This document describes a study that aimed to test the psychometric properties of the Romance of Leadership Scale (RLS) and investigate factors influencing faculty followership's perception of institutional leaders in Malaysian institutions of higher learning. An online survey using the 32-item RLS was distributed to faculty members at 16 public universities. The study hypothesized that the RLS would demonstrate valid and reliable three-factor structure in the Malaysian context. Demographic information and RLS responses were collected from 434 faculty members. Preliminary analyses of the data were conducted to examine the sample characteristics and properties of the RLS.
The first research that examines an integrative approach on leadership effectiveness. The thesis was based upon a global database of managers and executives, provided by the Centre for Creative Leadership. Main results indicate that personality traits contributes less to leadership effectiveness than behavioral competencies.
http://www.ccl.org/leadership/index.aspx
Empowering Women: An Empirical Analysis of the Determinants of ‘Work-Family B...harpreetdusanjh
This study makes an attempt to analyse the determinants of ‘work-family’ balance related factor for Women Corporate Governance professionals in India. ‘Maslow Pyramid’ was utilized to assess the motivation of women joining Corporate Governance profession in India. The job satisfaction of the respondents and its association with ‘Family domain’ and ‘Work domain’ related variables was also assessed. The sample of the study was collected through a structured questionnaire from 200 women professionals having membership of Institute of Company Secretaries of India during the period November, 2017 – January, 2018. An empirical analysis was made on the data using statistical techniques of the Friedman Rank Test and Kendall's Tau Coefficient. The findings of the study reveal that need for ‘Achievement’ and ‘Affiliation’ are the key determinants for choosing Corporate Governance profession by women Company Secretaries in India. Furthermore, the level of job satisfaction was found associated with ‘family domain’ related and ‘work domain’ related variables. The study finds its relevance as this is ‘one of its kind’ study for exploring motivational factors of women Corporate Governance professionals in India and forms the base for further research in the area.
International Journal of Humanities and Social Science Invention (IJHSSI)inventionjournals
International Journal of Humanities and Social Science Invention (IJHSSI) is an international journal intended for professionals and researchers in all fields of Humanities and Social Science. IJHSSI publishes research articles and reviews within the whole field Humanities and Social Science, new teaching methods, assessment, validation and the impact of new technologies and it will continue to provide information on the latest trends and developments in this ever-expanding subject. The publications of papers are selected through double peer reviewed to ensure originality, relevance, and readability. The articles published in our journal can be accessed online
The first research that examines an integrative approach on leadership effectiveness. The thesis was based upon a global database of managers and executives, provided by the Centre for Creative Leadership. Main results indicate that personality traits contributes less to leadership effectiveness than behavioral competencies.
http://www.ccl.org/leadership/index.aspx
Empowering Women: An Empirical Analysis of the Determinants of ‘Work-Family B...harpreetdusanjh
This study makes an attempt to analyse the determinants of ‘work-family’ balance related factor for Women Corporate Governance professionals in India. ‘Maslow Pyramid’ was utilized to assess the motivation of women joining Corporate Governance profession in India. The job satisfaction of the respondents and its association with ‘Family domain’ and ‘Work domain’ related variables was also assessed. The sample of the study was collected through a structured questionnaire from 200 women professionals having membership of Institute of Company Secretaries of India during the period November, 2017 – January, 2018. An empirical analysis was made on the data using statistical techniques of the Friedman Rank Test and Kendall's Tau Coefficient. The findings of the study reveal that need for ‘Achievement’ and ‘Affiliation’ are the key determinants for choosing Corporate Governance profession by women Company Secretaries in India. Furthermore, the level of job satisfaction was found associated with ‘family domain’ related and ‘work domain’ related variables. The study finds its relevance as this is ‘one of its kind’ study for exploring motivational factors of women Corporate Governance professionals in India and forms the base for further research in the area.
International Journal of Humanities and Social Science Invention (IJHSSI)inventionjournals
International Journal of Humanities and Social Science Invention (IJHSSI) is an international journal intended for professionals and researchers in all fields of Humanities and Social Science. IJHSSI publishes research articles and reviews within the whole field Humanities and Social Science, new teaching methods, assessment, validation and the impact of new technologies and it will continue to provide information on the latest trends and developments in this ever-expanding subject. The publications of papers are selected through double peer reviewed to ensure originality, relevance, and readability. The articles published in our journal can be accessed online
Gahye Hong (Korea University) and colleagues provide a summary of their recent paper on leadership and affective organizational commitment in Cross Cultural & Strategic Management. The paper has appeared in Volume 23, Issue 2 and can be accessed through the following link:
http://www.emeraldinsight.com/doi/abs/10.1108/CCSM-03-2014-0034
Dr. Maurice Roussety is an Executive Consultant at DST Advisory and Lecturer in Small Business, Franchising and Entrepreneurship at Griffith University in Queensland, Australia
Abstract: This study explored the relationship between transformational leadership and courageous followership behaviors in law enforcement, to determine if those assessing themselves as transformational leaders also assessed themselves as courageous followers. This relationship was explored using the Leadership Practices Inventory (LPI) and The Follower Profile self-assessment instruments, completed by 148 law enforcement leaders in the state of Ohio. The rationale for selecting law enforcement leaders for this study is that leadership and followership behaviors in this field have a significant cascading impact (on those serving, their families, those served, communities, extended law enforcement agencies, etc.). This study provided research to support leadership and followership development in law enforcement and contributed to academic research related to the leader-follower relationship. The study demonstrated an overall positive relationship between transformational leadership and courageous followership behaviors as self-assessed by law enforcement leaders in the state of Ohio.
American Research Journal of Humanities & Social Science (ARJHSS) is a double blind peer reviewed, open access journal published by (ARJHSS).
The main objective of ARJHSS is to provide an intellectual platform for the international scholars. ARJHSS aims to promote interdisciplinary studies in Humanities & Social Science and become the leading journal in Humanities & Social Science in the world.
Challenges in leading and managing people in educational institutions are worthwhile indicators that require constant checks and adjustments. These verifications are necessary because humans are complex beings and whose thinking faculties are not fixed and often guided by situational and environmental factors. Consequently, they must have divergent views which may pose unpredictable problems to administrators. Only very smart and ardent leaders maybe quick to detect, withstand and overcome such inevitables. The need for such challenges to be identified and controlled before they galvanize subordinates into negative behavioral tendencies cannot be under-estimated. This paper therefore examined possible challenges which may manifest as impediments or hindrances to the effective leading and managing of people in educational institutions in Cameroon. A number of challenges were examined and discussed in the paper. Suggestions for ways of checking and controlling the challenges have been made to serve as a reservoir of checks and guides for school administrators and leaders. The paper cautions school managers to be tactful and apply modern charismatic approaches in the control, directing of staff and managing of their institutions.
Implicit Leadership Perception at Context of; Intergovernmental and Nongovern...inventionjournals
Main focus of this study is exploring the Intergovernmental and Nongovernmental Organizations’ employees leadership perceptions based on differences of their cultural, national, educational, experience. The reason of studying in this sector; contains variety of cultural background and international experienced staff .Research has been done Gaziantep in Turkey because many UN agencies and NGO’s are operating in Gaziantep based on current situation in Syria armed conflict. Also this kind of organizations are specialized for emergency situations, development strategies and humanitarian aid at worldwide so we have to take in to account how hard it is managing these issues globally. We found some evidence that affecting leadership perceptions which are related participant experience, foreign language and education level and details are provided on discussion section. The question of research is expectations of leadership by multinational organizations employees. We haven’t seen any direct study related for both Intergovernmental and Nongovernmental organizations employees’ perceptions of implicit leadership, for this reason our study may provide contribution to literature.
Perception of civil servants on performance : An Emperical Analysis of Indone...inventionjournals
International Journal of Business and Management Invention (IJBMI) is an international journal intended for professionals and researchers in all fields of Business and Management. IJBMI publishes research articles and reviews within the whole field Business and Management, new teaching methods, assessment, validation and the impact of new technologies and it will continue to provide information on the latest trends and developments in this ever-expanding subject. The publications of papers are selected through double peer reviewed to ensure originality, relevance, and readability. The articles published in our journal can be accessed online.
The motivation to undertake this research was built against the background of changes experienced within the FMOH between 2015 and 2017. During this time, the leadership of the Federal Ministry of Health was able to transform the potential of the department of medical supplies into reality by building new infrastructure and creating an enabling work environment through the effective leadership and vision of the new Minister of Health in Sudan (Mustafa, 2017). It is no longer a cliché to note that effective leadership is a problem in Africa with such narratives as mediocre, poor and catastrophic used to appraise the performance of leaders particularly in political and other public service positions (Rotberg, 2004). However, whilst this negative characterization remains dominant, and rightfully so, there are glimpses of effective leadership in some places.
Gahye Hong (Korea University) and colleagues provide a summary of their recent paper on leadership and affective organizational commitment in Cross Cultural & Strategic Management. The paper has appeared in Volume 23, Issue 2 and can be accessed through the following link:
http://www.emeraldinsight.com/doi/abs/10.1108/CCSM-03-2014-0034
Dr. Maurice Roussety is an Executive Consultant at DST Advisory and Lecturer in Small Business, Franchising and Entrepreneurship at Griffith University in Queensland, Australia
Abstract: This study explored the relationship between transformational leadership and courageous followership behaviors in law enforcement, to determine if those assessing themselves as transformational leaders also assessed themselves as courageous followers. This relationship was explored using the Leadership Practices Inventory (LPI) and The Follower Profile self-assessment instruments, completed by 148 law enforcement leaders in the state of Ohio. The rationale for selecting law enforcement leaders for this study is that leadership and followership behaviors in this field have a significant cascading impact (on those serving, their families, those served, communities, extended law enforcement agencies, etc.). This study provided research to support leadership and followership development in law enforcement and contributed to academic research related to the leader-follower relationship. The study demonstrated an overall positive relationship between transformational leadership and courageous followership behaviors as self-assessed by law enforcement leaders in the state of Ohio.
American Research Journal of Humanities & Social Science (ARJHSS) is a double blind peer reviewed, open access journal published by (ARJHSS).
The main objective of ARJHSS is to provide an intellectual platform for the international scholars. ARJHSS aims to promote interdisciplinary studies in Humanities & Social Science and become the leading journal in Humanities & Social Science in the world.
Challenges in leading and managing people in educational institutions are worthwhile indicators that require constant checks and adjustments. These verifications are necessary because humans are complex beings and whose thinking faculties are not fixed and often guided by situational and environmental factors. Consequently, they must have divergent views which may pose unpredictable problems to administrators. Only very smart and ardent leaders maybe quick to detect, withstand and overcome such inevitables. The need for such challenges to be identified and controlled before they galvanize subordinates into negative behavioral tendencies cannot be under-estimated. This paper therefore examined possible challenges which may manifest as impediments or hindrances to the effective leading and managing of people in educational institutions in Cameroon. A number of challenges were examined and discussed in the paper. Suggestions for ways of checking and controlling the challenges have been made to serve as a reservoir of checks and guides for school administrators and leaders. The paper cautions school managers to be tactful and apply modern charismatic approaches in the control, directing of staff and managing of their institutions.
Implicit Leadership Perception at Context of; Intergovernmental and Nongovern...inventionjournals
Main focus of this study is exploring the Intergovernmental and Nongovernmental Organizations’ employees leadership perceptions based on differences of their cultural, national, educational, experience. The reason of studying in this sector; contains variety of cultural background and international experienced staff .Research has been done Gaziantep in Turkey because many UN agencies and NGO’s are operating in Gaziantep based on current situation in Syria armed conflict. Also this kind of organizations are specialized for emergency situations, development strategies and humanitarian aid at worldwide so we have to take in to account how hard it is managing these issues globally. We found some evidence that affecting leadership perceptions which are related participant experience, foreign language and education level and details are provided on discussion section. The question of research is expectations of leadership by multinational organizations employees. We haven’t seen any direct study related for both Intergovernmental and Nongovernmental organizations employees’ perceptions of implicit leadership, for this reason our study may provide contribution to literature.
Perception of civil servants on performance : An Emperical Analysis of Indone...inventionjournals
International Journal of Business and Management Invention (IJBMI) is an international journal intended for professionals and researchers in all fields of Business and Management. IJBMI publishes research articles and reviews within the whole field Business and Management, new teaching methods, assessment, validation and the impact of new technologies and it will continue to provide information on the latest trends and developments in this ever-expanding subject. The publications of papers are selected through double peer reviewed to ensure originality, relevance, and readability. The articles published in our journal can be accessed online.
The motivation to undertake this research was built against the background of changes experienced within the FMOH between 2015 and 2017. During this time, the leadership of the Federal Ministry of Health was able to transform the potential of the department of medical supplies into reality by building new infrastructure and creating an enabling work environment through the effective leadership and vision of the new Minister of Health in Sudan (Mustafa, 2017). It is no longer a cliché to note that effective leadership is a problem in Africa with such narratives as mediocre, poor and catastrophic used to appraise the performance of leaders particularly in political and other public service positions (Rotberg, 2004). However, whilst this negative characterization remains dominant, and rightfully so, there are glimpses of effective leadership in some places.
This poem was published today on Edudemic.com. Here is a visual about the reality of teaching on a daily basis. The slide also covers the dedication to students and the endearing love of the profession.
A Systematic Literature Review of Servant Leadership Theoryi.docxransayo
A Systematic Literature Review of Servant Leadership Theory
in Organizational Contexts
Denise Linda Parris • Jon Welty Peachey
Received: 20 February 2012 / Accepted: 8 April 2012 / Published online: 22 April 2012
� Springer Science+Business Media B.V. 2012
Abstract A new research area linked to ethics, virtues,
and morality is servant leadership. Scholars are currently
seeking publication outlets as critics debate whether this
new leadership theory is significantly distinct, viable, and
valuable for organizational success. The aim of this study
was to identify empirical studies that explored servant
leadership theory by engaging a sample population in order
to assess and synthesize the mechanisms, outcomes, and
impacts of servant leadership. Thus, we sought to provide
an evidence-informed answer to how does servant leader-
ship work, and how can we apply it? We conducted a sys-
tematic literature review (SLR), a methodology adopted
from the medical sciences to synthesize research in a sys-
tematic, transparent, and reproducible manner. A disci-
plined screening process resulted in a final sample
population of 39 appropriate studies. The synthesis of these
empirical studies revealed: (a) there is no consensus on the
definition of servant leadership; (b) servant leadership
theory is being investigated across a variety of contexts,
cultures, and themes; (c) researchers are using multiple
measures to explore servant leadership; and (d) servant
leadership is a viable leadership theory that helps organi-
zations and improves the well-being of followers. This
study contributes to the development of servant leadership
theory and practice. In addition, this study contributes to the
methodology for conducting SLRs in the field of manage-
ment, highlighting an effective method for mapping out
thematically, and viewing holistically, new research topics.
We conclude by offering suggestions for future research.
Keywords Leadership � Leadership theory � Servant
leadership � Systematic literature review
Introduction
Leadership is one of the most comprehensively researched
social influence processes in the behavioral sciences. This is
because the success of all economic, political, and organi-
zational systems depends on the effective and efficient
guidance of the leaders of these systems (Barrow 1977). A
critical factor to understanding the success of an organiza-
tion, then, is to study its leaders. Leadership is a skill used to
influence followers in an organization to work enthusiasti-
cally towards goals specifically identified for the common
good (Barrow 1977; Cyert 2006; Plsek and Wilson 2001).
Great leaders create a vision for an organization, articulate
the vision to the followers, build a shared vision, craft a path
to achieve the vision, and guide their organizations into new
directions (Banutu-Gomez and Banutu-Gomez 2007; Kotter
2001). According to Schneider (1987), the most important
part in build.
Understand the framework of leadership effectiveness.
The objectives: To understand Leadership characteristic categories,
scientific research study in leadership and
basic of leadership styles
Group Dynamics Theory, Research, and Practice2000, Vol. 4. .docxwhittemorelucilla
Group Dynamics: Theory, Research, and Practice
2000, Vol. 4. No. 1,27-43
Copyright 2000 by the Educational Publishing Foundation
1089-2699/00/$5.00 DOI: 10.1037//1089-2699.4.1.27
Leadership Research and Theory: A Functional Integration
Martin M. Chemers
University of California, Santa Cruz
This historical overview of leadership theory and research with an eye for commonali-
ties provides an opportunity for integration. Early unproductive research focused on
personality traits and behaviors. A recognition of the more complex nature of the
phenomenon resulted in the development of contingency theories that examined leader
characteristics and behavior in the context of situational parameters. The 1970s brought
an awareness that perceptions of leaders by followers and others, and perceptions of
followers by leaders, were influenced by cognitive biases arising from prior expecta-
tions and information-processing schema. Ironically, attention was belatedly drawn to
the study of female leaders, who were often the victim of cognitive biases and negative
assumptions. Recent research has reflected on the role of cultural differences in
leadership processes and has been drawn again into the search for outstanding leaders
with universally effective characteristics. The article concludes with an integration of
current knowledge in leadership effectiveness.
For much of its history, leadership theory and
the empirical supporting research have been
regarded as a fractured and confusing set of
contradictory findings and assertions without
coherence or interpretability. In this article T
argue that a considerable commonality of
well-accepted findings points the way toward a
successful and useful integration of current
knowledge. That integration, based on the key
functions performed by effective leaders, begins
to answer the question of how good leaders
behave and raises intriguing questions about the
personal characteristics of leaders that facilitate
those behaviors.
This article takes an historical perspective,
and the analysis is divided into four periods: (a)
the period prior to the presentation of Fiedler's
(1964) contingency model; (b) the period from
1965 to 1975, focusing on the development and
elaboration of contingency theories; (c) the
period from 1975 to 1985, when cognitive
theories and concerns about gender differences
arose; and (d) the period since 1985, which has
most extensively focused on transformational
theories and cultural influences. The historical
analysis is followed by a presentation of an
Correspondence concerning this article should be ad-
dressed to Martin M. Chemers, Division of Social Sciences,
117 Social Sciences I, University of California, 1156 High
Street, Santa Cruz, California 95064. Electronic mail may be
sent to [email protected]
integrative framework and a suggested direction
for future research.
In this analysis leadership is defined as "a
process of social influence in which one person
is able to enlist the a ...
Running Head: FOUR FRAME MODEL
1
FOUR FRAME MODEL
2
Literature review: Four Frame Model
Name
College
Course
Tutor
Date
Introduction
The four-frame model
Four-frame model is a model describing the frames through which people perceive their world as identified by Lee Bolman and Terrence Deal. The frames identified by the two are structural, human resources, political and symbolic, each of which comes with varying concepts, metaphors, and values. Accordingly, leaders show their behaviors in any of the named frameworks (Bolman & Deal, 2013).
In the structural framework, the leaders focus on structure, environment, strategy, experimentation, adaptation and implementation. A leader is said to be effective when he or she is a social architect and his or her style is analyzed and designed. On the other hand, a leader is said to be ineffective when he or she a tyrant and his or her style is details. In the human resource framework, the leader believes in his or her subjects and communicates their belief. That is to say that the subjects are responsible for empowerment, increase of participation, support and sharing of information. In this case, an effective leader is one whose style is empowerment, advocacy and support. An ineffective leader is one whose style is mainly fraud and pushover.
In the political framework, the leaders clarify what they want. They build a link between their subject and other stakeholders, they deplore persuasion in the initial stage but can uses coercion if need be. An effective leader is one whose style is coalition and team building. An ineffective one leads by manipulation. In the symbolic framework, a leader views the organization to be a theater where certain roles are to be played and symbols are used to attract attention. An effective situation is characterized by a leader who is prophetic and inspires the subjects. An ineffective situation is characterized by a leadership style of smoke and mirrors.
Purpose of the literature review
The purpose of the literature review is to clearly define and help the reader to understand the leadership model which was proposed by Bolman and Deal. Comparison of the various article and their information concerning the model highlight the features of the model in details. The review analyses the various articles to describe the key themes that emerge in the articles. The review also summarizes the similarities and the differences of the various authors in regard to the presented themes. Finally, the review explains the importance of applying the model and its impact in management and leadership.
Analysis of the articles and description of the key themes that emerge across the articles
The Paradox of Meritocracy in Organizations
The article titled “The Paradox of Meritocracy in Organizations” authored by Castilla and Benard explains the paradox of meritrocracty; just as the title implies, in organizations (Castilla & Benard, 2010). Accordingly studies were carried out.
Relationship between transformational leadership, Innovation, Learning and Gr...Editor IJCATR
The main purpose of this paper is to justify and discuss the relationship among transformational leadership, innovation,
learning and growth, internal process within government organizations. Transformational leadership style consists of five components
namely vision, intellectual stimulation, inspirational communication, personal recognition, and supportive leadership. Besides,
innovation, learning and growth, and internal process are considered as three main perspectives of organization’s performance.
Business Executives’ Perceptions of Ethical Leadershipand It.docxRAHUL126667
Business Executives’ Perceptions of Ethical Leadership
and Its Development
Catherine Marsh
Received: 6 July 2011 / Accepted: 22 May 2012 / Published online: 12 June 2012
� Springer Science+Business Media B.V. 2012
Abstract This paper summarized the findings of a qual-
itative study that examines the perceptions of ethical
leadership held by those who perceived themselves to be
ethical leaders, and how life experiences shaped the values
called upon when making ethical decisions. The experi-
ences of 28 business executives were shared with the
researcher, beginning with the recollection of a critical
incident that detailed an ethical issue with which each
executive had been involved. With the critical incident in
mind, each executive told the personal story that explained
the development of the values he or she called upon when
resolving the ethical issue described. The stories were
analyzed through the use of constant comparison, which
resulted in the development of two models: (1) a frame-
work for ethical leadership illuminating valued aspects of
ethical leaderships and the value perspectives called upon
when making ethical decisions, and (2) a model explaining
how the executives’ ethical frameworks developed. The
paper concludes with a brief discussion on virtue ethics,
experiential learning, and human resource development.
Keywords Ethics � Virtue � Leadership � Action learning
Introduction
As the daily news carries allegations of corrupt behavior in
all arenas of life, the world’s attention is focused on the
behavior of leaders in government, business, social, and
even religious institutions. The courts selectively prosecute
high profile-offenders, the Catholic Church sends priests
into retirement, and political candidates challenge one
another’s records for signs of moral weakness. Legislation,
in the form of the Sarbanes–Oxley Act of 2002, passed by
the United States Congress following the Enron, Tyco and
Worldcom scandals, has been enacted, but the scandals
continue.
Both executives and scholars are realizing that while
legislation is necessary, leadership may be the primary
determinant in ethical action. Gini (1998) stressed, ‘‘The
ethics of leadership—whether it be good or bad, positive or
negative—affects the ethos of the workplace and thereby
helps to form the ethical choices and decisions of the
workers in the workplace’’ (p. 28). Pollard (2005) stated,
‘‘While rules may bring a higher standard of accountability
and add the ‘stick’ of more penalties, they cannot deter-
mine the honesty, character, or integrity of the people
involved’’ (p. 14).
Lavengood (Pollard 2005) conceded that where public
policy leaves off, leadership must assist with the devel-
opment of a moral community that shapes human character
and behavior. Gough (1998) concurred and explained that
when caught in an internal struggle with regards to getting
ahead or doing the right thing, ‘‘The determining factor is ...
Business Executives’ Perceptions of Ethical Leadershipand It.docxfelicidaddinwoodie
Business Executives’ Perceptions of Ethical Leadership
and Its Development
Catherine Marsh
Received: 6 July 2011 / Accepted: 22 May 2012 / Published online: 12 June 2012
� Springer Science+Business Media B.V. 2012
Abstract This paper summarized the findings of a qual-
itative study that examines the perceptions of ethical
leadership held by those who perceived themselves to be
ethical leaders, and how life experiences shaped the values
called upon when making ethical decisions. The experi-
ences of 28 business executives were shared with the
researcher, beginning with the recollection of a critical
incident that detailed an ethical issue with which each
executive had been involved. With the critical incident in
mind, each executive told the personal story that explained
the development of the values he or she called upon when
resolving the ethical issue described. The stories were
analyzed through the use of constant comparison, which
resulted in the development of two models: (1) a frame-
work for ethical leadership illuminating valued aspects of
ethical leaderships and the value perspectives called upon
when making ethical decisions, and (2) a model explaining
how the executives’ ethical frameworks developed. The
paper concludes with a brief discussion on virtue ethics,
experiential learning, and human resource development.
Keywords Ethics � Virtue � Leadership � Action learning
Introduction
As the daily news carries allegations of corrupt behavior in
all arenas of life, the world’s attention is focused on the
behavior of leaders in government, business, social, and
even religious institutions. The courts selectively prosecute
high profile-offenders, the Catholic Church sends priests
into retirement, and political candidates challenge one
another’s records for signs of moral weakness. Legislation,
in the form of the Sarbanes–Oxley Act of 2002, passed by
the United States Congress following the Enron, Tyco and
Worldcom scandals, has been enacted, but the scandals
continue.
Both executives and scholars are realizing that while
legislation is necessary, leadership may be the primary
determinant in ethical action. Gini (1998) stressed, ‘‘The
ethics of leadership—whether it be good or bad, positive or
negative—affects the ethos of the workplace and thereby
helps to form the ethical choices and decisions of the
workers in the workplace’’ (p. 28). Pollard (2005) stated,
‘‘While rules may bring a higher standard of accountability
and add the ‘stick’ of more penalties, they cannot deter-
mine the honesty, character, or integrity of the people
involved’’ (p. 14).
Lavengood (Pollard 2005) conceded that where public
policy leaves off, leadership must assist with the devel-
opment of a moral community that shapes human character
and behavior. Gough (1998) concurred and explained that
when caught in an internal struggle with regards to getting
ahead or doing the right thing, ‘‘The determining factor is.
Running head RESEARCH PAPER OUTLINE1RESEARCH PAPER OUTLINE5.docxtodd521
Running head: RESEARCH PAPER OUTLINE 1
RESEARCH PAPER OUTLINE 5
Research Paper Outline: Servant Leadership
Introduction
· Definition and the history of the term servant leadership and example of how servant leadership works.
Research Hypothesis
· Hypothesis 1- Servant leadership leads to better organizational performance.
· Hypothesis 2- Political skills and servant leadership work together leading to employee creativity and positive workplace culture.
· Hypothesis 3- Servant leadership increases employee satisfaction.
Research methodology
· Sampling of 50 random junior employees and corporate managers from three companies in the United States to interview them on servant leadership.
Literature review
· Annotated bibliography 1
· Annotated bibliography 2
· Annotated bibliography 3
· Annotated bibliography 4
· Annotated bibliography 5
· Annotated bibliography 6
· Annotated bibliography 7
Findings
· Evidence of servant leadership across the sample of individuals evaluated
· General information observed regarding servant leadership
Research limitations
· Failed in establishing causality hence creating a gap that needs to be addressed in future through the application of different study designs.
· The study of servant leadership is part of the large topic that cannot be summarized into a small-paged paper. Therefore limited information was touched on regarding the subject matter.
Recommendations
· Recommendation 1- Managers should embrace servant leadership because of the benefits it brings to the organizations they lead.
· Recommendation 2- Employees should support servant leaders when they set examples for them.
· Recommendation 3- Excellent collaboration between the servant leader and the employees they are leading should be created for servant leadership to succeed.
Conclusion
· Summary of what is understood by the term servant leadershipsummary of the paper’s main points.
References
Giambatista, R., McKeage, R., & Brees, J. (2020). Cultures of Servant Leadership and Their Impact. The Journal of Values-Based Leadership, 13(1), 12. Retrieved from: https://scholar.valpo.edu/jvbl/vol13/iss1/12/
Chiniara, M., & Bentein, K. (2016). Linking servant leadership to individual performance: Differentiating the mediating role of autonomy, competence and relatedness need satisfaction. The Leadership Quarterly, 27(1), 124-141.
DeConinck, J., & DeConinck, M. B. (2017). The relationship between servant leadership perceived organizational support, performance, and turnover among business to business salespeople. Archives of Business Research, 5(10).
Eva, N., Robin, M., Sendjaya, S., van Dierendonck, D., & Liden, R. C. (2019). Servant leadership: A systematic review and call for future research. The Leadership Quarterly, 30(1), 111-132.
Gandolfi, F., & Stone, S. (2018). Leadership, leadership styles, and servant leadership. Journal of Management Research, 18(4), 261-269.
Jaiswal, N. K., & Dhar, R. L. (2017). The influence of servan.
Dwight
Evaluation
Leadership style assessments certainly have a place within the organization. The effectiveness of a leadership style assessment will depend on what type of assessment and what the organizational needs are. Multi-source feedback assessments are supposed to give a 360 degree look at a leader and give the organization a valuable outcome in the evaluation of the leader (MacKie, 2015). Using multi-source feedback assessments can be extremely beneficial as long as the assessment is properly paired with the organizational goals and needs. Assessing a leader from multi perspectives is truly a holistic approach. But, organizations need to recognize that no leadership style assessment is not without its limitations.
Next, the behavior approach is one of four approaches to leadership. Three of which all have weaknesses; traits, skills, and behavior. But the fourth approach to leadership, the situational approach demonstrates the flexibility of a leader (Northouse2016, 2016). In today’s dynamic and complex business environment, flexible leaders bring the most value to an organization. The situational approach allows the leader to apply the other three approaches given the circumstances. As an Army leader I found this approach to be extremely effective while leading in combat and non-combat situations.
Explanation of Usefulness
Of equal importance is the usefulness leadership style assessments and the behavior approach have on an organization. Once an organization has clearly defined the goals and purpose of conducting an assessment, and then subsequently the correct assessment is used, the results will certainly help the organization. In this case, using an assessment to evaluate the benefits of a behavior approach to leadership will allow the organization to determine what needs to be done, how it needs to be done, and how fast it needs to be done (Saxena, 2014). Additionally, the behavior approach (if the relationship behavior is used), can give subordinates the motivation needed to achieve the desired outcome through a better understanding of themselves.
Explanation of Impact
The impact of leadership assessments on an individual can be positive or negative. Again, this directly correlates to the goals and expectations of the organization when the assessment is implemented. For the individual, it could potentially identify strengths and weaknesses. Thus, giving the individual the opportunity to grow and learn from the assessment. Simultaneously, the organization discovers how these strengths and weaknesses fit into the organization’s goals. Once they have identified where and how an individual nest into the organization, a holistic approach to achieving those goals can be developed (Northouse2016, 2016). In comparison, using a behavior approach assessment will yield valuable information about subordinates’ behavior patterns. Which equates to the organization knowing and understanding their employees. Understanding behavio.
Informational Communication and Leadership Aspect Influence of College Deans ...ijtsrd
This paper examined the informational communication and leadership aspect influence of college deans in a rural state university in Catarman, Northern Samar, Philippines. It made use of 83 sample research participants, all are faculty members in the eight 8 academic units of the University of Eastern Philippines Main Campus, who answered the instruments lifted from the study of Jennifer de Guia. The results indicate that the informational communication and leadership aspect of the academic heads are influential. Leah A. de Asis | Brenfred N. Romero | Karene Maneka A. de Asis-Estigoy | Amador A. Estigoy "Informational Communication and Leadership Aspect Influence of College Deans in a Rural State University" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-6 | Issue-1 , December 2021, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd47997.pdf Paper URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/other-scientific-research-area/other/47997/informational-communication-and-leadership-aspect-influence-of-college-deans-in-a-rural-state-university/leah-a-de-asis
Do Role Models Matter An Investigation of Role Modelingas aDustiBuckner14
Do Role Models Matter? An Investigation of Role Modeling
as an Antecedent of Perceived Ethical Leadership
Michael E. Brown • Linda K. Treviño
Received: 18 September 2012 / Accepted: 20 May 2013 / Published online: 21 June 2013
� Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht 2013
Abstract Thus far, we know much more about the sig-
nificant outcomes of perceived ethical leadership than we
do about its antecedents. In this study, we focus on multiple
types of ethical role models as antecedents of perceived
ethical leadership. According to social learning theory, role
models facilitate the acquisition of moral and other types of
behavior. Yet, we do not know whether having had ethical
role models influences follower perceptions of one’s ethi-
cal leadership and, if so, what kinds of role models are
important. We conducted a field study, surveying super-
visors and their subordinates to examine the relationship
between three types of ethical role models and ethical
leadership: the leader’s childhood role models, career
mentors, and top managers. We found that having had an
ethical role model during the leader’s career was positively
related to subordinate-rated ethical leadership. As expec-
ted, this effect was moderated by leader age, such that the
relationship between career mentoring and ethical leader-
ship was stronger for older leaders. Leader age also mod-
erated the relationship between childhood models and
ethical leadership ratings, such that having had childhood
ethical role models was more strongly and positively
related to ethical leadership for younger leaders. We found
no effect for top management ethical role models. Impli-
cations for research and practice are discussed.
Keywords Ethical leadership � Ethical role modeling �
Role models
Introduction
National surveys show that few Americans have much
confidence in the ethics and integrity of today’s leaders of
government, business, and other institutions (Jones 2011;
The Harris Poll 2011). Thus, the popular perception is that
ethical leadership in the workplace is weak. Given this
cynicism, it is important to understand the antecedents of
perceived ethical leadership. Knowing where ethical lead-
ership comes from can help organizations strengthen it in
the workplace, thus restoring trust in leadership.
Previous research (Treviño et al. 2000, 2003) has iden-
tified traits and behaviors associated with perceptions of
ethical leadership. In their qualitative research, Treviño
et al. proposed that in order to be perceived as an ethical
leader, a leader must be seen as both moral person and
moral manager. The moral person aspect of ethical lead-
ership reflects the leader’s honesty, integrity, trustworthi-
ness, caring about people, openness to input, respect, and
principled decision making. As moral managers, ethical
leaders use leadership tools such as rewards, discipline,
communication, and decision making to communicate the
importance ...
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Empirical investigation of factors influencing faculty followership’s
1. 1
Empirical Investigation of Factors Influencing Faculty Followership’s
Perception of Institutional Leader in Malaysian Institutions of Higher Learning
Hairuddin Bin Mohd Ali
Institute of Education
International Islamic University Malaysia
Gombak 50728, kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
E-mail address: hairuddin@iab.edu.my
and
Mohammed Borhandden Musah
Institute of Education
International Islamic University Malaysia
Gombak 50728, kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
E-mail address:mbmusaus@yahoo.com
Abstract
This study aims at testing psychometric properties of the 32-item of Romance of
Leadership Scale (RLS). The study is equally aims at investigating factors
influencing faculty followership’s perception of institutional leader in selected
Malaysian institutions of higher learning. Online survey questionnaires were
conveniently sent to 2560 faculties of 16 public universities sampled, using
guidelines of 95% confidence interval and margin of error at ± 02% to collect the
data. A confirmatory factor analysis was performed to test factorial validity and
psychometric properties of the three constructs underlie the faculty followership’s
perception of institutional leader. It is anticipated that findings of the study will
provide leaders of the institutions of higher learning with proper understanding of
factors influencing faculty followership’s perceptions of institutional leaders, which is
critical to organizational performance and faculty retention. Furthermore, it is
expected that the findings will contribute to the initiatives of empirical studies on
followership especially in higher education sector. The study as being the first of its
kind in Malaysian context to empirically evaluate psychometric properties of the
scales underlie faculty followership’s perception of institutional leader and investigate
factors influencing faculty followership’s perception of institutional leader using well
experienced participants rather than inexperience participants of the previous studies
which sampled university students, high school and company employees would be a
remarkable contribution to the followership literature.
Keywords: faculty, romance of leadership scale, followership, Malaysia,
psychometric properties, CFA, institutions of higher learning.
INTRODUCTION
Organisational research has witnessed predominantly studies on leadership in
isolation of followership. This narrow focus has been overturned when Kelley (1992)
discloses the missing element in organisational research. This is due to the fact that
according to social constructive approach leadership is defined as an experience
undergone by followers (Meindl, 1993:97). In other words, individuals are actively
involved in constructing leadership rather than leadership being simply what a leader
does.
2. 2
Practically, followers represent if not all, about 99% of the institutional human
capital. It is empirically proven that while leaders in most of the organisations
contribute to organisational success not more than 20 percent on average, followers
are instrumental to the remaining 80 percent (Kelley, 1992). Unfortunately, for
decades, organisational literature has been tightly concentrated on investigating
leadership theory, traits, styles, leader’s viewpoint and related issues rather than
taking into equal significant scale, the follower perspective (Kelley, 1992; Vartanian,
Seeley and Trouyet, 2003; Rusher, 2005; Kelley, 2008; Vrba, 2008). Even in a
situation where research does investigate the concept of followers as a subject
matter, the main purpose is to understand leadership better (Kelley, 2008). In other
words, followership is traditionally ignored in the early organisational literature, while
the two components are inseparable. Two independent components (Kelley, 1992)
but intertwine with common focus “followers and leaders both orbit around the
purpose; followers do not orbit around the leader” (Chaleff, 2009:13). This study
focuses on evaluating psychometric properties of the romance of leadership scales
(RLS) in the context of Malaysian culture. It is also investigates factors influence
faculty followership’s perception of institutional leader in selected Malaysian
institutions of higher learning.
LITERATURE REVIEW
The Development of Romance of Leadership Scale
This particular RLS was established by Meindl and Ehrlich (1988) with the aim of
predicting leadership influence from the followers’ perceptions and experiences.
More specifically, RLS defines leadership as the fulfilment of followers’ preconceived
ideas as to the qualities and behaviours a leader should exhibit (Eden and Leviatan,
1975). Instruments of RLC were meant to measure the degree to which an individual
holds a romantic view of leadership. Recently, RLC is widely used in organisational
literature after the wakeup turn from heavily dependency on leadership in the
organisational literature. Since the establishment of RLC, researchers have been
using the instrument to control for follower bias when studying follower attributions.
Furthermore, the validity and reliability of RLC is also cross-culturally tested and
evaluated across a dichotomous cultures. An experimental study which sampled
304 undergraduate students found two factor structures and one factor contained
two items (Awamleh and Gardner, 1999). Similar findings (three factor-structure)
were reached in Chong and Wolf’s (2009) study which sampled 452 management
students in New Zealand. In addition, Cho and Meindl (n.d.) found a three factor
structure of the same version of the instruments.
However, the findings of a study which used RLS on election in the state of
California found a two-factor solution (with only 11 items) for the RLS, with the
reverse coded items loading on a separate factor (Bligh, Kohles and Pillai, 2005).
Given the forgoing findings, it would be imperative to test the factor structure
of the RLS in the context of Malaysian culture within the settings of institutions of
higher learning. As such, this study tests the following hypotheses:
3. 3
Hypothesis 1:Components of RLS are best represented by three-factor
model in the context of Malaysian institutions of higher
learning.
Hypothesis 2: Factors of RLS are valid and reliable.
Followers’ Perceptions of Organisational Leader
Back to four decades or so, organisational literature has started to pay considerable
attention to the vital role the followers play in the organisational performance. This
approach has led to the emergence of studies of followership styles, factors
influencing followership styles, followers’ perceptions of organisational leaders,
followers work experience, followers traits and values and so on to mention a few
(Kelley, 1992; Vartanian, Seeley and Trouyet, 2003; Rusher, 2005; Kelley, Chaleff
and Blumen, 2008; Vrba, 2008; Chaleff, 2009).
This study investigates followers’ perceptions with particular reference to
organisational leader. It is commonly known that followers judge organisational
leaders based on performance reports rather than leaders’ potentials. This is often
take place within the context of discussion between followers about their
organisational achievements (Calder, 1977). Empirical studies suggest existence of
differences in terms of followers’ personal values and work experience associated
with a relationship with a leader in a given context, which is deemed to have an
impact on followers’ work performance and behaviour (Ehrhart and Klein, 2001;
Miller, Butler and Cosentino, 2004; Bjugstad, 2006). Chong et al. (2009) however
argued that work performance and behaviour are outcomes. Given a stand as such,
researchers suggested constructive values, work experience and age formed
followers’ behaviours in relation to their leaders (Chong et al., 2009; Ehrhart et al.,
2001). This study however tests only work experience and age for whether or not
these variables influence followers’ perception with the organisational leader
interchangeability. As such, the study posed the following hypothesises:
Hypothesis 3: Older followers perceive greater influence of organisational
leader compared to the perception of younger followers of the
universities sampled.
Hypothesis 4: Experienced followers perceive organisational leader as
having less influence as compared with the perception of less
experienced followers in the context of the universities
sampled.
Method
Instrumentation
The process of investigating followers’ perception of organisation leader in the
contect of institutions of higher learning used an online survey questionnaire, which
sampled 16 universities across Malaysia. Apart from demographical information of
the respondents, the questionnaire comprised 32 items of RLS (Meindl and Ehrlich,
1988; Chong et al., 2009). The study adapted the instruments and slight
modifications were made to suit the context of this study especially to the Item 27,
4. 4
which in the original version states “the president of US can do very little to shape
the course of our country” and was modified to “the Prime Minister of Malaysia can
do very little to shape the course of our country”.
The pool of the questionnaire of the 32 items is built-up of close-ended
statements to determine the phenomenon that the researchers aimed to investigate.
Furthermore, it comprised two major sections. Section one, formed 7 items, which
requested respondents to indicate general demographic information. Thus, the
items asked and collected characteristic information such as gender, age group, race
group, marital status, work experience, monthly income and university affiliated to.
Section two, comprised 32 items of RLS used in the study. A 7-point Likert type
scale was employed to collect the data. The scale is interpreted as: 1=very strongly
agree, 2=strongly agree, 3=agree, 4=neither agree nor disagree, 5=disagree,
6=strongly disagree and 7=very strongly agree. Since items of RLS contained 15
negatively worded statements, reverse coding procedure was performed. During the
reverse coding, a value of 7 =very strongly disagree, 6 =strongly disagree, 5
=disagree, 4 =neither disagree nor agree, 3 = agree 2=strongly agree and 1 =very
strongly agree were selected. This recoding was used instead of 1 =very strongly
agree, 2 =strongly agree, 3 =agree, 4 =neither agree nor disagree, 5 =disagree,
6=strongly disagree and 7 =very strongly disagree. This reverse coding procedure
covered all 15 negative statements of RLS scale.
Participants
A total of 16 institutions of higher learning were sampled to represent the population
of this study. 150 respondents were drawn from each to represent population of
academic staff in their respective universities. Participants were drawn from
universities such as International Islamic University Malaysia (IIUM), University
Malaya (UM), University Putra Malaysia (UPM), University Kebangsaan Malaysia
(UKM), Universiti Teknologi Malaysia (UTM), Universiti Utara Malaysia (UUM),
Universiti Sains Malaysia (USM), Univerisiti Teknologi Mara (UiTM), Universiti
Pendidkan Sultan Idris (UPSI), Universiti Malaysia Sabah(UMS), Universiti Tun
Hussein Onn Malaysia (UTHOM), Universiti Pertahanan Nasional Malaysia (UPNM),
Universiti Teknikal Malaysia Melaka (UTMM) and Universiti Malaysia Sarawak
(UNIMAS) academic staff. The sample size (2400) was determined through the
confidence interval of 95% and margin of error at ± 3.5% as suggested by
(Ferguson, 1981; Vockell and Asher, 1998). Respondents were randomly selected
and voluntarily participated through online in answering the survey questionnaires.
Surveys questionnaires were e-mailed to the respondents through their staff
directory e-mail addresses. They were asked to express their level of agreement or
disagreement to the survey instruments. Of the 2400 questionnaires e-mailed, 436
questionnaires were successfully returned. However, two incomplete questionnaires
were discarded, which resulted into a total of 434 questionnaires being retained and
analysed. This indicated a ratio of (18.08%) of response rate which is acceptable in
online survey.
Data Analysis
Data screening processes
Since instruments RLS were adopted and used in different cultural context, two
statistical analyses were performed. First, principal component analysis (PCA) using
SPSS version 17.0 software to test factors underlie the constructs understudy. This
5. 5
was then followed by application of structural equation modelling (SEM) through
AMOS version 18.0 software, using confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) to test
confirm constructs (Arbuckle, 2008). Finally, assessment of construct validity through
average variance extracted (AVE) and construct reliability through composite
reliability index (CRI) were evaluated.
Results of the Study
Respondents’ demographic information
The accuracy of the dataset is often assessed through code and value cleaning
using descriptive frequencies. The results of the frequencies indicated that (n
=168, 38.5%) of the respondents were male academic staff, while (n =266, 61.3%)
were female academic staff.
With reference to respondents’ age group, the analysis showed that the
majority of respondents were as young academic staff (age between 29-39 years) n
=296, 68.2 %). In addition, respondents who were between 40-69 years who
identified as old academic staff were small in terms of academic staff
participation (n = 138, 31.8%).
The analysis demonstrated that the majority (n= 366, 84.3%) of the
respondents, who participated in the study were identified as experienced academic
staff (6-10 years teaching experience). Followed by participants, who identified
themselves as inexperience academic staff (1-5 years) n =68, 15.7%).
Pertaining to academic staff monthly income, the results of Table 1 showed
that the majority (n=227, 52.3%) of academic staff surveyed were earning a monthly
income above RM 6000. Table 1 also identified n=67, 15.4% of the respondents as
academic staff who earn a monthly income ranged between RM 3001 – RM 4000.
Furthermore, n=56, 12.9% of the respondents were identified as academic staff who
earn RM 4001 – 5000 and RM 5001 respectively. In addition, the least category of
respondents according to the scale of respondents’ monthly income, was the
category of academic staff who earn between RM 2000-3000 (n=28, 6.5%).
Regarding respondents’ race group, the analysis showed that the majority of
the participants (n = 363, 83.6 %) were Malay academic staff. Followed by foreign
academic staff (n =32, 7.4 %). Chinese academic staff (n =21, 4.8%) participated in
the study. In addition only (n=18, 4.1%) Indian academic staff have participated in
this study. Regarding respondents’ marital status, the data yielded that majority (n =
364, 83.9 %) of academic staff surveyed were married. This was followed by
academic staff who were classified themselves as unmarried (n =51, 11.8%). Some
(n =10, 2.3 %) of the participants were classified as themselves as divorcees and
only (n =9, 2.1%) of them were identified as widowed.
Finally, responses of academic staff surveyed indicate that the majority (n=60,
13.8%) of the respondents participated in this study were from UiTM. Table 1
identifies n=47, 10.8% the percentages of academic staff participated in the study
from IIUM. Furthermore, n=41, 9.4% was accounted for UKM academic staff
participated in the study. Similarly, n=33, 7.6% of the respondents were accounted
for academic staff from UPM. Interestingly, moderate percentages (n=31, 7.1%) and
(n=31, 7.1%) of respondent participations were captured from both UTMM and
UMSR academic staff population respectively. Moreover, the table revealed that
(n=30, 6.9%) of the respondents participated in the study were academic staff of
UPSI. The table also identified that (n=26, 6.0) of respondents were from USIM. In
addition, both (n=22, 5.1%) and (22, 5.1%) were identified as academic staff from
6. 6
UPNM and UTM respectively. Nonetheless, (n=20, 4.6%) of academic staff affiliated
themselves to USM. The analysis further presented both (n=18, 4.1%) and (n=18,
4.1%) as academic staff from UTHOM and UM. Also, (n=12, 2.8) were identified as
academic staff from UMS who responded to the survey. Finally, academic staff of
UMK were classified as the least on the participation scale (n=11, 2.5%). Table 1
depicts the detailed results.
Table 4 Frequency and Percentages of Respondents' Demographic Variables
Variable Frequency (N) %
Gender
Male 168 38.5
Female 266 61.3
Total 434 100
Age Group
Young 296 68.2
Old 138 31.8
Total 434 100
Race Group
Malay 363 83.6
Chinese 21 4.8
Indian 18 4.1
Others 32 7.4
Total 434 100
Marital Status
Unmarried 51 11.8
Married 364 83.9
Divorcee 10 2.3
Widowed 9 2.1
Widowed 7 1.2
Total 434 100
Working Experience
Less experienced 68 15.7
experienced 366 84.3
Total 434 100
Monthly Income
RM 2000-3000 28 6.5
RM 3001-4000 67 15.4
RM 4001-5000 56 12.9
RM 5001-6000 56 12.9
RM above 6001 227 52.3
Total 434 100
University
UM 18 4.1
UKM 41 9.4
UPM 33 7.6
UiTM 60 13.8
UUM 12 2.8
USM 20 4.6
UTM 22 5.1
IIUM 47 10.8
UPSI 30 6.9
UMS 12 2.8
UTHOM 18 4.1
UMK 11 2.5
UPNM 22 5.1
UTMM 31 7.1
UMSR 31 7.1
Total 434 100
7. 7
Principal Components Analysis (PCA)
Prior to PCA, reliability analysis was performed, to assess internal consistency of the
instruments. The results of reliability analysis revealed overall Cronbach’s alpha of
.86. This indicated a substantial internal consistency between individual items, thus
the items have positive covariance meanwhile the alpha is very close to desired
cutoff. Furthermore, this finding yielded that there is a very high reliability level of
internal consistency of the items, which indicated that the instruments were suitable
therefore; its results would be reliable in association with internal consistency build
up.
A PCA was conducted for the constructs. The analyses involved an iterative
process to reach the final solution, whereby items that did not contribute significantly
and practically to the extracted factors were automatically discarded. Furthermore,
factors with eigenvalues of 1 or greater were considered as good factors, and
therefore retained. Given a rule of thumb as such, a number of factors were
extracted from the pool of items. The correlation matrix table yielded more than 2
correlations were greater than 0.30. The measures of sampling adequacy (MSA)
requirement of (0.50 or greater) were also satisfied. Thus, the anti-image correlation
ranged between .59 and .96. Furthermore, all communalities were greater than .50
(ranged between .53 to .76), which indicates fulfilment of this requirement.
Moreover, the analysis revealed 3 interpretable factors with eigenvalues
greater than one. The extracted factors accounted for 51.17% of variance explained
in the constructs analysed. Interestingly, the degree of inter-correlation among the
items also reached satisfied level. Bartlett’s test of Sphericity was statistically
significant χ2
(496) = 9020.179, ρ≤.001, KMO = .80. Table 2 displays results the
details.
Table 2 Interchangeability and Influence Scale; Factor Loading, Measures of Sampling
Adequacy and reliability.
Construct Eigenval
ues
%Varianc
e
Indicator Loadi
ng
MSA α
Interchangeabilit
y of Leader
8.27 25.84
20. When an organisation is performing poorly, the first
place one should look to is its leaders.
.87 .71
.87
21. The process by which leaders are selected is
extremely important.
.86 .68
19. It’s probably a good idea to find something out about
the quality of top level leaders before investing in an
organisation.
.86 .72
28. Leadership qualities are among the most highly
prized personal traits I can think of.
.77 .72
6. Sooner or later, unqualified leadership at the top will
show up in decreased organisational performance.
.76 .69
8. High-versus low quality leadership has a bigger impact
on a organisation than a favorable versus unfavorable
organisational environment.
.74 .61
5.The great amount of time and energy devoted to
choosing a leader is justified, because of the important
influence that person is likely to have.
.73 53
1. When it comes right down to it, the quality of
leadership is the single most important influence on the
functioning of an organization.
.71 .63
24. When the top leaders are good, the organisation does
well; when the top leaders are bad, the organisation does
poorly.
.70 52
4. Anybody who occupies the top level leadership
positions in an organisation has the power to make or
break the organisation.
.67 51
8. 8
9. It is impossible for an organisation to do well unless it
has high-quality leadership at the top.
.62 .70
17. The connection between leadership and overall
organisational performance is often a weak one.
.61 .53
14. With a truly excellent leader, there is almost nothing
that an organisation can’t accomplish.
.56 53
12. An organisation is only as successful or as
unsuccessful as its leaders.
.53 65
25. There’s nothing as critical to the “bottom line”
performance of an organisation as the quality of its top
level leaders.
.52 .66
Influence of a
leader 5.65 17.65
31. One leader is as good or as otherwise as the next. .75 .79
.82
27. The Prime Minister of the Malaysia can do very little
to shape the course of our country.
.74 .70
16. Top level leaders make life and death decisions about
their organisations.
.72 .73
11. Many times, it doesn’t matter who is making decisions
at the top, the fate of an organisational is not in the hands
of its leaders.
.71 .75
26. In many cases, candidates for a given leadership
position are pretty much interchangeable with one
another.
.66 .66
22. So what if the organisation is doing well; people who
occupy the top level leadership positions rarely deserve
their high salaries.
.65 .75
23. In comparison to external forces such as the
economy, government regulations, etc., an organisation’s
leaders can have only a small impact on its performance.
.63 .73
18. Many times, organisational leaders are nothing more
than figureheads like the King and Queen of England.
.61 .70
2. The majority of business failures and poor
organisational performances are due to factors that are
beyond the control of even the best leaders.
.60 .69
30. There are many factors influencing an organisation’s
performance that simply cannot be controlled by even the
best of leaders.
.58 .71
10. When faced with the same situation, even different
top-level leaders would end up making the same
decisions.
.54 .70
7. Luck has a lot to do with whether or not organisational
leaders are successful in making their organisations
successful.
.53 .65
13. You might as well toss a coin when trying to choose a
leader.
.52 .60
Parallel Analysis (PA)
A further critical analysis on how many factors are accurately extracted through the
application of PCA was performed. This analysis is critical especially when the
analysis involves composing multiple scale items into a single score. This is because
determination of the number factors to retain is the most crucial issue researchers
encounter when using PCA. One of the effective methods proposed in determining
the significance of principal components, is the parallel analysis (PA), which
consistently proven the accuracy of determining the threshold for significant
components, variable loadings and analytical statistics when decomposing a
correlation matrix. PA involves comparing the size of eigenvalues obtained from PCA
analysis with those obtained from a randomly generated data of the sample size
(Horn, 1965; Pallant, 2007; Franklin, Gibson, Robertson, Pohlmann and Fralish,
1995). The PA threshold denotes if eigenvalues of extracted factors through
application of PCA are greater than the corresponding eigenvalues of PA, the factors
are retained. However, if the otherwise is true, then the factors fail to fulfil the criteria
are rejected (Franklin et al., 2007; Horn, 1965; Pallant, 2007).
9. 9
A Monte Carlo PCA for PA software was used to perform PA analysis. As
such, the number of variables (in this case 32), the number of subjects (in this case
434) and the number of replications (specifically 100) were calculated. The analysis
revealed that the eigenvalues of the first two factors extracted through PCA were
greater than their corresponding eigenvalues of the PA, and were thus significant at
p = 0.05. Therefore, these factors were retained for further interpretation. However,
the remaining third factor was rejected, since its eigenvalues of PA was greater than
the initially eigenvalue extracted through PCA (Franklin et al., 2007; Horn, 1965;
Pallant, 2007). These results did not support Hypothesis 1 with the finding that
components of RLS are best represented by three-factor model in the context of
Malaysian institutions of higher learning Table 3 depicts the details.
Table 3 Comparison of PCA and PA Eigenvalues for Data from RLS Scale
Component
no.
Actual eigenvalue from
PCA
Criterion eigenvalue
from PA
Decision
1 8.25 1.54 Accept
2 5.65 1.47 Accept
3 1.40 1.41 Rejected
Construct Reliability and Validity of the Measures
A construct validity analysis was performed to assess psychometric properties of the
items indexed factors that constituted interchangeability of leader and influence of a
leader. Two rigorous tests (composite reliability index (CRI) and average variance
extracted (AVE)) were conducted to assess construct validity, convergent validity
and composite reliability of the instruments.
The first test conducted was a CRI, which indicates how well each structure
has been described by the observed variables was performed to establish more
accurate reliability values. This test was conducted for the fact that researchers
(Raykov, 1998; Zinbarg, Revelle, Yovel and Li, 2006; Gordon, 2008) cautioned
heavily dependency on Cronbach’s Alpha to proclaim reliability of a construct due to
its limitations. According to Ranganathan, Dhaliwal and Teo (2004), while the
traditional reliability measure of Cronbach’s Alpha assumes equal weight for the
items measuring the construct in which it is influenced by the number of items in the
construct, the CRI estimates rests on the actual readings to compute the factor
scores which is better indicator of internal consistency reliability. Among issues of
which researchers pinpointed in relying on coefficient alpha per se are (1) “it does
not make allowances for correlated error of measurements nor does it treat
indicators influenced by more than one latent variable” Bollen (1989: 221), (2) it may
over or underestimate reliability Raykov (1997, 1998) and (3) it is somehow regarded
as a lower bound estimate of reliability.
Furthermore, Fornell and Larcker (1981) argue that the CRI is a more
advanced criterion of estimation compared to coefficient alpha. As such, according to
(Raykov and Shrout, 2002), a method that would allow researchers to evaluate factor
indicator scores more accurately is needed.
Given the foregoing reasons, the CRI test was performed to rigorously
examine the reliability of factor loadings extracted through PCA applications. The
conventional cutoff value for CRI is 0.70 or greater (Fornell and Larcker, 1981;
Bagozzi and Burnkrant, 1985). According to Fornell and Larcker (1981) and Hair et
10. 10
al. (2010), the evidence of construct validity is established if the CRI of each factor is
0.70 or greater and AVE of each factor is 0.50 or greater.
The second test performed is AVE, which measures the amount of variance
that captured by the construct in association with the amount of variance due to the
measurement error (Fornell and Larcker, 1981). In other words, AVE represents the
percentage of the total variance of a measure represented or extracted by the
variance due to the construct, as opposed to being due to error. The AVE is a
method that evaluates convergent validity and discriminant validity of a given
construct (Fornell and Larcker, 1981; Bagozzi, 1981). It is according Fornell and
Larcker (1981), calculated as the square root of the average communality. As such,
it is proposed that a benchmark of equal to or greater than .50 should be attained in
order to establish evidence of construct and convergent validity of a given construct
(Fornell and Larcker, 1981; Bagozzi, 1981; Hair et al., 2010). It is worth noting that
only convergent and construct validity were calculated in this section.
Interchangeability of Leader and the Influence of a Leader factors
The AVE analysis of interchangeability and influence factors revealed an adequate
estimation of AVE for interchangeability 0.51 and Influence 0.50). The estimates
(0.51 and 0.50) had fulfilled the recommended value of AVE (Fornell and Larcker,
1981). This finding demonstrates evidence of convergent validity for the two factors.
Moreover, the construct validity of the factors was further evaluated through
application of CRI method. Results of CRI revealed substantial evidence of construct
validity (0.93 through 0.89). These results fulfilled Hair et al.’s (2010) guidelines
where CRI .70 percent. Therefore, evidence of construct and convergent validity
were established. These results confirmed Hypothesis 2 with the finding that factors
of RLS are valid and reliable. Table 4 shows the details.
Table 4 Construct Reliability and Validity of Interchangeability and Influence
Factors
Construct α AVE CRI
Interchangeability of Leader 0.87 0.51 0.93
Influence of a Leader 0.82 0.50 0.89
Note: Composite reliability Index (CRI) formula = )²
/( )²+ Average variance extracted (AVE) formula =
)²/( )² +
Construct Validity
Since the test of psychometric properties of the constructs was one of the principal
aim this of study, a more rigorous structural equation modelling-based approach of
CFA is needed to validate the two factors extracted through application of PCA.
According to Byrne (2010), CFA would be the best choice to validate instruments
that have been fully developed and their factor structures were validated. RLS
inventory as widely used to meet this criterion.
To assess the validity of the 28-item measurement models, the analysis relied
on a number of inferential fit indices, which included the (a) Chi-square (χ2
) which is
a minimum value of the discrepancy between the observed data and the
hypothesised model, thus it determines whether a relationship exists between two
categorical variables (CMIN), (b) Degrees of Freedom (df), measures the amount for
mathematical information available to estimate model parameters, (c) Comparative
11. 11
Fit Index (CFI), which conceptualises goodness of fit by comparing an existing model
with a null model, which assumes that the latent variables in the model are not
correlated, (d) Turker-Lewis Index (TLI) compares a proposed model against a null
model and (e) Root Mean Square Error of Approximation (RMSEA), which corrects
the tendency of the model χ2
statistics to reject any specified model with a sufficient
large sample.
Byrne (2010) argues that the appropriate values for CFI range from 0-1.
Conventionally, CFI should be .90 or greater as criterion value indicative of
satisfactory model fit (Chueng and Rensvold, 2002). The value of RMSEA of .08 or
less shows a reasonable error of estimation. According to Brown and Cudeck (1993),
RMSEA ≤0.05 indicates close fit, RMSEA ≥0.05 to ≤0.08 indicates fair fit and
RMSEA ≥0.08 to 0.10 shows poor fit.
This study uses RMSEA with its point estimate and associated confidence
interval (CI) through method of lower and upper bound of the CIs in combination with
0.05 and 0.10 as the cut-off values used to validate the extent to which the
hypothesised models fit the data. When the RMSEA with its CIs are used, a given
model is rejected if the lower bound of the CI is greater than the value of 0.05.
Similarly, a given model is rejected if the upper bound of the CI is greater than the
value of 0.10 (Chen, Curran, Bollen, Kirby and Paxton, 2008).
More recently, Hu and Bentler as cited in Byrne (2010) suggested that values
below .06 as indicative of good fit.
Validity of the Measures of Interchangeability of Leader
A confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) with maximum likelihood was used to assess
interchangeability factor. CFA allows an overall assessment of the validity of
indicators of the factor. The following measures; Chi-square (χ2
), Comparative Fit
Index (CFI), Turker-Lewin Index (TLI) and Root Mean Square Error of Approximation
(RMSEA) as the cutoff values used to validate the item measured this factor. Also,
RMSEA RMSEA with its point estimate and associated confidence interval (CI)
through method of lower and upper bound were checked.
The results of the analysis demonstrated poor fit statistics; χ2
(90) = 626.480,
CFI = .86, TLT = .84, RMSEA = 0.117 and CMIN/DF = 6.96. Since the study sought
a better fit, post hoc model modifications were checked to develop a better fit and a
more parsimonious model. The model was re-estimated and three inter-correlations
among 6 errors were freed based on the suggestions of modification indices (MIs).
More specifically, the following connections were established; error 3 (v14) and error
4 (v17), error 4 (v17) and error 10 (v8) and error 6 (v4) and error 11 (v6). These
connections were allowed to co-vary to reduce the total amount to 626.480 χ2
, and
therefore ameliorate the fit indices. These connections were supported
methodologically through the use of AMOS and theoretically owning to the fact that
the two elements of the measurement errors were correlated showing commonalities
among pairs of observed variables. Prior to that three items were eliminated doe low
and cross loading issues. As such the model improved χ2
(51) = 197.773, CFI = .95,
TLT = .94, RMSEA = 0.08 and CMIN/DF = 3.87. Moreover, the RMSEA with its CI of
the lower and upper bound also fell within the desired zone; LO .04 and HI .09
providing additional evidence of model acceptance (Chen et al., 2008). Figure 1,
depicts the details.
12. 12
Figure 1: Revised Model of Interchangeability factor
The parameter estimates of the interchangeability factor were free from
offending values. All path coefficients were statistically significant at .005 levels, and
were of practical important, since the smallest value of the standardised path
coefficient was 0.50. Moreover, the squared multiple correlations (SMC), which
indicate how well the observed variables serve as measures of the latent variables,
and provide evidence of the reliability of the indicators were also investigated. It is
worth noting that the values of SMC of the interchangeability model had fulfilled the
requirement (.25) or greater for all indicators. The values ranged from .26 (v14) to
.80 (v20). This provided substantive values to explain the variance in the 12
indicator variables of interchangeability construct.
Influence of a leader
A second CFA was performed for influence of a leader factor. The results showed
that the overall fit of the model was χ2
(65) = 654.839, p = 0.001, which was
statistically significant, indicating an inadequate fit between the covariance matrix of
the observed data and the implied covariance matrix of the model. The RMSEA fell
beyond the range of acceptable value (RMSEA .05 to .08). other fit indices also did
13. 13
not satisfy the requirements of good fit CFI = .73, TLI = .68, L0 = .13, HI = .15 and
CMIN/DF =10.07. All these indices indicate poor model fit. Since the study sought a
better fit, post hoc model modifications were checked to develop a better fit and a
more parsimonious model. As such, the model was re-estimated and involved two
modifications. First, three items were eliminated due to low loading issues. Second,
six inter-correlations among 12 errors were freed based on the suggestions of
modification indices (MIs). More specifically, the following connections were
established; error 2 (v7) and error 4 (v30), error 2 (v7) and error 7 (v23), error 2 (v7)
and error 9 (v26), error 6 (v18) and error 11 (v16), error 7 (v23) and error 11 (v16)
and error 10 (v11) and error 11 (v15). These connections were allowed to co-vary to
reduce the total amount to 654.839 χ2
, and therefore ameliorate the fit indices.
These connections were supported methodologically through the use of AMOS and
theoretically owning to the fact that the two elements of the measurement errors
were correlated showing commonalities among pairs of observed variables. As such
the model improved χ2
(29) = 126.793, CFI = .93, TLT = .90, RMSEA = 0.08 and
CMIN/DF = 4.37. Moreover, the RMSEA with its CI of the lower and upper bound
also fell within the desired zone; LO .05 and HI .08 providing additional evidence of
model acceptance (Chen et al., 2008). Figure 2 presents detailed results.
Figure 2: The Revised Model of Influence of a Leader
In addition to this, the parameter estimates were also examined and were
found to be statistically significant and practically important as shown in Figure 4.5.
The loadings ranged from .41 (v7) to .74 (v31). They were free from any offending
estimates and showed logical direction. Also, the squared multiple correlations
14. 14
(SMC), which indicate how well the observed variables serve as measures of the
latent variables, and provide evidence of the reliability of the indicators were also
investigated. The values of SMC scaled from 0 to 1 (Schumacker and Lomax,
2004). It is worth noting that the values of SMC of the influence of a leader model
(other than v7) had fulfilled the requirement of (.25) or greater for all indicators. The
values ranged from .25 (v181) to .55 (v31). This provided reasonable values to
explain the variance in the 10 observed variables of influence of a leader model.
A t-test analysis was conducted to investigate the perceptions of followers
towards their organisational leader across their work experience. The results indicate
that the experienced followers hold a stand that interchageability of organisational
leader will not have much effect on organisational performance, as compared with
the perceptions of less experienced followers in the institutions of higher learning
sampled M=49.29, D=9.97 for experienced followers and M=47.73, D=11.27 for
inexperienced followers respectively. However, this difference in followers’
perceptions is hardly claimed in isolation of performing independent samples t-test,
which either confirm or otherwise the degree of significance in the difference. In
other words, independent samples t-test table must be examined.
The F statistics which determines whether the equality of variance assumption
is satisfied or otherwise was statistically insignificant F = 0.064, p ≥ 0.05, therefore,
as the variances are not significantly different, we can accept the equal variances
assumption and use the bottom line values, since Hypothesis 4 is directional.
The test of t statistic revealed that the difference obtained in the mean scores
t (407) = 3.454, p ≤ 0.001 is significant. This result confirmed Hypothesis 4 with the
finding that experienced followers perceive organisational leader as having less
influence as compared with the perception of less experienced followers in the
context of the universities sampled.
Finally, the study tested the level of influence of a leader as perceived by
followers according to their age. The results indicate that younger followers in the
institutions higher learning sampled believe that organisational leader exhibits great
influence on organisational performance compared to the perceptions of older
followers M=32.2, D=17.61 for young followers and M=27.42, D=10.46 for old
followers respectively. However, this difference in followers’ perceptions is hardly
claimed unless independent samples t-test, which either confirm or otherwise the
degree of significance in the difference is tested. In other words, independent
samples t-test table must be examined.
The F statistics which determines whether the equality of variance assumption
is satisfied or otherwise was statistically insignificant F = 0.26.29, p ≥ 0.05, therefore,
as the variances are not significantly different, we can accept the equal variances
assumption and use the bottom line values, since Hypothesis 3 is directional.
The test of t statistic revealed that the difference obtained in the mean scores
t (407) = 4.46, p ≤ 0.001 is significant. This result rejected Hypothesis 3 with the
finding that younger followers perceived greater influence of organisational leader
compared to the perception of older followers of the universities sampled.
15. 15
Discussion
The findings of the present study have contributed to the literature of leadership in
several ways. First, the results replicated the psychometric adequacy of RLS
instruments, especially this is the first study that sample academic staff in validating
the scales. The measures seem sufficient to represent the ongoing concerns of RLS
instruments in different cultural context. As well as providing and evidence that
influence and interchangeability of leader are two distinct factors. This finding
corresponded with the findings of (Awamleh and Gardner, 1999; Felfe, 2005; Shyns
et al., 2007; Chong, 2009).
Second, the results confirmed that the two factor structure of the RLS
(Awamleh and Gardner, 1999; Bligh, Kohles and Pillai, 2005). The results also
revealed adequacy of two factor model, which can be used as a means to predict
followers’ perceptions of organisational leader on ameliorating academic staff
performance. However, this two factor solution contradicts with the study of Chong
and Wolf (2009) and Cho and Meindl (n.d.), which found three factor solution in
relation to RLS underlying factors.
Thirdly, the results of the study suggest that with age, older followers feel that
organisational leader has less influence on the organisational performance. This
finding suggests more friendly leader-follower relations that leads to organisational
stability.
Finally, the findings of the study indicate the existence of relationship between
the influence of a leader and the work experience in the organisational context. This
finding is consistent with findings of Miller et al. (2004) and Chong and Wolf (2009)
who found that performance of more experienced followers was independent of their
perceived relationship with their leaders.
Limitation and the Suggestions for Future Study
This study used only online survey questionnaire to sample universities involved in
this study, future studies should consider self-administered questionnaire as well.
The study sampled only academic staff, but future study should involve
administrative staff as well. It also could be a good idea for a mixed methods to be
employed in future studies.
16. 16
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