals are to test passive sampling technologies in Ireland and identify additional compounds present in surface waters.
This document discusses water quality monitoring and modeling. It covers the importance of monitoring to assess pollution levels, compare them to standards, and evaluate protection measures. Effective monitoring programs are designed to answer questions about adverse effects, environmental levels exceeding limits, trends in levels, and how far above background levels have risen. Chemical monitoring of water quality has advantages over biological monitoring like producing quantitative data and enabling frequent automated sampling. Water quality models have developed since the 1930s to simulate oxygen levels, incorporate other processes, and relate chemical and biological parameters to environmental variables. Nutrient models predict mass flows based on point and non-point sources and biological uptake.
This document provides an overview of the Cloud to Coast research project which aims to improve the ability to predict exposure and health impacts of pathogens in coastal waters. The project involves developing an integrated model of hydrology, hydraulics and transport of faecal indicator organisms from source in catchments to coastal areas. Extensive sampling and monitoring is being conducted in the Ribble catchment to inform models, which will then be used to assess health impacts under different scenarios and inform policy.
Sulphate and Hardness_Elphick et al_ET&CGuy Gilron
This document presents the results of a study evaluating the chronic toxicity of sulfate in various aquatic organisms. A variety of test species, including invertebrates, fish, algae, moss, and an amphibian, were exposed to sulfate under different water hardness conditions. The results show that sulfate toxicity decreases with increasing water hardness. Based on these findings, the authors calculated water quality guidelines for sulfate separately for soft, moderately hard, and hard water. The guidelines ranged from 75 to 725 mg/L sulfate depending on the water hardness and calculation method. The study provides a robust dataset that can be used to establish scientifically defensible sulfate guidelines that account for the modifying effect of water hardness.
Effect of Seasonal Variation on Quality of Domestic Water Sources in Central ...theijes
The quality of water sources in the Central Gonja District in the Northern Region of Ghana has been questioned due to activities that pollute water in the area. This research analysed the quality of domestic water sources in the Central Gonja District in terms of pH, EC, Turbidity, Total hardness, Nitrate and Faecal coliform. One hundred and eight (108) water samples were collected from boreholes, rivers, rainwater and dam in the wet and dry seasons within six months. The samples were analysed in the laboratory according to the procedures and protocols outlined in the Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater for pH, turbidity, total hardness, nitrate and faecal coliform. Analysis of the water sources showed that the parameters of boreholes measured were seasonally affected except for conductivity which was high in the dry season. All the parameters for river and dam water varied with the seasons. In relation to faecal contamination, the borehole, river water and dam were seasonally affected, and unsuitable for drinking without treatment. Based on the WHO guidelines, rainwater in the area can be regarded as potable owing to its higher quality over the other water sources in the study area. Generally, rainwater can be recommended for drinking, cooking, bathing and washing for the people of Central Gonja District.
1) The document discusses the status of surface water and groundwater in Ireland according to the Water Framework Directive. It provides interim status assessments showing the percentage of water bodies with high, good, moderate, poor, or bad ecological status.
2) Wastewater treatment plants, agriculture, forestry, and urban areas are cited as the main causes of surface water bodies having "less than good" status. For groundwater, agriculture is contributing to poor chemical status in many areas.
3) Key issues discussed include nitrogen and phosphates in water impacting seaweed blooms, groundwater as both an input to and pathway for surface waters, and groundwater-dependent ecosystems.
Environmental Risks from bulk chlorine rev 4 3 16Nigel Harrison
This document summarizes an environmental risk assessment of potential chlorine releases from bulk storage installations at three Anglian Water treatment works. Six potential unmitigated accident scenarios were modeled and assessed as "Sub-MATTE", meaning they would not be considered major accidents to the environment. The assessment identified potential pathways between chlorine sources and environmental receptors. It determined severity levels and duration/recovery categories for receptors based on modeling and established tolerability thresholds. The document provides context on Anglian Water's COMAH regulations requirements and the chlorination systems. It outlines the accident scenarios modeled, including leak sizes and frequencies.
Multidisciplinary Research Week 2013 at the University of Southampton. #MDRWeek. World Water Day and International Year of Water Cooperation 2013.
Water quality: addressing global problems at source’, Presentation by Dr Jim Wright, Geography and Environment, University of Southampton.
See the latest videos, interviews, pictures, tweets and views from the floor at: www.southampton.ac.uk/multidisciplinary
This document presents the results of a study that used mobile mass spectrometry to measure ambient concentrations of benzene, toluene, and xylene compounds (BTEX) near unconventional oil and gas extraction sites in the Eagle Ford Shale region of Texas. The study found highly variable BTEX contamination events originating from specific sources on well pad sites, including natural gas flaring units, condensate tanks, compressor units, and hydrogen sulfide scavengers. Individual wellheads did not contribute significantly to BTEX levels. The detection of point sources indicates that mechanical inefficiencies, rather than the extraction process as a whole, are responsible for releasing these compounds into the air.
Substantial reductions in faecal indicator bacteria loads were found after sewerage improvements in seven shellfish water catchments in England and Wales. Specifically:
1) Loads from key sewage treatment works that installed ultraviolet disinfection were reduced to ≤0.6% of total loads impacting shellfish waters.
2) Loads from intermittent discharges like combined sewer overflows that installed screens and increased storage were reduced to ≤7% of total loads assuming a 90% flow reduction.
3) Additional data is still needed to accurately characterize loads from agriculture and other sources to inform future interventions.
This study investigated ecological processes in an urban stormwater lake during its ice-covered period from November to mid-April. Data from two winter seasons showed chlorophyll-a levels under ice were 22% of open-water levels, indicating primary productivity still occurs. Nutrients like nitrogen and phosphorus were significantly higher under ice, likely from road and urban runoff. Under ice, total phosphorus levels correlated positively with chlorophyll-a when nutrient ratios were low, suggesting phosphorus controls algal growth. The results provide evidence of active nutrient cycles in stormwater lakes during winter, contrary to assumptions of dormancy under ice cover.
This document presents research on approaches to mitigate pollution from the herbicide MCPA (2-methyl-4-chloro-phenoxyacetic acid) in water catchments used as drinking water sources. The research monitored MCPA concentrations spatially and temporally in an agricultural catchment in Ireland that supplies drinking water. Key findings include: MCPA concentrations exceeded drinking water limits and persisted in the system; concentrations increased downstream; and concentrations correlated positively with improved grassland and negatively with rough grazing land use. The research demonstrates the need for enhanced monitoring and questions the sustainability of certain land uses like improved grassland near drinking water sources.
This document summarizes the environmental effects monitoring program conducted during the remediation of one of Canada's most polluted sites in Sydney Harbour. The monitoring program included water quality sampling, sediment quality sampling, mussel tissue sampling, crab tissue sampling, and benthic community assessments. The results showed that most contaminant levels did not significantly change or decrease over time, consistent with predictions that remediation would not cause significant negative environmental impacts. Some lessons learned included issues with non-detect values and challenges conducting the monitoring program during large dredging activities.
The document describes the work of the Streamkeepers of Clallam County volunteer water quality monitoring program. It discusses the program's goals of collecting credible water quality data to track conditions, identify issues, and inform restoration efforts. It outlines the program's various monitoring activities including measuring physical, chemical and biological integrity. It also discusses the author's experiences assisting with projects monitoring stormwater runoff and conducting various other tasks to support the program.
This presentation was given at the EPA’s National Water Event 2019, which took place on 29 and 30 May 2019 in Galway. This presentation by Gary Free from the EPA is on measuring the environment from space using satellite images.
Volunteer citizen scientists partner with the South River Federation (SRF) in Maryland to collect water quality data along the South River and its tributaries. The volunteers are trained and follow rigorous protocols to gather precise data on factors like pH, dissolved oxygen, and algal blooms. The Maryland Department of the Environment relies on the SRF's data to assess pollution levels. By monitoring over 21 locations with frequent sampling, the volunteers significantly expand the scientific evidence available to regulators, with the goal of driving policies that reduce water pollution in the Chesapeake Bay watershed.
The City of Dania Beach routinely monitors its drinking water supply and submits reports on water quality. Testing in 2012 found the water safe within regulatory limits, except the City failed to complete all required lead and copper sampling between July and December. The water source is underground aquifers accessed by wells 65 feet deep. Water is treated through lime softening, filtration, disinfection and fluoride addition. About 17,000 customers receive water meeting health standards, though some groups may be at higher risk and should take precautions.
This document summarizes a study to identify tidal creeks in Beaufort County, SC that are most sensitive to changes in salinity from stormwater runoff. It outlines a partnership between Beaufort County, SCDNR, and other organizations to monitor salinity changes in 5 watersheds under different rainfall conditions. The goals are to determine which watersheds are most impacted, how far downstream effects occur, and how volume control strategies and development affect conditions. Monitoring involves rainfall and salinity data loggers over 9-10 months. Results will inform the county's stormwater management plan and protection of important fisheries habitats.
This document discusses the use of passive sampling as a screening tool for new and emerging chemicals in Irish water bodies. It provides background on relevant EU directives and Irish legislation. It then summarizes the status of Irish surface waters based on previous monitoring programs, highlighting issues like agricultural pollutants contributing to fish kills. The document proposes a new passive sampling project to screen for substances like pharmaceuticals, brominated flame retardants, and pesticides at sites across Ireland. The goals are to test passive sampling technologies in Ireland and identify additional compounds present in surface waters.
This document discusses water quality monitoring and modeling. It covers the importance of monitoring to assess pollution levels, compare them to standards, and evaluate protection measures. Effective monitoring programs are designed to answer questions about adverse effects, environmental levels exceeding limits, trends in levels, and how far above background levels have risen. Chemical monitoring of water quality has advantages over biological monitoring like producing quantitative data and enabling frequent automated sampling. Water quality models have developed since the 1930s to simulate oxygen levels, incorporate other processes, and relate chemical and biological parameters to environmental variables. Nutrient models predict mass flows based on point and non-point sources and biological uptake.
This document provides an overview of the Cloud to Coast research project which aims to improve the ability to predict exposure and health impacts of pathogens in coastal waters. The project involves developing an integrated model of hydrology, hydraulics and transport of faecal indicator organisms from source in catchments to coastal areas. Extensive sampling and monitoring is being conducted in the Ribble catchment to inform models, which will then be used to assess health impacts under different scenarios and inform policy.
This study evaluated the microbiological and physicochemical quality of water from the Nzhelele River in South Africa, which is an important source of drinking water for rural communities. Membrane filtration and specialized equipment were used to analyze E. coli, enterococci, pH, conductivity, turbidity, and anion levels from January to June 2014. Results found high levels of fecal bacteria that exceeded limits for drinking water. However, measurements of pH, conductivity, and anions were within permissible limits. The study concludes that while chemical parameters of the river water meet guidelines, it is contaminated with fecal organisms and poses health risks if used for drinking without treatment.
Reducing Bacterial Contamination In WaterwaysJason Schroeder
Presentation at the River Network "River Rally" conference in Baltimore, Maryland May 29th - June 1st. Our workshop discussed Milwaukee Riverkeeper\'s IDDE program specifically focused on bacteria monitoring for human sewage, using genetic testing to determine the presence of Bacteroides, a specific human marker for human sewage.
We discuss how many stormwater outfalls we found containing human sewage, our documentation of the data, the use of GIS and Google Maps and Google Earth for displaying the data and how to move forward to fix this serious human health risk and pollution problem.
Cheryl Nenn and I co-presented this presentation/workshop. Slides 11 - 32 were presented by me, while Cheryl presented slides 2 - 10 and 33 - 34.
RECOMMENDATIONS FOR ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING AROUND DEEP-SEA MINING SITESiQHub
The document discusses recommendations for environmental monitoring around deep-sea mining sites. It recommends:
1) Understanding the combination of laboratory experiments and numerical modeling to monitor aspects like plume generation and sediment dispersion from mining activities.
2) Early modeling suggested plumes from mining may impact areas 100 km away, and this was used to design buffer zones, but most current information is theoretical or from small experiments.
3) International organizations like the ISA call for using best available scientific evidence, techniques, and practices to monitor environmental impacts, but definitions and applications continue to be discussed.
4) Monitoring key properties of plumes like particle size and distribution is important to understand impacts and restoration timelines.
Multiple Use of Surface Water Resources and Bacteria Colonization of Water Bo...Editor IJCATR
Water samples collected along the water courses of surface water sources of domestic water supply in Ezinihite Mbaise were analyzed for bacterial species inventory and total viable count (TVC) using the multiple test tube technique and colony counters. The surface waters covered include Ariam River and other tributaries that constitute the bulk of surface water resources in the area. Eight species of bacteria including E-coli, staphylococcus aureus, salmonella, and fecal streptococci among others were identified. Total viable counts gave alarming growth levels when compared o the standards as set by the world health organization (WHO). The microbial population explosion in the river is attributable to the multiple activities within and around the river also the uses including wash off from abattoirs carrying abattoir wastes directly into the river, domestic wastes dumped along the recharge path, others include in stream fermentation of food stuff and general laundry point for any for clothes, automobiles. All these make sufficiently available to enhance microbial growth. Surface water use should be monitored to ensure sustainability and proper management of watershed will control this trend of colonization of public water supply sources and in turn control the trends in water borne infections.
This document proposes a case study to monitor water quality in Vembanad Lake using remote sensing, modeling, and field observations. Vembanad Lake is an ecologically important water body in Kerala, India that has experienced increased pollution and disease outbreaks from development. The study aims to identify reservoirs of pathogenic vibrios like V. cholerae in the lake, understand their seasonal and spatial variation, and develop models to forecast disease outbreaks. Researchers will use remote sensing, field measurements, laboratory experiments, statistical modeling, and citizen science with local volunteers. The goals are to generate risk maps of outbreak areas, make recommendations to reduce pathogens and prevent disease, and engage communities through education programs.
This document presents a research proposal that aims to estimate fish community diversity in the Sepetang River in Perak, Malaysia through chemometric approaches. Specifically, it will compare the forecasting capacity of fish diversity using multiple linear regression (MLR) and artificial neural networks (ANN). The research will collect data on water quality parameters and fish diversity indices at various sites along the Sepetang River. MLR and ANN models will then be developed and evaluated to determine which approach more accurately predicts fish diversity based on water quality inputs. The best performing model could provide a reliable tool for regulating and managing local fish resources.
The City of Dania Beach provides drinking water to over 18,000 citizens. Water is drawn from wells in the Biscayne Aquifer and undergoes lime softening and nanofiltration treatment before entering the distribution system. Testing found the water to be within acceptable limits for all regulated contaminants. One well sample tested positive for E. coli in 2014, but follow up samples were satisfactory. Customers are encouraged to view the full water quality report online or contact the water department for more information.
This paper provides a review of the scientific principles underlying environmental monitoring of marine aquaculture operations. It discusses the rationale for monitoring, including assessing environmental status against a control or reference area. The paper also addresses links between monitoring and regulatory criteria, the role of best practices/environmental management, and concludes with recommendations for a focused approach to monitoring that can be applied flexibly across different locations, species and situations.
This study analyzed water quality at 5 sites that drain the University of Houston-Clear Lake campus. Water samples were tested for various physical and chemical parameters including conductivity, nitrogen levels, dissolved oxygen, pH, and total dissolved solids. Statistically significant differences were found for conductivity, nitrite, nitrate, dissolved oxygen, pH and TDS between the sites. Ammonia levels exceeded state standards at all sites. High rainfall prior to sampling likely affected the results. Overall, the water quality meets standards for wildlife except for ammonia levels, though more testing is needed after rain events.
Bioassessment Approach to MS4 Evaluation and AssessmentJPoore
Jesse Poore presented logic and background information that supports integration of stream bioassessments into MS4 evaluation and assessment procedures.
Monitoring the Occurrence of Microbes in a Wellhead Protection Area in an Agr...guestdd2f4b
The document summarizes research on characterizing microbial risks to municipal groundwater in an agricultural setting. The research aimed to: 1) assess temporal and spatial trends of microbes within a wellhead protection area, 2) assess factors controlling vulnerability of wells to microbial contamination compared to dissolved contaminants, and 3) examine how policy treats microbial risks to better characterize the risks. The research found consistent occurrences of microbes throughout the aquifer system, highest concentrations correlated with meltwater events, and microbes occurred infrequently in municipal wells even under vulnerable conditions.
The 2013 annual drinking water quality report from the City of Dania Beach provides information on the source and quality of the city's drinking water. Key points include:
- The city's water source is wells drawing from the Biscayne Aquifer at a depth of 65 feet.
- Testing found no potential sources of contamination near the wells.
- Treatment includes lime softening, filtration, disinfection with chlorine, and fluoride addition.
- Monitoring detected no contaminants in excess of allowed levels with the exceptions of occasional positive tests for total coliform and E. coli bacteria, which were addressed through corrective actions and additional sampling.
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Bacteria & viral indicator contamination of stormwater - a multi-watershed study
1. 1
Prioritizing Stormwater Enforcement Efforts, a
Multi-Watershed Study (Project No. 98-04/104)
Final Report
Tom Mahin, MADEP; Dave Gray, EPA Region 1; Ron Stoner, MADEP;
Susan Gifford, MADEP; Oscar Pancorbo, MADEP
* A*
Executive Summary
This project was a collaborative project between four watershed associations and the
Massachusetts Department of Environmental Protection (MADEP). A total of 131
samples were collected during 4 storm events at 18 locations in 4 Massachusetts
watersheds (Merrimack, Charles, Neponset and Ipswich basins.
In addition, the Grantee (MADEP) conducted a comprehensive review of
epidemiological studies completed since EPA’s 1986 recommendations relative to
receiving water bacterial indicators.
This project was proposed to assist in answering the following questions:
What are “average” levels of bacterial indicators and viral indicators (coliphages)
associated with discharges from municipal storm drains in Massachusetts?
How do levels of enterococci compare to levels of E. coli in stormwater in
Massachusetts?
Does land use have a demonstrable impact on levels of bacterial indicators or
viral indicators (coliphages)?
Do coliphages correlate with traditional bacterial indicators? It can be argued that
the value of coliphages as pathogen indicators is that they may not correlate with
bacterial indicators, which are known to have limitations.
Are the results from the epidemiological studies conducted since EPA’s 1986
receiving water bacterial standard recommendations consistent with the
recommendations that the states use enterococci for marine waters and either
E. coli or enterococci for freshwaters?
Analysis of the laboratory results led to the following conclusions:
Enterococci counts were much higher than E. coli levels. Rivers, ponds, lakes,
etc. heavily impacted by stormwater in the watersheds studied may be more likely
to be associated with a water quality standard violations depending on whether
samples are analyzed for E. coli or enterococci.
Bacterial indicators (E. coli, fecal coliform, enterococci) did correlate with each
other
2. 2
The viral pathogen indicator used (male-specific coliphages) did not correlate
with the three bacterial indicators or with the water chemistry parameters.
Significantly higher levels of coliphages were found in certain locations (see
Appendices B and C) raising the question whether very high levels of coliphages
may be indicative of illicit sewage connections?
Bacterial indicator densities did not correlate with land use.
In addition, the review of epidemiological studies found that the results generally
were consistent with using enterococci for marine waters and either E. coli or
enterococci for fresh waters.
3. 3
Table of Contents
Executive Summary Page 1
Introduction Page 5
Field Methods Page 6
Laboratory Analyses Page 8
Use of Coliphages as an Alternative Pathogen Indicator Page 10
Results/Conclusions Page 12
References Page 23
Appendix A – Conference Paper Generated by Grant Page 25
Appendix B – Project Quality Assurance Program Plan (QAPP)
4. 4
Disclaimer/Acknowledgements
The project has been financed partially funded with federal Funds from the
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) to the Massachusetts Department of
Environmental Protection (the Department) under Section 104(b)(3) of the Clean Water
Act. The contents do not necessarily reflect the views and policies of EPA or of the
MADEP, nor does the mention of trade names or commercial products constitute
endorsement or recommendation for use.
The MADEP thanks the following organizations and their staff for their support and
assistance during the project:
The Charles River Watershed Association
The Merrimack River Watershed Council
The Ipswich River Watershed Association
The Neponset River Watershed Association
In addition, thanks to Gary Gonyea for reviewing and commenting on the draft of the
Final Project Report.
Contact for Questions
For questions relative to this study, please contact the Project Officer for the study,
Tom Mahin of MADEP at thomas.mahin@state.ma.us
5. 5
INTRODUCTION
This project was a collaborative project between 4 watershed advocacy groups and the
MADEP Northeast Regional Office and Wall Experiment Station. Stormwater samples
were collected during 4 storm events at 18 locations in freshwater portions of 4
northeastern Massachusetts watersheds: the Merrimack, Charles, Neponset and Ipswich.
The objective of the study was to compare a variety of pathogen indicators for their
potential in prioritizing stormwater remediation efforts. The project was funded by an
EPA 104(b)(3) grant (Project No. 98-04/104) with a state match of a portion of the funds.
Stormwater pollution has been identified as the leading cause of “pathogen” (bacterial
indicator) water quality standards violations in many watersheds. For example, there has
been a considerable amount of work done in the Lower Charles Basin to assess pollutant
loads and characterize water quality conditions. MWRA in its recently issued CSO
Facilities Plan has identified stormwater pollution to be the most prominent pollution
source in the Lower Charles Basin. This conclusion appears to be supported by the water
quality sampling done to date in the basin.
This project was proposed to assist in answering the following questions:
What are “average” densities of bacterial indicator and viral indicator (coliphages)
organisms associated with discharges from municipal separate storm drains in
Massachusetts?
How do fecal coliform, enterococci, and E. Coli observed in stormwater and
select instream locations compare in terms of densities?
Does land use have a demonstrable impact on observed densities of bacterial or
viral indicators (coliphages)?
Do coliphages correlate with traditional bacterial indicators? It can be argued that
the value of coliphages as pathogen indicators is that they may not correlate with
bacterial indicators, which are known to have limitations.
Field Methods
Sampling Locations & Methodology
All samples were collected, preserved and transported to MADEP’s Wall Experiment
Station in accordance with the project’s approved Quality Assurance Project Plan
(QAPP) dated November 1999 (attached as Appendix E). 117 aqueous samples were
collected from a total of 15 mainstem and tributary stormwater outfalls, plus three
culverted brook locations from Fall 1999 – Summer 2000 (including Winter). Sampling
locations are shown in Figure 1 and described in Appendix A. Outfalls ranged in size
from 8-inch diameter to 7’ x 12’ box culverts, servicing a variety of land uses, both with
and without the contribution of suspected illicit discharges.
6. 6
Quantitative precipitation predictions from the National Weather Service were used with
local commercial weather forecasting outlets to determine if a qualified precipitation
event was forthcoming. For the purposes of this study, a qualified rainfall event was
defined as a minimum 0.25-inch rainfall that generated sufficient stormwater volume and
duration to facilitate collection of all required samples at all stations. Qualified events
included those large enough in extent to have generated the minimum rainfall required
throughout all four watersheds (e.g. a frontal storm) and isolated precipitation events in
only some of the river basins.
Samples were collected after varied antecedent dry period conditions (1 to 10 days),
cumulative rainfall depths (<0.1 to 1.39-inches), and rainfall/runoff duration (first flush to
24-hours after start of precipitation). Though most were single grab samples, 15-minute
grab samples were collected at one station in each watershed during each sampling event
in an attempt to assess any temporal variability. In general, sample volume was collected
directly into 10-liter carboys equipped with a dispensing spigot. Where direct collection
was not possible due to flow angles or access, flow volume was collected and transferred
into carboys from sanitized 2-gallon buckets or from 1-liter sample bottles using a swing
sampler on a telescoping pole. Once full, the carboys were continuously agitated and
individual sample bottles were filled from the dispensing spigot.
Physical Observations & Field Measurements
In addition to collecting aqueous samples for laboratory analysis of physical, chemical,
and pathogen indicators, sampling crews collected field measurements of pH and
temperature, and noted physical observations regarding odor, color, clarity, floatables,
deposits/stains, and vegetation on standard forms, in field notebooks, and through
photography.
8. 8
Laboratory Analysis
Summary of Parameters Evaluated as Part of This Study:
Bacterial Indicators – Enterococcus, E. coli, Fecal Coliform & Clostridium
Perfringens
Viral Indicators – Male-Specific Coliphages & Somatic Coliphages
Water Chemistry – Ammonia, Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD), Total
Suspended Solids (TSS), Anionic Surfactants (as MBAS) and Fluorescent
Whitening Agents, Fluoride, Specific Conductance, pH, Temperature, Chronic
Toxicity
Flow Related – Storm Duration, Precipitation, Storm Intensity, Antecedent Dry
Period
Land Use
Analytical Methods - Physicochemical Analyses
BOD by SM 5210B
TSS by SM 2540D
Ammonia-N by EPA 350.1 (Automated phenate colorimetry)
Fluoride by EPA 300.0 (Ion chromatography)
Anionic surfactants as MBAS by SM 5540C
Specific conductance by SM 2510B
Fluorescent whitening agents by HPLC (Fluorescence Detector)
Analytical Methods - Pathogen Indicators and Toxicity
Total Coliform SM9222B1
Fecal Coliform SM9222D1
E. coli SM9213D1
Enterococci SM9230C1
C. perfringens EPA-ICR membrane filtration
method3
Male-specific coliphage Double-layer agar plaque
assay3,4,5
Chronic Microtox
Toxicity Test Azur Environmental6
1
American Public Health Association. 1995. Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and
Wastewater, 19
th
edition. APHA, Washington, D.C..
2
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1983. Methods for the Chemical Analysis of Water and Wastes.
EPA600/4-79-020. USEPA, Cincinnati, Ohio.
3
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1996. ICR Microbial Laboratory Manual. EPA/600/R-95/178.
USEPA, Washington, D.C.
4
Grabow, W.O.K. and P. Coubrough. 1986. Practical direct plaque assay for coliphages in 100-mL
samples of drinking water. Applied and Environmental Microbiology. 52(3): 430-433.
9. 9
5
Sobsey, M.D., K.J. Schwab, and T.R. Handzel. 1990. A simple membrane filter method to concentrate and evaluate
male-specific RNA coliphages. J. Am. Water Works Assoc. 82(9): 52-59.
6
Azur Environmental. 1996. Microtox
Chronic Toxicity Test. Azur Environmental, Carlsbad, CA.
Coliphage Analyses at Wall Experiment Station as Part of This Grant
Coliphages were concentrated from 1-L storm water samples by membrane filtration-
elution and assayed by the DAL method as follows:
Somatic coliphages – assayed on E. coli C or CN-13 host with phage fx174 as
positive control
Male-specific (F+) coliphages – assayed on E. coli Famp as host with phage
MS2 as positive control.
Coliphage Analysis at Wall Experiment Station
10. 10
Use of Coliphages as an Alternative Pathogen Indicator
Background on Coliphages
Coliphages are viruses that infect E. coli coliform bacteria and are
nonpathogenic to humans.
They are believed to be more similar to enteric viruses with respect to physical
characteristics, persistence in the environment and resistance to treatment
processes than are traditional indicator bacteria such as fecal coliforms.
They are relatively easy and inexpensive to analyze.
Coliphages have been reported to occur in high concentrations in sewage
treatment plant influent and reproduce in sanitary sewers under appropriate
conditions.
A variety of domestic and un-domesticated animals shed coliphages in their feces, but
usually at lower levels than found in human sewage (Calci et al, 1998).
A study was conducted during the summers of 2002 and 2003 in Madison, Wisconsin
(EMPACT, 2004) during which a total of 223 water samples were collected at the three
beach sites for determination of male-specific coliphages. Male-specific coliphages
were detected in 33 of these samples ranging in relatively low concentrations from <1 to
23 PFU/100mL.
A study conducted by the USGS during 2000 and 2002 (Bushon and Koltun, 2003),
found that coliphages didn’t correlate well with other microorganisms in Cuyahoga River
water and samples from a tributary wastewater treatment facility in Ohio (see table
below).
Source - (Bushon and Koltun, 2003)
11. 11
Investigations conducted by the Massachusetts Water Resources Authority from 1995-
2003 (Ballester et.al., 2004) documented no or poor correlation between coliphages
(male-specific and somatic) and other bacteria indicator organisms (fecal coliform,
enterococci, and E. Coli.) found in Boston Harbor, the Charles River, and the influent and
effluent of the Cottage Farm CSO facility and the Deer Island Treatment Plant.
Investigators concluded that coliphages could be used as relatively conservative tracers of
sewage in the region since they were observed to be more persistent through wastewater
treatment and in the environment than were the bacterial indicators examined.
12. 12
Results/Conclusions
Discussion of Results From This Study
For the traditional bacterial indicators, the highest concentrations were associated with
the summer and fall seasons. It should be noted though that actual loadings to
waterbodies are a factor of flow and concentrations, so overall loadings in the spring may
exceed loadings in the summer (on an overall season basis). The USGS Oregon study
(USGS Oregon, 2002) only looked at one bacterial indicator but found higher E. coli
levels in the summer than in the other 2 seasons studied (spring and winter).
Seasonal Comparison of Concentrations of Select Pathogen Indicators in This Study
Pathogen Indicator
(Geomeans)
Spring Summer Fall Winter
Bacterial Indicators
Enterococcus
(cfu/100 mL)
2,736 14,035 16,204 1,625
E. coli (cfu/100 mL) 350 1,906 1,584 312
Fecal Coliform
(cfu/100mL)
871 5,705 3,999 1,061
Viral Indicator
Male-Specific
Coliphages (pfu/L)
48 137 63 207
Because the summer season is most closely associated with recreational water uses that
are the basis of receiving water standards, a comparison of indicator levels by watershed
during summer storm events was conducted (see table below).
Comparison of Bacterial Indicator Levels by Watershed for Summer Storm Events
Pathogen Indicator
(Geomeans)
Merrimack
Basin
Charles Neponset Ipswich
Enterococci
(cfu/100 mL)
16,686 13,944 8,124 18,537
E. coli (cfu/100 mL) 4,778 NA 3,539 767
Fecal Coliform
(cfu/100mL) 13,897 1,999 5,090 2,882
Comparison of The Results From This Study With Other Stormwater Studies
13. 13
A number of studies have been done relative to bacterial levels in stormwater. The
Oregon USGS study noted below (USGS Oregon, 2002) looked at E. coli levels near
Portland, Oregon and the Charles River USGS Study (USGS Charles River, 2002) looked
at enterococci and fecal coliform levels. Neither of these two studies however looked at
both E. coli and enterococci levels.
The USGS conducted a study of E. coli levels from stormwater runoff in a creek
classified as 100% urban near Portland Oregon. The figure shows the E. coli levels for 3
storms during 1998-1999 (median values are the horizontal line on the box whiskers).
________________________________________________________________________
E. Coli Levels From Storm Runoff in an Urban Creek in Oregon (Source - USGS Oregon,
2002)
14. 14
The USGS conducted a study of the Charles River that included analyzing for fecal
coliform and enterococci but not E. coli in stormwater (USGS Charles River, 2002). As
part of the USGS Charles River Study they determined the “mean” enterococci
concentration from a number of different stormwater studies. These “other studies”
include stormwater data collected from 23 cities between 1978 and 2000 by many
different municipalities and agencies and. The “mean” value of 6,400 CFU/100 mL of
enterococci from mixed land use in the table below (the mean of the enterococci
concentrations from the selected other studies) is similar to the geometric mean (6,700
CFU/100 mL) and median (6,950 CFU/100 mL) of all samples analyzed for this study
(see page 17 of this report).
Summary of stormwater data from other studies (Source: USGS Charles River, 2002))
15. 15
In addition, the USGS Charles River study evaluated enterococci levels at a number of
locations in the Charles River basin, the results of which are shown below: The median
enterococci concentration for the wet weather samples analyzed as part of the Charles
River Study was 13,000 CFU/100 mL (Page 111 USGS Charles River Study, 2002).
Enterococci levels detected as part of the USGS Charles River study (Source - USGS
Charles River, 2002)
16. 16
Conclusion 1: The three bacterial indicators did correlate with each
other (see parameters in bold yellow/underlined in table below).
Pearson Correlation Coefficients
(P < 0.05) for Microbial Parameters in MA
Storm Water
0.460.610.59Som-phage
0.410.480.45MS-phage
C. perfringens
1.000.760.77Enterococci
0.761.000.87E. coli
0.770.871.00
Fecal
Coliform
EnterococciE. coliFecal Coliform
17. 17
Conclusion 2: Enterococci counts were much higher than E. coli counts
in the same sample especially at lower E. coli densities
18. 18
Conclusion 3: The viral indicator male-specific coliphages
(“MS-phage”) did not correlate well with bacterial indicators. This
finding is not surprising given that the potential advantage of a viral indicator is that it
potentially more closely mimics characteristics of actual pathogens (higher survivability
in the environment, etc.) than do bacterial indicators. Therefore it does NOT mean that
male-specific coliphages are not a good pathogen indicator. It was beyond the scope of
this project to sample and analyze for a variety of waterborne pathogens. Such a
comparison of the correlation of coliphages with actual pathogens versus the correlation
of bacterial indicators versus actual pathogens in stormwater would be a worthwhile
future project.
Pearson Correlation Coefficients
(P < 0.05) for Microbial Parameters in MA
Storm Water
0.460.610.59Som-phage
0.410.480.45MS-phage
C. perfringens
1.000.760.77Enterococci
0.761.000.87E. coli
0.770.871.00
Fecal
Coliform
EnterococciE. coliFecal Coliform
Correlation Coefficients for Coliphages (“MS-phage/Som-phage”) with Bacterial
Indicators
Regrsn. of E. coli vs. Male-Specific Coliphages in Storm Water
Correlation: r = 0.48 p < 0.05
E. coli Conc. (Log10
CFU/100 mL)
F
+
ColiphageConc.(Log10PFU/L)
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
0 1 2 3 4 5
Regression line with
95% confidence limits
Theoretical x = y line
19. 19
Conclusion 4: None of the bacterial or viral indicators correlated well
with pH, temperature, specific conductance or BOD.
Pearson Correlation Coefficients
(P < 0.05) for Microbial and Selected
Physicochemical Parameters in MA Storm Water
-0.210.55Som-phage
MS-phage
C. perfringens
0.27-0.300.46-0.19Enterococci
-0.400.39E. Coli
0.19-0.390.35Fecal coliforms
BODSpecific
Cond.
Water
Temp.
pH
Correlation Coefficients for Bacterial Indicators and Coliphages
(“MS-phage/Som-phage”) with pH, Water Temp., Spec. Conductance and BOD
20. 20
Conclusion 5: Significantly higher levels of male-specific coliphages
found in samples from certain locations.
This raises the question of whether very high levels of male-specific coliphages are
indicative of illicit sewage connections in the watersheds studied. As shown in the figure
below, coliphage levels varied from less than 10 PFU/L to greater than 100,000 PFU/L in
this study.
Regrsn. of E. coli vs. Male-Specific Coliphages in StormWater
Correlation: r = 0.48 p < 0.05
E. coli Conc. (Log10
CFU/100 mL)
F
+
ColiphageConc.(Log10PFU/L)
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
0 1 2 3 4 5
Regression line with
95% confidence limits
Theoretical x= yline
21. 21
Conclusion 6: Land use did not significantly impact bacterial levels in
this study (bacterial indicator levels were generally elevated for all types of land use,
see graph below). It was unclear why there was not a correlation with land use. One
possible explanation is that sewage cross connections/illicit connections to storm drains
contributed to pathogen indicator levels regardless of land use type. Also animal scat
contributes to bacterial levels in stormwater regardless of predominant land use type. It
is possible that use of composite sampling might have reached a different conclusion
relative to correlation with land use.
FC
Outliers
E_COLI
Outliers
ENTCOCCI
Outliers
CP
Outliers
MS_PHAGE
Outliers
Extremes
SOM_PHAG
Outliers
Microbial Densities in MA Storm Water by Land Use
Median; Box: 25%, 75%; Whisker: Non-Outlier Min, Non-Outlier Max
LAND USE
Log10Bacterial(CFU/100mL)orColiphage(PFU/L)Conc.
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
Residential
Ind-Comm Mix
Open Space-Rec
Res-Comm Mix
22. 22
Conclusion 7: The study was successful in identifying stormwater
outfalls with particularly high bacterial and viral indicator levels
that should be evaluated further for potential remediation.
Examples of such locations follow (these are not necessarily the most significant
levels detected but rather examples, the reader is referred to Appendix A Sample
Locations and Appendix B Detailed Study Results for more detailed information):
Sample
Location
Site
#
Fecal
Coliform
(cfu/100 mL)
Enterococci
(cfu/100 mL)
E. coli
(cfu/100
mL)
Male-
Specific
Coliphages
(pfu/L)
Somatic
Coliphages
(pfu/L)
Charles
CRWA-
1-3-1
3 53,000 96,000 NA 660,000 56,000
CRWA-
1-4-1
4 50,000 86,000 NA 660,000 14,000
Merri-
mack
MRWC
2-1-1 1 280,000 1,000,000 110,000 1,700 1,700
MRWC
1-3-1 3 55,000 75,000 20,000 120,000 5,600
MRWC
4-3-1 3 26,000 72,000 8,000 200,000 9,600
MRWC
2-3-1 3 260,000 500,000 60,000 42,000 14,000
MRWC
1-4-1 4 91,000 23,000 20,000 180,000 6,800
Neponset
NepRW
A-
1-5-1 5 20,000 5,000 20,000 100 43,000
NepRW
A-
1-5-2 5 31,000 41,000 22,000 210 57,000
Ipswich
IRWA-
2-1-1 1 31,000 20,000 15,000 8 11,000
IRWA-
1-2-1 2 660 330,000 NA 8 65,000
23. 23
REFERENCES
(Ballester et.al., 2004) Ballester, N.A., Rex, A.C., and Coughlin, K.A. 2004. Study of
anthropogenic viruses in Boston Harbor, Charles River, Cottage Farm CSO Treatment Facility
and Deer Island Treatment Plant: 1995-2003. Boston: Massachusetts Water Resources Authority.
Report Enquad 2004-15.57 pp., at URL http://www.mwra.state.ma.us/harbor/enquad/pdf/2004-
15.pdf
(Bushon and Koltun, 2003) “Microbiological Water Quality in Relation to Water-
Contact Recreation, Cuyahoga River, Cuyahoga Valley National Park, Ohio, 2000 and
2002” Rebecca N. Bushon and G.F. Koltun USGS WRIR 03-4333
(Calci et al, 1998) “Occurrence of Male-Specific Bacteriophage in Feral and Domestic
Animal Wastes, Human Feces, and Human-Associated Wastewaters” Kevin R. Calci,
William Burkhardt III, William D. Watkins, and Scott R. Rippey, Applied and
Environmental Microbiology, December 1998, p. 5027-5029, Vol. 64, No. 12
(Cole et al, 2003) “Evaluation of F+ RNA and DNA Coliphages as Source-Specific
Indicators of Fecal Contamination in Surface Waters” Dana Cole, Sharon C. Long, and
Mark D. Sobsey, Appl Environ Microbiol. 2003 November; 69(11): 6507–6514.
(EPA, 1986) Ambient Water Quality Criteria for Bacteria – 1986, EPA440/5-84-002,
January 1986
(Gray and Mahin, 1999) Proceedings of EPA’s BEACH Conferences, Tampa, Florida
and San Diego, CA
(Metcalf & Eddy, 1979) Wastewater Engineering: Treatment Disposal Reuse, table 3-16
Page 103, Published by McGraw-Hill Company 1979
(USGS Oregon, 2002) Phosphorus and E. coli and Their Relation to Selected
Constituents During Storm Runoff Conditions in Fanno Creek, Oregon, 1989-99, USGS
Water Resources Investigations Report 02-4232
(USGS Charles River, 2002) Streamflow, Water Qualirt, and Contaminant Loadings in
the Lower Charles River Watershed Massachusetts, 1999-2000
Water-Resources Investigations Report 02-4137 02-4137
25. 25
Bacterial Indicators and Epidemiological Studies at Beaches;
Implications for Stormwater Management
(WEFTEC 2001 proceedings)
Tom Mahin, Chief of Municipal Services Section
Massachusetts Department of Environmental Protection, Northeast Regional Office
205a Lowell St., Wilmington, MA 01887
Phone: (978) 661-7696, Fax: (978) 661-7615
e-mail: thomas.mahin@state.ma.us
Introduction
Based on epidemiological studies at beaches in the U.S., the USEPA has recommended
for a number of years that states use enterococci as the bacterial indicator for marine
waters and either enterococci or E. coli as the indicator for freshwaters (USEPA 1986).
The Massachusetts Department of Environmental Protection (DEP) recently completed a
comprehensive review and critical analysis of all the more recent (mostly non-EPA)
published epidemiological studies that were conducted subsequent to EPA’s original
recommendation. The goals of the review were as follows:
(1) To evaluate the more recent epidemiological studies to determine whether they
justified changing the DEP water quality standards for fresh and marine waters
(currently fecal coliform for both types of waters), and
(2) To analyze the potential implications for stormwater management given that
stormwater discharges are the main cause of exceedances of bacterial water quality
standards in Massachusetts.
Both the conclusions and the methodologies used in the studies were reviewed in detail.
Examples of some of the major epidemiological studies reviewed are noted below.
26. 26
Examples of Relevant Epidemiological Studies
During 1989-1992 during four consecutive summers, epidemiological studies were
carried out at marine beaches in England , the “UK beach studies” (Kay et al. 1994).
The UK beach studies differed from previous epidemiological studies in two
important ways. First, volunteers were randomly assigned as either bathers or non-
bathers. Secondly rather than relying of self-describing of symptoms, clinical
examinations were included as part of the study. The studies involved a total of 1216
participants. The studies found a dose-response relationship between fecal
streptococci (FS) and gastrointestinal (GI) illness. It should be noted that the
definition of fecal streptococci as used in these studies is very similar or the same as
enterococci as used in the U.S. An increase in GI illness rates was observed when FS
levels exceeded 32 colony-forming units (cfu) per 100 ml.
The studies also reported what was described as a “clear dose-response relationship”
between respiratory illness and fecal streptococci levels. The threshold level for
increased illness was 60 cfu/100 ml. While these studies only dealt with marine
waters and not fresh waters, the results appear consistent with the work done by EPA
that indicated that enterococci works well as an indicator of rates of GI illness in
marine waters whereas fecal coliform does not.
A major epidemiological study was conducted in Hong Kong in 1992 involving
25,000 beach-goers at coastal beaches (Kueh et al. 1995). Unfortunately fecal
streptococci/enterococci was not analyzed for. The study did find that “no direct
relationship between GI symptoms and E. coli or fecal coliforms could be identified
in this study”. The findings of the study appear consistent with USEPA’s position
that fecal coliform and E. coli are not effective at predicting GI illness in users of
marine waters.
An epidemiological study was conducted in 1995 of swimmers in the marine waters
of Santa Monica Bay (Haile et al. 1996). The study included 111,686 subjects.
Illness rates were compared for those swimming near stormwater outfalls versus
those swimming further away. Illness rates were also compared to various bacterial
indicators. Fecal coliform levels > 400/100 ml correlated only to skin rash and
E .coli correlated only with earache and nasal congestion. Enterococci levels
>106/100 ml were statistically correlated with “highly credible GI illness” and also
with “diarrhea with blood”.
Conclusions and Unresolved Issues
How much of a risk does wet weather stormwater/urban runoff pose to recreational
beach-goers? The Santa Monica study doesn’t appear to have answered this question
because the samples presumably included either mostly dry weather flow (given the
27. 27
climate in Southern California) or non-local origin flow. The dry weather flow
presumably could include significant amounts of illicit sewage connections. This
could have been responsible for significant percentage of the illness rates detected.
None of the epidemiological studies described above appear to have relied strictly on
traditional wet weather stormwater conditions as occur in non-arid areas of the U.S.
An epidemiological study was conducted by Yale University and EPA staff at a
pond used for swimming in Connecticut that received only runoff contaminated by
animal feces and not sewage (Calderon et al. 1991). The study that included 104
families did not detect a correlation between illness rates and levels of traditional
bacterial indicators but did find that bather density correlated with increased rates of
gastroenteritis in swimmers.
It is unclear what the source of contamination is in many of the studies reviewed.
EPA’s original epidemiological studies may have involved contamination resulting
mostly (or in significant part) from chlorinated effluents.
Since stormwater discharges are mostly unchlorinated, they may exhibit lower
pathogen to bacterial indicator levels than may have been present (but not analyzed
for) in many of the epidemiological studies if chlorinated effluents were the primary
source. Such a lower pathogen to indicator ratio, if confirmed, could have the
potential to overestimate the risk due to stormwater relative to previous EPA
studies.
Given the high levels of enterococci and other bacterial indicators that are
commonly detected in stormwater in urban areas around the country, evaluating the
true risk of stormwater becomes of critical importance. It should be noted however
that many stormwater drainage systems in urban areas (at least associated with the
aging infrastructure in the in the Northeast U.S.) contain significant amounts of
illicit sewage connections. Given this fact, a conservative approach would argue for
adopting the levels recommended by EPA at least until more progress is made in
reducing illicit connects and until future epidemiological studies (if conducted) can
provide better information relative to the specific risk from stormwater.
Can a single indicator adequately predict a range of illnesses in swimmers in
marine waters? USEPA recommends that only enterococci be used for marine
waters. The UK beach studies found that only increased levels of fecal coliform
organisms were predictive of ear ailments among bathers in the coastal waters studied
(Fleisher et al. 1996). In addition, the Santa Monica study found that E. coli was the
best predictor of earache after swimming (marine waters). Both of these more recent
studies seem to back up the argument that enterococci be used as the overall best
indicator for marine waters at least for gastroenteritis and respiratory illness.
However they also seem to point to the need for additional epidemiological studies to
clarify whether a single indicator is adequate to predict illness in swimmers using
marine beaches.
28. 28
References
Calderon, R. 1991. Health Effects of Swimmers and Nonpoint Sources of Contaminated
Waters. International Journal of Environmental Health Research 1, 21-31
USEPA 1986. Dufour, A., and R. Ballentine Ambient Water Quality Criteria for Bacteria
– 1986. EPA 440/5-84-002
Fleisher, J. M. et al. 1996. Marine waters contaminated with domestic sewage: nonenteric
illness associated with bather exposure in the UK. Am J Public Health 86: 1228-34
Haile, W., et al. 1996. An Epidemiological Study of Possible Adverse Health Effects of
Swimming in Santa Monica Bay. Final Report, May 6, 1996).
Kay, D. et al. 1994. Predicting likelihood of gastroenteritis from sea bathing; results
from randomized exposure. Lancet 344, 905-09
Kueh, C.S. et al, 1995. Epidemiological Study of Swimming-Associated Illnesses
Relating to Bathing-Beach Water Quality, Wat. Sci Tech.
29. 29
Appendix B – Project Quality
Assurance Program Plan (QAPP)
Available upon request at MADEP, please contact Gary Gonyea at
gary.gonyea@state.ma.us