A Systematic Literature Review of Servant Leadership Theory
in Organizational Contexts
Denise Linda Parris • Jon Welty Peachey
Received: 20 February 2012 / Accepted: 8 April 2012 / Published online: 22 April 2012
� Springer Science+Business Media B.V. 2012
Abstract A new research area linked to ethics, virtues,
and morality is servant leadership. Scholars are currently
seeking publication outlets as critics debate whether this
new leadership theory is significantly distinct, viable, and
valuable for organizational success. The aim of this study
was to identify empirical studies that explored servant
leadership theory by engaging a sample population in order
to assess and synthesize the mechanisms, outcomes, and
impacts of servant leadership. Thus, we sought to provide
an evidence-informed answer to how does servant leader-
ship work, and how can we apply it? We conducted a sys-
tematic literature review (SLR), a methodology adopted
from the medical sciences to synthesize research in a sys-
tematic, transparent, and reproducible manner. A disci-
plined screening process resulted in a final sample
population of 39 appropriate studies. The synthesis of these
empirical studies revealed: (a) there is no consensus on the
definition of servant leadership; (b) servant leadership
theory is being investigated across a variety of contexts,
cultures, and themes; (c) researchers are using multiple
measures to explore servant leadership; and (d) servant
leadership is a viable leadership theory that helps organi-
zations and improves the well-being of followers. This
study contributes to the development of servant leadership
theory and practice. In addition, this study contributes to the
methodology for conducting SLRs in the field of manage-
ment, highlighting an effective method for mapping out
thematically, and viewing holistically, new research topics.
We conclude by offering suggestions for future research.
Keywords Leadership � Leadership theory � Servant
leadership � Systematic literature review
Introduction
Leadership is one of the most comprehensively researched
social influence processes in the behavioral sciences. This is
because the success of all economic, political, and organi-
zational systems depends on the effective and efficient
guidance of the leaders of these systems (Barrow 1977). A
critical factor to understanding the success of an organiza-
tion, then, is to study its leaders. Leadership is a skill used to
influence followers in an organization to work enthusiasti-
cally towards goals specifically identified for the common
good (Barrow 1977; Cyert 2006; Plsek and Wilson 2001).
Great leaders create a vision for an organization, articulate
the vision to the followers, build a shared vision, craft a path
to achieve the vision, and guide their organizations into new
directions (Banutu-Gomez and Banutu-Gomez 2007; Kotter
2001). According to Schneider (1987), the most important
part in build.
1. Traditional Approaches to Leaders’ Impact on OrganizationsSTatianaMajor22
1. Traditional Approaches to Leaders’ Impact on Organizations
Scores of research studies are built on the assumption that effective leadership is a key component essential for organizational success. From the battlefield to the boardroom, we are told, wins and losses are determined by decisions and behaviors of those who lead. The plethora of leadership-training programs may be an indicator that many perceive (or even assume) that there is a direct relationship between leaders and organization performance. In The Leadership Gap: Building Capacity for Competitive Advantage, Weiss and Molinaro (2005) established their premise by stating “leadership has become the primary source of competitive advantage in organizations around the world” (p. 4). These authors used case-study methods to reinforce the ideas that organizations’ lack of leadership capacity can be addressed through leadership development.
But both in research and organizations, there are those who challenge the “effective leadership = enhanced performance” supposition (Dihn, Lord, Gardner, Meuser, Liden, & Hu, 2014; Storey, 2010).
LePine, Zhang, Crawford, and Rich (2016) conducted a three-part study to test relationships among charismatic leadership, stress, and performance. Subjects were members of the United States Marine Corps. Findings suggested that charismatic leader behavior negated the negative effects of stressors on performance according to assessments by the leaders or their supervisors. And these authors found that high-level stressors were more positively viewed when charismatic leader behaviors were exhibited. However, the researchers discovered that charismatic leader behavior did not influence how Marines perceived stressors. An underlying assumption in LePine, Zhang, Crawford, and Rich’s (2016) research was that leaders do affect performance. The results, while not conclusive enough to reject the assumption, did open avenues for new dialogue and recommendations for further testing.
Dihn, Lord, Gardner, Meuser, Liden, and Hu (2014) suggested that the preponderance of research on leadership behaviors and traits may have led to assumptions about an overstated influence of the individual. In Module 1 we examined the evolution of leadership approaches from the early modern era to the postmodern era. We know that context—such as environment, capital, and goals—influences organizational design, structure, and management/leadership practices. We learned that a stable organization relies on controls to gain efficiency. Leader-centric thinking was readily accepted in the modern organization. And, research studies were designed around those assumptions, perhaps even reinforcing those assumptions.
More recently, organizations shifted structures, philosophies, and operating procedures to adapt to social, economic, political, and technological pressures. Even so, leadership researchers continued to outpace other scholars who investigated additional variables that might impact org ...
Business Executives’ Perceptions of Ethical Leadershipand It.docxRAHUL126667
Business Executives’ Perceptions of Ethical Leadership
and Its Development
Catherine Marsh
Received: 6 July 2011 / Accepted: 22 May 2012 / Published online: 12 June 2012
� Springer Science+Business Media B.V. 2012
Abstract This paper summarized the findings of a qual-
itative study that examines the perceptions of ethical
leadership held by those who perceived themselves to be
ethical leaders, and how life experiences shaped the values
called upon when making ethical decisions. The experi-
ences of 28 business executives were shared with the
researcher, beginning with the recollection of a critical
incident that detailed an ethical issue with which each
executive had been involved. With the critical incident in
mind, each executive told the personal story that explained
the development of the values he or she called upon when
resolving the ethical issue described. The stories were
analyzed through the use of constant comparison, which
resulted in the development of two models: (1) a frame-
work for ethical leadership illuminating valued aspects of
ethical leaderships and the value perspectives called upon
when making ethical decisions, and (2) a model explaining
how the executives’ ethical frameworks developed. The
paper concludes with a brief discussion on virtue ethics,
experiential learning, and human resource development.
Keywords Ethics � Virtue � Leadership � Action learning
Introduction
As the daily news carries allegations of corrupt behavior in
all arenas of life, the world’s attention is focused on the
behavior of leaders in government, business, social, and
even religious institutions. The courts selectively prosecute
high profile-offenders, the Catholic Church sends priests
into retirement, and political candidates challenge one
another’s records for signs of moral weakness. Legislation,
in the form of the Sarbanes–Oxley Act of 2002, passed by
the United States Congress following the Enron, Tyco and
Worldcom scandals, has been enacted, but the scandals
continue.
Both executives and scholars are realizing that while
legislation is necessary, leadership may be the primary
determinant in ethical action. Gini (1998) stressed, ‘‘The
ethics of leadership—whether it be good or bad, positive or
negative—affects the ethos of the workplace and thereby
helps to form the ethical choices and decisions of the
workers in the workplace’’ (p. 28). Pollard (2005) stated,
‘‘While rules may bring a higher standard of accountability
and add the ‘stick’ of more penalties, they cannot deter-
mine the honesty, character, or integrity of the people
involved’’ (p. 14).
Lavengood (Pollard 2005) conceded that where public
policy leaves off, leadership must assist with the devel-
opment of a moral community that shapes human character
and behavior. Gough (1998) concurred and explained that
when caught in an internal struggle with regards to getting
ahead or doing the right thing, ‘‘The determining factor is ...
Business Executives’ Perceptions of Ethical Leadershipand It.docxfelicidaddinwoodie
Business Executives’ Perceptions of Ethical Leadership
and Its Development
Catherine Marsh
Received: 6 July 2011 / Accepted: 22 May 2012 / Published online: 12 June 2012
� Springer Science+Business Media B.V. 2012
Abstract This paper summarized the findings of a qual-
itative study that examines the perceptions of ethical
leadership held by those who perceived themselves to be
ethical leaders, and how life experiences shaped the values
called upon when making ethical decisions. The experi-
ences of 28 business executives were shared with the
researcher, beginning with the recollection of a critical
incident that detailed an ethical issue with which each
executive had been involved. With the critical incident in
mind, each executive told the personal story that explained
the development of the values he or she called upon when
resolving the ethical issue described. The stories were
analyzed through the use of constant comparison, which
resulted in the development of two models: (1) a frame-
work for ethical leadership illuminating valued aspects of
ethical leaderships and the value perspectives called upon
when making ethical decisions, and (2) a model explaining
how the executives’ ethical frameworks developed. The
paper concludes with a brief discussion on virtue ethics,
experiential learning, and human resource development.
Keywords Ethics � Virtue � Leadership � Action learning
Introduction
As the daily news carries allegations of corrupt behavior in
all arenas of life, the world’s attention is focused on the
behavior of leaders in government, business, social, and
even religious institutions. The courts selectively prosecute
high profile-offenders, the Catholic Church sends priests
into retirement, and political candidates challenge one
another’s records for signs of moral weakness. Legislation,
in the form of the Sarbanes–Oxley Act of 2002, passed by
the United States Congress following the Enron, Tyco and
Worldcom scandals, has been enacted, but the scandals
continue.
Both executives and scholars are realizing that while
legislation is necessary, leadership may be the primary
determinant in ethical action. Gini (1998) stressed, ‘‘The
ethics of leadership—whether it be good or bad, positive or
negative—affects the ethos of the workplace and thereby
helps to form the ethical choices and decisions of the
workers in the workplace’’ (p. 28). Pollard (2005) stated,
‘‘While rules may bring a higher standard of accountability
and add the ‘stick’ of more penalties, they cannot deter-
mine the honesty, character, or integrity of the people
involved’’ (p. 14).
Lavengood (Pollard 2005) conceded that where public
policy leaves off, leadership must assist with the devel-
opment of a moral community that shapes human character
and behavior. Gough (1998) concurred and explained that
when caught in an internal struggle with regards to getting
ahead or doing the right thing, ‘‘The determining factor is.
Gadjah Mada International Journal of Business - September-DecDustiBuckner14
Gadjah Mada International Journal of Business - September-December, Vol. 22, No. 3, 2020
250
Gadjah Mada International Journal of Business
Vol. 22, No. 3 (September-December 2020): 250-275
*Corresponding author’s e-mail: [email protected]
ISSN: PRINT 1411-1128 | ONLINE 2338-7238
http://journal.ugm.ac.id/gamaijb
Leadership Styles and Organizational
Knowledge Management Activities:
A Systematic Review
Nabeel Al Amiri*a, Rabiah Eladwiah Abdul Rahima, Gouher Ahmedb
aUniversity Tenaga Nasional, Malaysia
bSkyline University College, United Arab Emirates
Abstract: Leaders play a critical role in the success or failure of their organizations. Leaders can
be effective in implementing changes, building their organization’s capabilities, and improving its
performance, or the opposite, they could be ineffective. In this systematic review, the authors aim
to summarize the findings of previous quantitative research, published between the period from
2000 to 2018, to identify the effect of various leadership styles on organizational Knowledge
management (KM) capabilities and activities. The authors reviewed 50 articles found in well-
known databases included Emerald, ScienceDirect, Taylor and Francis, Ebsco, Google Scholar,
and others, concerning the impact of leadership when implementing KM in business organiza-
tions. The review revealed that transformational, transactional, knowledge-oriented leadership,
top executives, and strategic leadership have evidence of their constant and positive effect on the
KM process. The authors encourage organizations to use a combination of those styles to max-
imize the effect of leadership on KM. The authors also recommend conducting further studies
on the effect of the remaining leadership styles, such as the ethical and servant leadership styles
on KM and the other specific KM activities.
Keywords: leadership, leadership styles, knowledge, knowledge management, organization
JEL Classification: M000, M100, M150
Al Amiri et al
251
Introduction
According to the literature, KM has
a significant impact on organizational per-
formance and innovation. Researchers have
found a strong link between KM and differ-
ent aspects of management innovation that
provide an organization with a competitive
advantage. KM’s implementation in business
organizations could be affected by sever-
al factors, such as the organization culture,
budget, infrastructure, technology, and lead-
ership.
The impact of leadership on business
and organizational management has been
recognized as a significant factor that could
make a difference in organizational perfor-
mance. The academic gurus proposed sev-
eral theories, such as the great man theory,
various behavioral theories, Lewin’s theory,
the contingency theory, the situational lead-
ership theory, the transformational theory,
the transactional theory (or managerial lead-
ership), and many others.
Based on the existing literature, the out ...
1. Traditional Approaches to Leaders’ Impact on OrganizationsSTatianaMajor22
1. Traditional Approaches to Leaders’ Impact on Organizations
Scores of research studies are built on the assumption that effective leadership is a key component essential for organizational success. From the battlefield to the boardroom, we are told, wins and losses are determined by decisions and behaviors of those who lead. The plethora of leadership-training programs may be an indicator that many perceive (or even assume) that there is a direct relationship between leaders and organization performance. In The Leadership Gap: Building Capacity for Competitive Advantage, Weiss and Molinaro (2005) established their premise by stating “leadership has become the primary source of competitive advantage in organizations around the world” (p. 4). These authors used case-study methods to reinforce the ideas that organizations’ lack of leadership capacity can be addressed through leadership development.
But both in research and organizations, there are those who challenge the “effective leadership = enhanced performance” supposition (Dihn, Lord, Gardner, Meuser, Liden, & Hu, 2014; Storey, 2010).
LePine, Zhang, Crawford, and Rich (2016) conducted a three-part study to test relationships among charismatic leadership, stress, and performance. Subjects were members of the United States Marine Corps. Findings suggested that charismatic leader behavior negated the negative effects of stressors on performance according to assessments by the leaders or their supervisors. And these authors found that high-level stressors were more positively viewed when charismatic leader behaviors were exhibited. However, the researchers discovered that charismatic leader behavior did not influence how Marines perceived stressors. An underlying assumption in LePine, Zhang, Crawford, and Rich’s (2016) research was that leaders do affect performance. The results, while not conclusive enough to reject the assumption, did open avenues for new dialogue and recommendations for further testing.
Dihn, Lord, Gardner, Meuser, Liden, and Hu (2014) suggested that the preponderance of research on leadership behaviors and traits may have led to assumptions about an overstated influence of the individual. In Module 1 we examined the evolution of leadership approaches from the early modern era to the postmodern era. We know that context—such as environment, capital, and goals—influences organizational design, structure, and management/leadership practices. We learned that a stable organization relies on controls to gain efficiency. Leader-centric thinking was readily accepted in the modern organization. And, research studies were designed around those assumptions, perhaps even reinforcing those assumptions.
More recently, organizations shifted structures, philosophies, and operating procedures to adapt to social, economic, political, and technological pressures. Even so, leadership researchers continued to outpace other scholars who investigated additional variables that might impact org ...
Business Executives’ Perceptions of Ethical Leadershipand It.docxRAHUL126667
Business Executives’ Perceptions of Ethical Leadership
and Its Development
Catherine Marsh
Received: 6 July 2011 / Accepted: 22 May 2012 / Published online: 12 June 2012
� Springer Science+Business Media B.V. 2012
Abstract This paper summarized the findings of a qual-
itative study that examines the perceptions of ethical
leadership held by those who perceived themselves to be
ethical leaders, and how life experiences shaped the values
called upon when making ethical decisions. The experi-
ences of 28 business executives were shared with the
researcher, beginning with the recollection of a critical
incident that detailed an ethical issue with which each
executive had been involved. With the critical incident in
mind, each executive told the personal story that explained
the development of the values he or she called upon when
resolving the ethical issue described. The stories were
analyzed through the use of constant comparison, which
resulted in the development of two models: (1) a frame-
work for ethical leadership illuminating valued aspects of
ethical leaderships and the value perspectives called upon
when making ethical decisions, and (2) a model explaining
how the executives’ ethical frameworks developed. The
paper concludes with a brief discussion on virtue ethics,
experiential learning, and human resource development.
Keywords Ethics � Virtue � Leadership � Action learning
Introduction
As the daily news carries allegations of corrupt behavior in
all arenas of life, the world’s attention is focused on the
behavior of leaders in government, business, social, and
even religious institutions. The courts selectively prosecute
high profile-offenders, the Catholic Church sends priests
into retirement, and political candidates challenge one
another’s records for signs of moral weakness. Legislation,
in the form of the Sarbanes–Oxley Act of 2002, passed by
the United States Congress following the Enron, Tyco and
Worldcom scandals, has been enacted, but the scandals
continue.
Both executives and scholars are realizing that while
legislation is necessary, leadership may be the primary
determinant in ethical action. Gini (1998) stressed, ‘‘The
ethics of leadership—whether it be good or bad, positive or
negative—affects the ethos of the workplace and thereby
helps to form the ethical choices and decisions of the
workers in the workplace’’ (p. 28). Pollard (2005) stated,
‘‘While rules may bring a higher standard of accountability
and add the ‘stick’ of more penalties, they cannot deter-
mine the honesty, character, or integrity of the people
involved’’ (p. 14).
Lavengood (Pollard 2005) conceded that where public
policy leaves off, leadership must assist with the devel-
opment of a moral community that shapes human character
and behavior. Gough (1998) concurred and explained that
when caught in an internal struggle with regards to getting
ahead or doing the right thing, ‘‘The determining factor is ...
Business Executives’ Perceptions of Ethical Leadershipand It.docxfelicidaddinwoodie
Business Executives’ Perceptions of Ethical Leadership
and Its Development
Catherine Marsh
Received: 6 July 2011 / Accepted: 22 May 2012 / Published online: 12 June 2012
� Springer Science+Business Media B.V. 2012
Abstract This paper summarized the findings of a qual-
itative study that examines the perceptions of ethical
leadership held by those who perceived themselves to be
ethical leaders, and how life experiences shaped the values
called upon when making ethical decisions. The experi-
ences of 28 business executives were shared with the
researcher, beginning with the recollection of a critical
incident that detailed an ethical issue with which each
executive had been involved. With the critical incident in
mind, each executive told the personal story that explained
the development of the values he or she called upon when
resolving the ethical issue described. The stories were
analyzed through the use of constant comparison, which
resulted in the development of two models: (1) a frame-
work for ethical leadership illuminating valued aspects of
ethical leaderships and the value perspectives called upon
when making ethical decisions, and (2) a model explaining
how the executives’ ethical frameworks developed. The
paper concludes with a brief discussion on virtue ethics,
experiential learning, and human resource development.
Keywords Ethics � Virtue � Leadership � Action learning
Introduction
As the daily news carries allegations of corrupt behavior in
all arenas of life, the world’s attention is focused on the
behavior of leaders in government, business, social, and
even religious institutions. The courts selectively prosecute
high profile-offenders, the Catholic Church sends priests
into retirement, and political candidates challenge one
another’s records for signs of moral weakness. Legislation,
in the form of the Sarbanes–Oxley Act of 2002, passed by
the United States Congress following the Enron, Tyco and
Worldcom scandals, has been enacted, but the scandals
continue.
Both executives and scholars are realizing that while
legislation is necessary, leadership may be the primary
determinant in ethical action. Gini (1998) stressed, ‘‘The
ethics of leadership—whether it be good or bad, positive or
negative—affects the ethos of the workplace and thereby
helps to form the ethical choices and decisions of the
workers in the workplace’’ (p. 28). Pollard (2005) stated,
‘‘While rules may bring a higher standard of accountability
and add the ‘stick’ of more penalties, they cannot deter-
mine the honesty, character, or integrity of the people
involved’’ (p. 14).
Lavengood (Pollard 2005) conceded that where public
policy leaves off, leadership must assist with the devel-
opment of a moral community that shapes human character
and behavior. Gough (1998) concurred and explained that
when caught in an internal struggle with regards to getting
ahead or doing the right thing, ‘‘The determining factor is.
Gadjah Mada International Journal of Business - September-DecDustiBuckner14
Gadjah Mada International Journal of Business - September-December, Vol. 22, No. 3, 2020
250
Gadjah Mada International Journal of Business
Vol. 22, No. 3 (September-December 2020): 250-275
*Corresponding author’s e-mail: [email protected]
ISSN: PRINT 1411-1128 | ONLINE 2338-7238
http://journal.ugm.ac.id/gamaijb
Leadership Styles and Organizational
Knowledge Management Activities:
A Systematic Review
Nabeel Al Amiri*a, Rabiah Eladwiah Abdul Rahima, Gouher Ahmedb
aUniversity Tenaga Nasional, Malaysia
bSkyline University College, United Arab Emirates
Abstract: Leaders play a critical role in the success or failure of their organizations. Leaders can
be effective in implementing changes, building their organization’s capabilities, and improving its
performance, or the opposite, they could be ineffective. In this systematic review, the authors aim
to summarize the findings of previous quantitative research, published between the period from
2000 to 2018, to identify the effect of various leadership styles on organizational Knowledge
management (KM) capabilities and activities. The authors reviewed 50 articles found in well-
known databases included Emerald, ScienceDirect, Taylor and Francis, Ebsco, Google Scholar,
and others, concerning the impact of leadership when implementing KM in business organiza-
tions. The review revealed that transformational, transactional, knowledge-oriented leadership,
top executives, and strategic leadership have evidence of their constant and positive effect on the
KM process. The authors encourage organizations to use a combination of those styles to max-
imize the effect of leadership on KM. The authors also recommend conducting further studies
on the effect of the remaining leadership styles, such as the ethical and servant leadership styles
on KM and the other specific KM activities.
Keywords: leadership, leadership styles, knowledge, knowledge management, organization
JEL Classification: M000, M100, M150
Al Amiri et al
251
Introduction
According to the literature, KM has
a significant impact on organizational per-
formance and innovation. Researchers have
found a strong link between KM and differ-
ent aspects of management innovation that
provide an organization with a competitive
advantage. KM’s implementation in business
organizations could be affected by sever-
al factors, such as the organization culture,
budget, infrastructure, technology, and lead-
ership.
The impact of leadership on business
and organizational management has been
recognized as a significant factor that could
make a difference in organizational perfor-
mance. The academic gurus proposed sev-
eral theories, such as the great man theory,
various behavioral theories, Lewin’s theory,
the contingency theory, the situational lead-
ership theory, the transformational theory,
the transactional theory (or managerial lead-
ership), and many others.
Based on the existing literature, the out ...
Dwight
Evaluation
Leadership style assessments certainly have a place within the organization. The effectiveness of a leadership style assessment will depend on what type of assessment and what the organizational needs are. Multi-source feedback assessments are supposed to give a 360 degree look at a leader and give the organization a valuable outcome in the evaluation of the leader (MacKie, 2015). Using multi-source feedback assessments can be extremely beneficial as long as the assessment is properly paired with the organizational goals and needs. Assessing a leader from multi perspectives is truly a holistic approach. But, organizations need to recognize that no leadership style assessment is not without its limitations.
Next, the behavior approach is one of four approaches to leadership. Three of which all have weaknesses; traits, skills, and behavior. But the fourth approach to leadership, the situational approach demonstrates the flexibility of a leader (Northouse2016, 2016). In today’s dynamic and complex business environment, flexible leaders bring the most value to an organization. The situational approach allows the leader to apply the other three approaches given the circumstances. As an Army leader I found this approach to be extremely effective while leading in combat and non-combat situations.
Explanation of Usefulness
Of equal importance is the usefulness leadership style assessments and the behavior approach have on an organization. Once an organization has clearly defined the goals and purpose of conducting an assessment, and then subsequently the correct assessment is used, the results will certainly help the organization. In this case, using an assessment to evaluate the benefits of a behavior approach to leadership will allow the organization to determine what needs to be done, how it needs to be done, and how fast it needs to be done (Saxena, 2014). Additionally, the behavior approach (if the relationship behavior is used), can give subordinates the motivation needed to achieve the desired outcome through a better understanding of themselves.
Explanation of Impact
The impact of leadership assessments on an individual can be positive or negative. Again, this directly correlates to the goals and expectations of the organization when the assessment is implemented. For the individual, it could potentially identify strengths and weaknesses. Thus, giving the individual the opportunity to grow and learn from the assessment. Simultaneously, the organization discovers how these strengths and weaknesses fit into the organization’s goals. Once they have identified where and how an individual nest into the organization, a holistic approach to achieving those goals can be developed (Northouse2016, 2016). In comparison, using a behavior approach assessment will yield valuable information about subordinates’ behavior patterns. Which equates to the organization knowing and understanding their employees. Understanding behavio.
Running Head THE RESEARCH PROPOSAL BUS8115 – BUS8120 THE RE.docxWilheminaRossi174
Running Head: THE RESEARCH PROPOSAL BUS8115 – BUS8120
THE RESEARCH PROPOSAL BUS8115 – BUS8120 lxxviii
The Research Proposal: The Role of Strategic Management and Leadership Traits on Employee Performance, Motivation, and Job Satisfaction: Chapters 1 – 5 of the Dissertation
Submitted to South University
College of Business
In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements
For the Degree of
Doctor of Business Administration
Ameki Williams
September 2022
Abstract
The research study will focus on the role of strategic management traits on employee performance, motivation, and job satisfaction. A literature review shows that strategic management style affects employees' performance, determination, and job satisfaction. Pioneer scholars have extensively researched strategic management styles though there is limited literature on the impacts of management traits. The purpose of the study is to illustrate the need for new management approaches in organizational management by comparing the varying effects of management and leadership traits on performance, motivation, and job satisfaction. The existing management styles have weaknesses necessitating the need for more advanced approaches that can address these limitations. The study looks at different management traits to blend them to meet employees' needs and organizations' objectives. The researchers will use a situational strategic management theoretical framework to venture into the study. The framework recognizes the need for leadership adaptability based on situations. Stakeholders will use the findings to strengthen organizational management. In this study, researchers are using management, as well as leadership in other areas.
Dedication
Acknowledgements
List of Tables
List of Figures
Table of Contents
Abstract iii
Dedication iv
Acknowledgements v
List of Tables vi
List of Figures vii
Chapter 1 - Introduction xi
Purpose of the Study xii
Statement of the Problem xii
Theoretical Framework xiii
Definitions xiii
Research Questions and Hypotheses xiv
Scope of the Study xvii
Delimitations: xvii
Limitations: xvii
Assumptions, Risks and Biases xviii
Significance of the Study xix
Summary xix
Chapter 2 - Literature Review xxi
Definition of Strategic Management xxii
The strategy statements xxiii
Importance of vision and mission statements xxiii
Conceptual Framework xxiv
Strategic Decisions in Strategic Management xxxii
Characteristics and Features of Strategic Decisions in Strategic Management xxxiii
Business Policy xxxv
Features of a Good Business Policy xxxv
Importance of Business Policies xxxvi
SWOT Analysis xxxvii
Factors of the SWOT Analysis (Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities, and Threats) xxxvii
Advantages of SWOT Analysis xxxix
Limitations of SWOT Analysis xli
Competitor Analysis xlii
Reasons for Doing a Competitor Analysis xlii
Strategic Lea.
Running head RESEARCH PAPER OUTLINE1RESEARCH PAPER OUTLINE5.docxtodd521
Running head: RESEARCH PAPER OUTLINE 1
RESEARCH PAPER OUTLINE 5
Research Paper Outline: Servant Leadership
Introduction
· Definition and the history of the term servant leadership and example of how servant leadership works.
Research Hypothesis
· Hypothesis 1- Servant leadership leads to better organizational performance.
· Hypothesis 2- Political skills and servant leadership work together leading to employee creativity and positive workplace culture.
· Hypothesis 3- Servant leadership increases employee satisfaction.
Research methodology
· Sampling of 50 random junior employees and corporate managers from three companies in the United States to interview them on servant leadership.
Literature review
· Annotated bibliography 1
· Annotated bibliography 2
· Annotated bibliography 3
· Annotated bibliography 4
· Annotated bibliography 5
· Annotated bibliography 6
· Annotated bibliography 7
Findings
· Evidence of servant leadership across the sample of individuals evaluated
· General information observed regarding servant leadership
Research limitations
· Failed in establishing causality hence creating a gap that needs to be addressed in future through the application of different study designs.
· The study of servant leadership is part of the large topic that cannot be summarized into a small-paged paper. Therefore limited information was touched on regarding the subject matter.
Recommendations
· Recommendation 1- Managers should embrace servant leadership because of the benefits it brings to the organizations they lead.
· Recommendation 2- Employees should support servant leaders when they set examples for them.
· Recommendation 3- Excellent collaboration between the servant leader and the employees they are leading should be created for servant leadership to succeed.
Conclusion
· Summary of what is understood by the term servant leadershipsummary of the paper’s main points.
References
Giambatista, R., McKeage, R., & Brees, J. (2020). Cultures of Servant Leadership and Their Impact. The Journal of Values-Based Leadership, 13(1), 12. Retrieved from: https://scholar.valpo.edu/jvbl/vol13/iss1/12/
Chiniara, M., & Bentein, K. (2016). Linking servant leadership to individual performance: Differentiating the mediating role of autonomy, competence and relatedness need satisfaction. The Leadership Quarterly, 27(1), 124-141.
DeConinck, J., & DeConinck, M. B. (2017). The relationship between servant leadership perceived organizational support, performance, and turnover among business to business salespeople. Archives of Business Research, 5(10).
Eva, N., Robin, M., Sendjaya, S., van Dierendonck, D., & Liden, R. C. (2019). Servant leadership: A systematic review and call for future research. The Leadership Quarterly, 30(1), 111-132.
Gandolfi, F., & Stone, S. (2018). Leadership, leadership styles, and servant leadership. Journal of Management Research, 18(4), 261-269.
Jaiswal, N. K., & Dhar, R. L. (2017). The influence of servan.
Running head ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY 1ANNOTA.docxSUBHI7
Running head: ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY
1
ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY
2
Annotated Bibliography
Shawn Harden
Southern Wesleyan University
July 19, 2017
Article 1
According to the article “Too Much of a Good Thing,” intellectual roots of organizational and management theory involves the Japanese leaders approach to quality improvement. The topic is related to organizational behavior in that it discusses quality and its compatibility with innovation. Innovation is a subtopic in human behavior in the workplace and its impact on the company. This topic makes a difference in management in that it discusses how organizations can properly manage quality improvement activities and thus achieve innovations. This article discusses strategy methods such as the waterfall methodology, which makes employees especially programmers more productive. Strategy formulation involves activities geared at creating a particular strategy such as the waterfall strategy. Strategy implementation involves using the formulated strategy to achieve results. Management can change significantly by responding to radical innovation.
Article 2
According to the second article “Rebuilding companies as communities,” the intellectual roots of organizational and management theories are based on the concept of making companies a place where employees can engage and are committed to one another. The topic is related to organizational behavior in that it discusses the idea of organizational culture and employee’s attitude towards building companies as communities. The topic contributes to management in that it suggests the kind of leadership that would best work for this kind of an organization suggesting that distributed and engaged leadership would be effective. The article suggests community-ship as a strategy of improving modern age organizations. According to this article, management can improve through leadership activities such as the creation of a work atmosphere that promotes trust.
Article 3
According to the third article, “Making management matter” the roots of organizational and management involve leadership and must struggle to be rigorous and interdisciplinary. The topic is related to organizational behavior in that it talks about leadership, which is a subtopic or organizational behavior and influencing employee’s behavior and attitude towards an achievement. The topic adds to management by arguing that a major requirement of management research need to be rooted in practical issues and finding the right balance between interdisciplinary research and drawing from diverse disciplines. A good strategy in business, especially for a leader, is to have a sense of where the company wants to achieve and working with the team to make things happen. Management can improve through the research that draws from academic disciplines to allow managers to comprehend the content of detailed issue they are handling.
Article 4
In the fourth article, “It’s ...
The ambidextrous organization - Leadership and the administration paradox of ...Cornelis de Kloet
Organizational ambidexterity is a theoretical concept on how to manage the tension between exploitation (sales) and exploration (innovation). Following the suggestion of Simsek et al. (2009) to do further research on leadership styles and organizational ambidexterity, this master thesis describes the outcome of a research conducted at Philips and Royal HaskoningDHV on organizational ambidexterity and leadership.
Perception of civil servants on performance : An Emperical Analysis of Indone...inventionjournals
International Journal of Business and Management Invention (IJBMI) is an international journal intended for professionals and researchers in all fields of Business and Management. IJBMI publishes research articles and reviews within the whole field Business and Management, new teaching methods, assessment, validation and the impact of new technologies and it will continue to provide information on the latest trends and developments in this ever-expanding subject. The publications of papers are selected through double peer reviewed to ensure originality, relevance, and readability. The articles published in our journal can be accessed online.
Linking leadership style, organizational culture, motivation and competence o...inventionjournals
This research aims to analyze empirically the influence of leadership style, organizational culture, motivation, and competencies on civil servants performance in mediation is job satisfaction. The design of this research using survey method with the collection of the data in cross-section through the questionnaire. Determination of a sample using simple random sampling with the total number of respondents as much as 265 employees. Methods of analysis of data used in hypothesis testing are the analysis moments of structures. This research provide evidence that leadership style, organizational culture and competence of a positive and significant effect on the job satisfaction, while the negative effect of motivation but Significantly to job satisfaction. Then the leadership style and organizational culture is positive but not significant effect on civil servants performance and motivation as well as competence and job satisfaction the positive and significant effect on the civil servants performance. Job satisfaction is not as mediating variable in explaining the effect of leadership styles and organizational culture on the civil servants performance, while on the other mediation of job satisfaction testing proved to be a full mediation in analyzing the effect of motivation and competencies on the civil servants performance.
Antecedents of Organizational Commitment of Lecturer in South Sumaterainventionjournals
Theoretically it was predicted that leadership style and organizational culture have partially and simultaneously affected employees commitment to organization. Fwthermore, those factors i.e. leadership style, organizational culture and organizational commitment have impact on lecture performance, this research was conducted at Palembang, South Sumatera. This research was conducted by using descriptive quantitative approach with questionnaire as the data gathering instrument. In addition to that explanatory approach was carried out to get a deeper insight on the research phenomenon 325 samples was collected from 5 (five) participating universitir in South Sumatera, Palembang. Data analysis was carried out by using Structural Equation Modelling (SEM). The research found that all independent variables have a significant effect on dependent variables both partially and simultaneously. Simultaneously it was found that leadership style and organizational culture affected organizational commitment by R2 = 0.77 with the most significant factor was on organizational communication. This result shows that there are still 43% of other factors that affected on organizational commitment. The next result was also gathered simultaneously which is the effect of leadership style, organizational culture and organizational commitment on employees ’performance with R2 = 0.79 with the most significant factor was on organizational commitment. This result shows that there are still 51% of other factors thataffected on employees 'performance that needs to be looked into in further research.
Relationship between transformational leadership, Innovation, Learning and Gr...Editor IJCATR
The main purpose of this paper is to justify and discuss the relationship among transformational leadership, innovation,
learning and growth, internal process within government organizations. Transformational leadership style consists of five components
namely vision, intellectual stimulation, inspirational communication, personal recognition, and supportive leadership. Besides,
innovation, learning and growth, and internal process are considered as three main perspectives of organization’s performance.
270 • BPA P. Gatti, C.G. Cortese, M. Tartari, C. Ghislieri.docxtamicawaysmith
270 • BPA P. Gatti, C.G. Cortese, M. Tartari, C. Ghislieri
Research2
Followers’ Active Engagement:
Between Personal and
Organizational Dimensions
Paola Gatti, Claudio G. Cortese, Manuela Tartari, Chiara Ghislieri
Department of Psychology, University of Torino
ᴥ ABSTRACT. Il contributo presenta una ricerca sul tema della followership nelle organizzazioni, proponendosi di
individuare alcuni possibili antecedenti del coinvolgimento attivo dei follower nella relazione con il leader. La ricerca,
che ha coinvolto 390 soggetti provenienti da diversi contesti lavorativi, mette in evidenza il ruolo di alcune dimensioni
personali (strategie di coping e apertura all’esperienza) e organizzative (comportamenti di cittadinanza organizzativa)
nelle dinamiche di followership, e consente di formulare importanti indicazioni per le politiche di gestione delle risorse
umane e, nello specifico, per la formazione aziendale.
ᴥ SUMMARY. Introduction: An increasing number of scholars argue that followers are a precondition for “successful”
organizations. Nevertheless, followership has received scant attention in the literature. Starting from a theoretical
analysis of the issue, this contribution aims to answer some questions regarding possible antecedents of Followers’
Active Engagement (F.AE), a specific followership behavior described by Kelley (1988, 1992), described in previous
works, which implies the propensity to take initiative, participate actively and be self-starters. Methods. A questionnaire
was administered to 390 respondents from heterogeneous work settings. The questionnaire includes a personal data
section and eight measures: F.AE; three personal/dispositional variables (extraversion, intellect, and avoiding coping),
three individual-organization interaction variables (organizational citizenship behaviors directed at individuals – OCBI
– and the organization – OCBO –, leader-member exchange), and a Lie scale as control variable. Data was analyzed
with PASW 18. After analyzing reliability and descriptives, the relationship between the variables was explored using
correlations and hierarchical multiple regression. Results. F.AE is related to six variables (25% explained variance). Three
were positively related: in decreasing order, OCBO, intellect, OCBI, and Lie scale. Conversely, avoiding coping and
gender were negatively related. Gender becomes significant only in the second step of the regression when dispositional
variables are included. Conclusions. This study adds to the understanding of followers’ Active Engagement, for example
by measuring some organizational dimensions as its antecedents, and has practical implications for training and human
resource management policies. Further studies should clarify the dynamics that influence followers’ behavior and
the dynamics of the mutual relationship between the leader’s and followers’ behavior, shedding light on the possible
consequences for the organization, in terms of ...
Running Head FOUR-FRAME MODEL 1FOUR-FRAME MODEL7Fou.docxcowinhelen
Running Head: FOUR-FRAME MODEL
1
FOUR-FRAME MODEL
7
Four Frame Model
Rubin Wilkins
Module 5 Assignment 2
Argosy University Los Angeles
Professor: Dale Mancini
February 15, 2017
Four-frame Model
Introduction
Bolman and Deal synthesized the foregoing leadership theory into four contemporary cognitive perspectives which they further organized into frames to assist leaders in the decision-making process in relation to each individual situation. It was their understanding that the use of such frames would assist leaders in analyzing respective events in a different manner and perspective. In essence, they provide ‘windows’ that enhance the leaders’ to have a broader understanding of the challenges being faced by the organization and solutions that are potentially available. This insightful piece therefore proceeds to help in understanding the frames.
The Four-Frame Model of leadership is a creation stemming from the meshing of various organizational theories to form a wide-encompassing one. These consolidated theories include; the trait theory, power and influence theory, situational and contingency theory, and the behavioral theory (Bateman, 2007). They have been developed over a span of many years. The multiple perspectives emanating from the various theoretical underpinnings are the ones termed as frames by the two theorists; through which an organization is viewed by the leaders and other related persons. These ‘windows’ further operate to bring an organization into focus and subsequently serve as filters which offer the leaders order and assist them in making decisions. Furthermore, the frames comprise of the structural frame, human resource frame, political frame and the symbolic frame. Each individual frame represents a perspective
accompanied by its own assumptions and attributes.
The structural frame is used in viewing the world from an orderly point of view furnished with a multiplicity of rules and procedures. The human resource frame then comes in to assume that goals are best achieved through the meeting of organization members’ needs and fully appreciating the workforce as fundamental part of the organization. The political frame appertains to the conflicts, alliances and bartering of respective parties to properly use and allocate the scares resources owned by and charged to the organization. Finally, symbolic frame relates to the issues of culture, symbols and rituals of an organization as opposed to the established rules and procedures.
Theme among articles
Song, Kim and Kolb (2009) set out to research on the effect of learning an organization’s culture and the established linkage between interpersonal trust and the general commitment to an organization. The sample used in this study was primarily obtained from various employees working to conglomerate entities of Korea. Resultantly, it was established that learning an organization’s culture worked as a mediating factor in the explanation of associations betwe ...
Leadership effectiveness a multi-factorial model dr. m. roussety mba, m led,...jameskandi
Dr. Maurice Roussety is an Executive Consultant at DST Advisory and Lecturer in Small Business, Franchising and Entrepreneurship at Griffith University in Queensland, Australia. Maurice holds a PhD from the Griffith University in Intellectual Property and Franchise Goodwill Valuation. He also holds a Master’s degree in Leadership and a Master of Business Administration.
Running Head LEADERSHIP APPROACHES1Leadership App.docxcowinhelen
Running Head: LEADERSHIP APPROACHES
1
Leadership Approaches
Name:
Institution
Date:
Literature Review
Organizational leadership in the contemporary environment is increasingly becoming a vital tool in defining the competitiveness of an organization due to the role it plays in motivating employees and determining critical decisions. Accordingly, diverse empirical studies have been conducted in the field of leadership in an attempt to determine the optimal leadership approach that should be adopted by organizations. The diverse leadership approaches that have been learned in the past include transformational leaders, transactional leadership, trait leadership, and situational leadership. The transformational leadership implies a leadership approach in which the leader works the juniors in the identification of the changes that are needed, defining the vision to guide the change execution and embracement, and in the execution of the change (Hill & Jones, 2014). In contrast, the transactional leadership implies that leaders should reward or punish employees in return for their efforts and deterrence against undue behaviors in the organization. The trait leadership approach indicates that leaders are defined by personal characteristics that are integrated (Hill & Jones, 2014). Thus, diverse individual differences help in selecting and fostering an effective leader. In contrast, the situational leadership approach indicates that effective leaders are defined by the situation of the leadership needed in a diverse environment. Thus, the approach implies that leaders should be capable of adjusting their leadership style to ensure they are capable of leading certain followers (Hill & Jones, 2014).
This literature review explores on various journal articles that have focused on the leadership approaches in different setups. One of the critical journal articles that have investigated the role of leadership approach is by Den, Deanne, and Belshack (2012). The article investigates when the transformational leadership leads to proactive behavior of the employee. Equally, the study explores the role of self-efficacy and autonomy in influencing employee personal initiative (Den, Deanne, & Belschak, 2012). The study was conducted using two-multisource researchers to evaluate the interaction between the contextual and personal variables towards the proactive behavior of employees. Consequently, the three authors of their study found that transformational leadership, employee independence, and breadth of the service-efficacy have a positive impact in stimulating proactive behavior among the employees (Den, Deanne, & Belschak, 2012). Furthermore, the study found the positive interaction between the personal and contextual variables in determining the proactive behavior of the employees. The findings of the study indicate that transformational leadership and high employee autonomy relate positively in enhancing the proactive behavior of the workers in i ...
Zoe is a second grader with autism spectrum disorders. Zoe’s father .docxransayo
Zoe is a second grader with autism spectrum disorders. Zoe’s father recently passed away in a tragic car accident. Zoe, her mom, and two older brothers have temporarily relocated from out-of-state and are now living in her grandparents’ house in a small, rural community.
Because the family had been living out-of state, Zoe has never interacted with her grandparents. She has challenges responding to social cues, including her name and in understanding gestures. She also engages in repetitive body movements. She is fond of her set of dolls and likes lining them up. When Zoe is agitated, her mother plays Mozart, which seems to have a calming effect. Zoe also enjoys macaroni and cheese.
Her grandparents do not understand Zoe’s attempts at communicating. Zoe does not respond well to crowded and noisy environments. Zoe’s mom is working outside the home for the first time.
Because of the move, Zoe has transferred to a new school, which does not currently have any students with ASD. Although her mom is generally very involved with Zoe’s education, she is away from the home much of the time due to a long commute for her new job is a neighboring city.
Zoe’s grandparents are eager and willing to help in any way they can.
Imagine you are serving as an ASD consultant at Zoe’s new school. Using the COMPASS model, create a COMPASS Action Plan for Zoe by complete the following tasks:
Identify the personal challenges for Zoe;
Identify the environmental challenges for Zoe;
Identify potential supports; and
Identify and prioritize teaching goals.
In addition, include a 250-500-word rationale that explains how your action plan for Zoe demonstrates collaboration in a respectful, culturally responsive way while promoting understanding, resolving conflicts, and building consensus around her interventions.
.
Zlatan Ibrahimović – Sports Psychology
Outline
Introduction:
· General Info
· Nationality, Birthplace, Parents
· Childhood What he wanted to do growing up?
· When did he start playing professionally?
· Which teams did he play for?
· Give some of his career statistics and maybe records?
· What trophies has he won with club football and national team of Sweden?
· Style of Play
· What is his personality like? How do people see him in the media?\
·
Body Paragraphs
Connect the following Sports Psychology Concepts (or even those not listed) to Zlatan Ibrahimović
What is his personality type? Type A, B C, or D?
Give examples through research of where he shows this.
CATASTROPHE THEORY… OCCURS WHEN? WHAT DOES THE GRAPH LOOK LIKE
· Arousal: is a blend of physiological and psychological activity in a person and it refers to the intensity dimensions of motivation at a particular moment. It ranges from not aroused, to completely aroused, to highly aroused; this is when individuals are mentally and physically activated.
· Performance increases as arousal increases but when arousal gets too high performance dramatically decreases. This is usually caused by the performer becoming anxious and sometimes making wrong decisions. Catastrophes is caused by a combination of cognitive and somatic anxieties. Cognitive is the internal worries of not performing well while somatic is the physical effects of muscle tension/butterflies and fatigue through playing.
· The graph is an inverted U where the x line is the arousal and the y is the performance. Performance peaks on the top of the inverted U and the catastrophe happens in the fall of the inverted U
HIGH TRAIT ANXIETY ATHLETES… HOW DO THEY PERCEIVE COMPETITION?
· Anxiety: is a negative emotional state in which feelings of nervousness, worry and apprehension are associated with activation or arousal of the body
· Trait Anxiety: is a behavioral disposition to perceive as threatening circumstances that objectively may not be dangerous and to then respond with disproportionate state anxiety.
· Somatic Trait Anxiety: the degree to which one typically perceived heightened physical symptoms (muscle tension)
· Cognitive Trait Anxiety: the degree to which one typically worries or has self doubt
· Concentration Disruption: the degree to which one typically has concentration disruption during competition
People usually with high trait anxiety usually have more state anxiety in highly competitive evaluative situations than do people with lower trait anxiety. Example two athletes are playing basketball and both are physically and statistically the same both have to shoot a final free throw to win the game. Athlete A is more laid back which means his trait anxiety is lower and he doesn't view the final shot as a overly threatening. Athlete B has a high trait anxiety and because of that he perceives the final shot as very threatening. This has an effect on his state anxiety much more than.
More Related Content
Similar to A Systematic Literature Review of Servant Leadership Theoryi.docx
Dwight
Evaluation
Leadership style assessments certainly have a place within the organization. The effectiveness of a leadership style assessment will depend on what type of assessment and what the organizational needs are. Multi-source feedback assessments are supposed to give a 360 degree look at a leader and give the organization a valuable outcome in the evaluation of the leader (MacKie, 2015). Using multi-source feedback assessments can be extremely beneficial as long as the assessment is properly paired with the organizational goals and needs. Assessing a leader from multi perspectives is truly a holistic approach. But, organizations need to recognize that no leadership style assessment is not without its limitations.
Next, the behavior approach is one of four approaches to leadership. Three of which all have weaknesses; traits, skills, and behavior. But the fourth approach to leadership, the situational approach demonstrates the flexibility of a leader (Northouse2016, 2016). In today’s dynamic and complex business environment, flexible leaders bring the most value to an organization. The situational approach allows the leader to apply the other three approaches given the circumstances. As an Army leader I found this approach to be extremely effective while leading in combat and non-combat situations.
Explanation of Usefulness
Of equal importance is the usefulness leadership style assessments and the behavior approach have on an organization. Once an organization has clearly defined the goals and purpose of conducting an assessment, and then subsequently the correct assessment is used, the results will certainly help the organization. In this case, using an assessment to evaluate the benefits of a behavior approach to leadership will allow the organization to determine what needs to be done, how it needs to be done, and how fast it needs to be done (Saxena, 2014). Additionally, the behavior approach (if the relationship behavior is used), can give subordinates the motivation needed to achieve the desired outcome through a better understanding of themselves.
Explanation of Impact
The impact of leadership assessments on an individual can be positive or negative. Again, this directly correlates to the goals and expectations of the organization when the assessment is implemented. For the individual, it could potentially identify strengths and weaknesses. Thus, giving the individual the opportunity to grow and learn from the assessment. Simultaneously, the organization discovers how these strengths and weaknesses fit into the organization’s goals. Once they have identified where and how an individual nest into the organization, a holistic approach to achieving those goals can be developed (Northouse2016, 2016). In comparison, using a behavior approach assessment will yield valuable information about subordinates’ behavior patterns. Which equates to the organization knowing and understanding their employees. Understanding behavio.
Running Head THE RESEARCH PROPOSAL BUS8115 – BUS8120 THE RE.docxWilheminaRossi174
Running Head: THE RESEARCH PROPOSAL BUS8115 – BUS8120
THE RESEARCH PROPOSAL BUS8115 – BUS8120 lxxviii
The Research Proposal: The Role of Strategic Management and Leadership Traits on Employee Performance, Motivation, and Job Satisfaction: Chapters 1 – 5 of the Dissertation
Submitted to South University
College of Business
In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements
For the Degree of
Doctor of Business Administration
Ameki Williams
September 2022
Abstract
The research study will focus on the role of strategic management traits on employee performance, motivation, and job satisfaction. A literature review shows that strategic management style affects employees' performance, determination, and job satisfaction. Pioneer scholars have extensively researched strategic management styles though there is limited literature on the impacts of management traits. The purpose of the study is to illustrate the need for new management approaches in organizational management by comparing the varying effects of management and leadership traits on performance, motivation, and job satisfaction. The existing management styles have weaknesses necessitating the need for more advanced approaches that can address these limitations. The study looks at different management traits to blend them to meet employees' needs and organizations' objectives. The researchers will use a situational strategic management theoretical framework to venture into the study. The framework recognizes the need for leadership adaptability based on situations. Stakeholders will use the findings to strengthen organizational management. In this study, researchers are using management, as well as leadership in other areas.
Dedication
Acknowledgements
List of Tables
List of Figures
Table of Contents
Abstract iii
Dedication iv
Acknowledgements v
List of Tables vi
List of Figures vii
Chapter 1 - Introduction xi
Purpose of the Study xii
Statement of the Problem xii
Theoretical Framework xiii
Definitions xiii
Research Questions and Hypotheses xiv
Scope of the Study xvii
Delimitations: xvii
Limitations: xvii
Assumptions, Risks and Biases xviii
Significance of the Study xix
Summary xix
Chapter 2 - Literature Review xxi
Definition of Strategic Management xxii
The strategy statements xxiii
Importance of vision and mission statements xxiii
Conceptual Framework xxiv
Strategic Decisions in Strategic Management xxxii
Characteristics and Features of Strategic Decisions in Strategic Management xxxiii
Business Policy xxxv
Features of a Good Business Policy xxxv
Importance of Business Policies xxxvi
SWOT Analysis xxxvii
Factors of the SWOT Analysis (Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities, and Threats) xxxvii
Advantages of SWOT Analysis xxxix
Limitations of SWOT Analysis xli
Competitor Analysis xlii
Reasons for Doing a Competitor Analysis xlii
Strategic Lea.
Running head RESEARCH PAPER OUTLINE1RESEARCH PAPER OUTLINE5.docxtodd521
Running head: RESEARCH PAPER OUTLINE 1
RESEARCH PAPER OUTLINE 5
Research Paper Outline: Servant Leadership
Introduction
· Definition and the history of the term servant leadership and example of how servant leadership works.
Research Hypothesis
· Hypothesis 1- Servant leadership leads to better organizational performance.
· Hypothesis 2- Political skills and servant leadership work together leading to employee creativity and positive workplace culture.
· Hypothesis 3- Servant leadership increases employee satisfaction.
Research methodology
· Sampling of 50 random junior employees and corporate managers from three companies in the United States to interview them on servant leadership.
Literature review
· Annotated bibliography 1
· Annotated bibliography 2
· Annotated bibliography 3
· Annotated bibliography 4
· Annotated bibliography 5
· Annotated bibliography 6
· Annotated bibliography 7
Findings
· Evidence of servant leadership across the sample of individuals evaluated
· General information observed regarding servant leadership
Research limitations
· Failed in establishing causality hence creating a gap that needs to be addressed in future through the application of different study designs.
· The study of servant leadership is part of the large topic that cannot be summarized into a small-paged paper. Therefore limited information was touched on regarding the subject matter.
Recommendations
· Recommendation 1- Managers should embrace servant leadership because of the benefits it brings to the organizations they lead.
· Recommendation 2- Employees should support servant leaders when they set examples for them.
· Recommendation 3- Excellent collaboration between the servant leader and the employees they are leading should be created for servant leadership to succeed.
Conclusion
· Summary of what is understood by the term servant leadershipsummary of the paper’s main points.
References
Giambatista, R., McKeage, R., & Brees, J. (2020). Cultures of Servant Leadership and Their Impact. The Journal of Values-Based Leadership, 13(1), 12. Retrieved from: https://scholar.valpo.edu/jvbl/vol13/iss1/12/
Chiniara, M., & Bentein, K. (2016). Linking servant leadership to individual performance: Differentiating the mediating role of autonomy, competence and relatedness need satisfaction. The Leadership Quarterly, 27(1), 124-141.
DeConinck, J., & DeConinck, M. B. (2017). The relationship between servant leadership perceived organizational support, performance, and turnover among business to business salespeople. Archives of Business Research, 5(10).
Eva, N., Robin, M., Sendjaya, S., van Dierendonck, D., & Liden, R. C. (2019). Servant leadership: A systematic review and call for future research. The Leadership Quarterly, 30(1), 111-132.
Gandolfi, F., & Stone, S. (2018). Leadership, leadership styles, and servant leadership. Journal of Management Research, 18(4), 261-269.
Jaiswal, N. K., & Dhar, R. L. (2017). The influence of servan.
Running head ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY 1ANNOTA.docxSUBHI7
Running head: ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY
1
ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY
2
Annotated Bibliography
Shawn Harden
Southern Wesleyan University
July 19, 2017
Article 1
According to the article “Too Much of a Good Thing,” intellectual roots of organizational and management theory involves the Japanese leaders approach to quality improvement. The topic is related to organizational behavior in that it discusses quality and its compatibility with innovation. Innovation is a subtopic in human behavior in the workplace and its impact on the company. This topic makes a difference in management in that it discusses how organizations can properly manage quality improvement activities and thus achieve innovations. This article discusses strategy methods such as the waterfall methodology, which makes employees especially programmers more productive. Strategy formulation involves activities geared at creating a particular strategy such as the waterfall strategy. Strategy implementation involves using the formulated strategy to achieve results. Management can change significantly by responding to radical innovation.
Article 2
According to the second article “Rebuilding companies as communities,” the intellectual roots of organizational and management theories are based on the concept of making companies a place where employees can engage and are committed to one another. The topic is related to organizational behavior in that it discusses the idea of organizational culture and employee’s attitude towards building companies as communities. The topic contributes to management in that it suggests the kind of leadership that would best work for this kind of an organization suggesting that distributed and engaged leadership would be effective. The article suggests community-ship as a strategy of improving modern age organizations. According to this article, management can improve through leadership activities such as the creation of a work atmosphere that promotes trust.
Article 3
According to the third article, “Making management matter” the roots of organizational and management involve leadership and must struggle to be rigorous and interdisciplinary. The topic is related to organizational behavior in that it talks about leadership, which is a subtopic or organizational behavior and influencing employee’s behavior and attitude towards an achievement. The topic adds to management by arguing that a major requirement of management research need to be rooted in practical issues and finding the right balance between interdisciplinary research and drawing from diverse disciplines. A good strategy in business, especially for a leader, is to have a sense of where the company wants to achieve and working with the team to make things happen. Management can improve through the research that draws from academic disciplines to allow managers to comprehend the content of detailed issue they are handling.
Article 4
In the fourth article, “It’s ...
The ambidextrous organization - Leadership and the administration paradox of ...Cornelis de Kloet
Organizational ambidexterity is a theoretical concept on how to manage the tension between exploitation (sales) and exploration (innovation). Following the suggestion of Simsek et al. (2009) to do further research on leadership styles and organizational ambidexterity, this master thesis describes the outcome of a research conducted at Philips and Royal HaskoningDHV on organizational ambidexterity and leadership.
Perception of civil servants on performance : An Emperical Analysis of Indone...inventionjournals
International Journal of Business and Management Invention (IJBMI) is an international journal intended for professionals and researchers in all fields of Business and Management. IJBMI publishes research articles and reviews within the whole field Business and Management, new teaching methods, assessment, validation and the impact of new technologies and it will continue to provide information on the latest trends and developments in this ever-expanding subject. The publications of papers are selected through double peer reviewed to ensure originality, relevance, and readability. The articles published in our journal can be accessed online.
Linking leadership style, organizational culture, motivation and competence o...inventionjournals
This research aims to analyze empirically the influence of leadership style, organizational culture, motivation, and competencies on civil servants performance in mediation is job satisfaction. The design of this research using survey method with the collection of the data in cross-section through the questionnaire. Determination of a sample using simple random sampling with the total number of respondents as much as 265 employees. Methods of analysis of data used in hypothesis testing are the analysis moments of structures. This research provide evidence that leadership style, organizational culture and competence of a positive and significant effect on the job satisfaction, while the negative effect of motivation but Significantly to job satisfaction. Then the leadership style and organizational culture is positive but not significant effect on civil servants performance and motivation as well as competence and job satisfaction the positive and significant effect on the civil servants performance. Job satisfaction is not as mediating variable in explaining the effect of leadership styles and organizational culture on the civil servants performance, while on the other mediation of job satisfaction testing proved to be a full mediation in analyzing the effect of motivation and competencies on the civil servants performance.
Antecedents of Organizational Commitment of Lecturer in South Sumaterainventionjournals
Theoretically it was predicted that leadership style and organizational culture have partially and simultaneously affected employees commitment to organization. Fwthermore, those factors i.e. leadership style, organizational culture and organizational commitment have impact on lecture performance, this research was conducted at Palembang, South Sumatera. This research was conducted by using descriptive quantitative approach with questionnaire as the data gathering instrument. In addition to that explanatory approach was carried out to get a deeper insight on the research phenomenon 325 samples was collected from 5 (five) participating universitir in South Sumatera, Palembang. Data analysis was carried out by using Structural Equation Modelling (SEM). The research found that all independent variables have a significant effect on dependent variables both partially and simultaneously. Simultaneously it was found that leadership style and organizational culture affected organizational commitment by R2 = 0.77 with the most significant factor was on organizational communication. This result shows that there are still 43% of other factors that affected on organizational commitment. The next result was also gathered simultaneously which is the effect of leadership style, organizational culture and organizational commitment on employees ’performance with R2 = 0.79 with the most significant factor was on organizational commitment. This result shows that there are still 51% of other factors thataffected on employees 'performance that needs to be looked into in further research.
Relationship between transformational leadership, Innovation, Learning and Gr...Editor IJCATR
The main purpose of this paper is to justify and discuss the relationship among transformational leadership, innovation,
learning and growth, internal process within government organizations. Transformational leadership style consists of five components
namely vision, intellectual stimulation, inspirational communication, personal recognition, and supportive leadership. Besides,
innovation, learning and growth, and internal process are considered as three main perspectives of organization’s performance.
270 • BPA P. Gatti, C.G. Cortese, M. Tartari, C. Ghislieri.docxtamicawaysmith
270 • BPA P. Gatti, C.G. Cortese, M. Tartari, C. Ghislieri
Research2
Followers’ Active Engagement:
Between Personal and
Organizational Dimensions
Paola Gatti, Claudio G. Cortese, Manuela Tartari, Chiara Ghislieri
Department of Psychology, University of Torino
ᴥ ABSTRACT. Il contributo presenta una ricerca sul tema della followership nelle organizzazioni, proponendosi di
individuare alcuni possibili antecedenti del coinvolgimento attivo dei follower nella relazione con il leader. La ricerca,
che ha coinvolto 390 soggetti provenienti da diversi contesti lavorativi, mette in evidenza il ruolo di alcune dimensioni
personali (strategie di coping e apertura all’esperienza) e organizzative (comportamenti di cittadinanza organizzativa)
nelle dinamiche di followership, e consente di formulare importanti indicazioni per le politiche di gestione delle risorse
umane e, nello specifico, per la formazione aziendale.
ᴥ SUMMARY. Introduction: An increasing number of scholars argue that followers are a precondition for “successful”
organizations. Nevertheless, followership has received scant attention in the literature. Starting from a theoretical
analysis of the issue, this contribution aims to answer some questions regarding possible antecedents of Followers’
Active Engagement (F.AE), a specific followership behavior described by Kelley (1988, 1992), described in previous
works, which implies the propensity to take initiative, participate actively and be self-starters. Methods. A questionnaire
was administered to 390 respondents from heterogeneous work settings. The questionnaire includes a personal data
section and eight measures: F.AE; three personal/dispositional variables (extraversion, intellect, and avoiding coping),
three individual-organization interaction variables (organizational citizenship behaviors directed at individuals – OCBI
– and the organization – OCBO –, leader-member exchange), and a Lie scale as control variable. Data was analyzed
with PASW 18. After analyzing reliability and descriptives, the relationship between the variables was explored using
correlations and hierarchical multiple regression. Results. F.AE is related to six variables (25% explained variance). Three
were positively related: in decreasing order, OCBO, intellect, OCBI, and Lie scale. Conversely, avoiding coping and
gender were negatively related. Gender becomes significant only in the second step of the regression when dispositional
variables are included. Conclusions. This study adds to the understanding of followers’ Active Engagement, for example
by measuring some organizational dimensions as its antecedents, and has practical implications for training and human
resource management policies. Further studies should clarify the dynamics that influence followers’ behavior and
the dynamics of the mutual relationship between the leader’s and followers’ behavior, shedding light on the possible
consequences for the organization, in terms of ...
Running Head FOUR-FRAME MODEL 1FOUR-FRAME MODEL7Fou.docxcowinhelen
Running Head: FOUR-FRAME MODEL
1
FOUR-FRAME MODEL
7
Four Frame Model
Rubin Wilkins
Module 5 Assignment 2
Argosy University Los Angeles
Professor: Dale Mancini
February 15, 2017
Four-frame Model
Introduction
Bolman and Deal synthesized the foregoing leadership theory into four contemporary cognitive perspectives which they further organized into frames to assist leaders in the decision-making process in relation to each individual situation. It was their understanding that the use of such frames would assist leaders in analyzing respective events in a different manner and perspective. In essence, they provide ‘windows’ that enhance the leaders’ to have a broader understanding of the challenges being faced by the organization and solutions that are potentially available. This insightful piece therefore proceeds to help in understanding the frames.
The Four-Frame Model of leadership is a creation stemming from the meshing of various organizational theories to form a wide-encompassing one. These consolidated theories include; the trait theory, power and influence theory, situational and contingency theory, and the behavioral theory (Bateman, 2007). They have been developed over a span of many years. The multiple perspectives emanating from the various theoretical underpinnings are the ones termed as frames by the two theorists; through which an organization is viewed by the leaders and other related persons. These ‘windows’ further operate to bring an organization into focus and subsequently serve as filters which offer the leaders order and assist them in making decisions. Furthermore, the frames comprise of the structural frame, human resource frame, political frame and the symbolic frame. Each individual frame represents a perspective
accompanied by its own assumptions and attributes.
The structural frame is used in viewing the world from an orderly point of view furnished with a multiplicity of rules and procedures. The human resource frame then comes in to assume that goals are best achieved through the meeting of organization members’ needs and fully appreciating the workforce as fundamental part of the organization. The political frame appertains to the conflicts, alliances and bartering of respective parties to properly use and allocate the scares resources owned by and charged to the organization. Finally, symbolic frame relates to the issues of culture, symbols and rituals of an organization as opposed to the established rules and procedures.
Theme among articles
Song, Kim and Kolb (2009) set out to research on the effect of learning an organization’s culture and the established linkage between interpersonal trust and the general commitment to an organization. The sample used in this study was primarily obtained from various employees working to conglomerate entities of Korea. Resultantly, it was established that learning an organization’s culture worked as a mediating factor in the explanation of associations betwe ...
Leadership effectiveness a multi-factorial model dr. m. roussety mba, m led,...jameskandi
Dr. Maurice Roussety is an Executive Consultant at DST Advisory and Lecturer in Small Business, Franchising and Entrepreneurship at Griffith University in Queensland, Australia. Maurice holds a PhD from the Griffith University in Intellectual Property and Franchise Goodwill Valuation. He also holds a Master’s degree in Leadership and a Master of Business Administration.
Running Head LEADERSHIP APPROACHES1Leadership App.docxcowinhelen
Running Head: LEADERSHIP APPROACHES
1
Leadership Approaches
Name:
Institution
Date:
Literature Review
Organizational leadership in the contemporary environment is increasingly becoming a vital tool in defining the competitiveness of an organization due to the role it plays in motivating employees and determining critical decisions. Accordingly, diverse empirical studies have been conducted in the field of leadership in an attempt to determine the optimal leadership approach that should be adopted by organizations. The diverse leadership approaches that have been learned in the past include transformational leaders, transactional leadership, trait leadership, and situational leadership. The transformational leadership implies a leadership approach in which the leader works the juniors in the identification of the changes that are needed, defining the vision to guide the change execution and embracement, and in the execution of the change (Hill & Jones, 2014). In contrast, the transactional leadership implies that leaders should reward or punish employees in return for their efforts and deterrence against undue behaviors in the organization. The trait leadership approach indicates that leaders are defined by personal characteristics that are integrated (Hill & Jones, 2014). Thus, diverse individual differences help in selecting and fostering an effective leader. In contrast, the situational leadership approach indicates that effective leaders are defined by the situation of the leadership needed in a diverse environment. Thus, the approach implies that leaders should be capable of adjusting their leadership style to ensure they are capable of leading certain followers (Hill & Jones, 2014).
This literature review explores on various journal articles that have focused on the leadership approaches in different setups. One of the critical journal articles that have investigated the role of leadership approach is by Den, Deanne, and Belshack (2012). The article investigates when the transformational leadership leads to proactive behavior of the employee. Equally, the study explores the role of self-efficacy and autonomy in influencing employee personal initiative (Den, Deanne, & Belschak, 2012). The study was conducted using two-multisource researchers to evaluate the interaction between the contextual and personal variables towards the proactive behavior of employees. Consequently, the three authors of their study found that transformational leadership, employee independence, and breadth of the service-efficacy have a positive impact in stimulating proactive behavior among the employees (Den, Deanne, & Belschak, 2012). Furthermore, the study found the positive interaction between the personal and contextual variables in determining the proactive behavior of the employees. The findings of the study indicate that transformational leadership and high employee autonomy relate positively in enhancing the proactive behavior of the workers in i ...
Similar to A Systematic Literature Review of Servant Leadership Theoryi.docx (20)
Zoe is a second grader with autism spectrum disorders. Zoe’s father .docxransayo
Zoe is a second grader with autism spectrum disorders. Zoe’s father recently passed away in a tragic car accident. Zoe, her mom, and two older brothers have temporarily relocated from out-of-state and are now living in her grandparents’ house in a small, rural community.
Because the family had been living out-of state, Zoe has never interacted with her grandparents. She has challenges responding to social cues, including her name and in understanding gestures. She also engages in repetitive body movements. She is fond of her set of dolls and likes lining them up. When Zoe is agitated, her mother plays Mozart, which seems to have a calming effect. Zoe also enjoys macaroni and cheese.
Her grandparents do not understand Zoe’s attempts at communicating. Zoe does not respond well to crowded and noisy environments. Zoe’s mom is working outside the home for the first time.
Because of the move, Zoe has transferred to a new school, which does not currently have any students with ASD. Although her mom is generally very involved with Zoe’s education, she is away from the home much of the time due to a long commute for her new job is a neighboring city.
Zoe’s grandparents are eager and willing to help in any way they can.
Imagine you are serving as an ASD consultant at Zoe’s new school. Using the COMPASS model, create a COMPASS Action Plan for Zoe by complete the following tasks:
Identify the personal challenges for Zoe;
Identify the environmental challenges for Zoe;
Identify potential supports; and
Identify and prioritize teaching goals.
In addition, include a 250-500-word rationale that explains how your action plan for Zoe demonstrates collaboration in a respectful, culturally responsive way while promoting understanding, resolving conflicts, and building consensus around her interventions.
.
Zlatan Ibrahimović – Sports Psychology
Outline
Introduction:
· General Info
· Nationality, Birthplace, Parents
· Childhood What he wanted to do growing up?
· When did he start playing professionally?
· Which teams did he play for?
· Give some of his career statistics and maybe records?
· What trophies has he won with club football and national team of Sweden?
· Style of Play
· What is his personality like? How do people see him in the media?\
·
Body Paragraphs
Connect the following Sports Psychology Concepts (or even those not listed) to Zlatan Ibrahimović
What is his personality type? Type A, B C, or D?
Give examples through research of where he shows this.
CATASTROPHE THEORY… OCCURS WHEN? WHAT DOES THE GRAPH LOOK LIKE
· Arousal: is a blend of physiological and psychological activity in a person and it refers to the intensity dimensions of motivation at a particular moment. It ranges from not aroused, to completely aroused, to highly aroused; this is when individuals are mentally and physically activated.
· Performance increases as arousal increases but when arousal gets too high performance dramatically decreases. This is usually caused by the performer becoming anxious and sometimes making wrong decisions. Catastrophes is caused by a combination of cognitive and somatic anxieties. Cognitive is the internal worries of not performing well while somatic is the physical effects of muscle tension/butterflies and fatigue through playing.
· The graph is an inverted U where the x line is the arousal and the y is the performance. Performance peaks on the top of the inverted U and the catastrophe happens in the fall of the inverted U
HIGH TRAIT ANXIETY ATHLETES… HOW DO THEY PERCEIVE COMPETITION?
· Anxiety: is a negative emotional state in which feelings of nervousness, worry and apprehension are associated with activation or arousal of the body
· Trait Anxiety: is a behavioral disposition to perceive as threatening circumstances that objectively may not be dangerous and to then respond with disproportionate state anxiety.
· Somatic Trait Anxiety: the degree to which one typically perceived heightened physical symptoms (muscle tension)
· Cognitive Trait Anxiety: the degree to which one typically worries or has self doubt
· Concentration Disruption: the degree to which one typically has concentration disruption during competition
People usually with high trait anxiety usually have more state anxiety in highly competitive evaluative situations than do people with lower trait anxiety. Example two athletes are playing basketball and both are physically and statistically the same both have to shoot a final free throw to win the game. Athlete A is more laid back which means his trait anxiety is lower and he doesn't view the final shot as a overly threatening. Athlete B has a high trait anxiety and because of that he perceives the final shot as very threatening. This has an effect on his state anxiety much more than.
Zia 2Do You Choose to AcceptYour mission, should you choose.docxransayo
Zia 2
Do You Choose to Accept?
Your mission, should you choose to accept it, is to go out and see Mission: Impossible-Fallout. As I sat back in my red-cushioned seat, accompanied by my brothers, I knew I was in for something special. The film takes place two years after two-thousand fifteens hit movie, Mission: Impossible-Rogue Nation. While I had no clue what to expect, I knew I was going to be in for an incredible ride as soon as the movie began with the intense dialogue between Ethan Hunt (Tom Cruise) and Solomon Lane (Sean Harris). From beginning to end, Mission: Impossible- Fallout delivers crazy action-thriller scenes, inventive special effects, and creative cinematography.
Mission: Impossible-Fallout is based on a story of an American agent who must retrieve nuclear weapons from an enemy terrorist organization with help of his specialized IMF team. The film was consistent the first hour with it involving the audience in the mission of the secret organization and trying to figure out the next move of the evil organization known as the Apostles. However, towards the middle of the movie it was revealed that one of the CIA agents was playing the role of a double spy and was on the side of the Apostles. The plot delivered intense action-packed scenes between the opposing groups that personally had me at the edge of my seat. Whether it was a chase on motorcycles, cars, speedboats, or helicopters, each scene had Ethan Hunt running for his life to save the world. Even though I was only viewing the movie from a comfortable movie theater, Hunt zigzagging through the traffic of France on a motorcycle had my fists clenched and adrenaline pumping. However, that was not even the best thriller of the movie. Ethan Hunt trailing Agent Walker in a helicopter with heavy rounds of artillery being fired at each other through the snowcapped mountains of Kashmir may very well be one of the best action scenes in cinematic history. Mission: Impossible-Fallout can be appreciated and enjoyed by all audiences because of its action-packed scenes that keep everyone extremely engaged in the plot.
Mission: Impossible-Fallout brilliantly illustrates the amazing special effects that serve to create the theme and style of the film. From creating bloody wounds to spectacular backgrounds, special effects are abundant throughout the movie. For instance, as Hunt is jumping off an airplane, the special effects of this scene include wind, rain, thunder, and clouds that make the film visually appealing and almost realistic. The thunder striking him as he is skydiving had my jaw wide open simply because of how incredible the illusion was displayed. In almost every fight between Hunt’s team and the Apostles, multiple types of special effects were utilized. Fighting sequences with Hunt angrily running towards Lane and delivering devastating punches accompanied by “POWs” and “AAAHs” seemed so realistic that it had me feeling queasy in my stomach. The gunfire during these fight.
Ziyao LiIAS 3753Dr. Manata HashemiWorking Title The Edu.docxransayo
Ziyao Li
IAS 3753
Dr. Manata Hashemi
Working Title:
The Education Gap
Research Question:
How did the youth of Iran make up the education gap resulted from the Cultural Revolution from 1980 to 1982?
This is a critical question because it involves both education and the youth of Iran. Education and the youth are both very fundamental perspectives for a society to thrive. During the cultural revolution, the education system was shut down, which would undermine the overall quality of a generation. Research of this issue will lead us to the methods used to make up the education gap. It is possible to help other countries suffering similar issues.
Thesis Statement:
After the Iran’s cultural revolution during 1980 to 1982, the youth of Iran made up the education gap caused during the revolution by promoting student movements.
Outline:
· Introduction:
· Cultural Revolution happened in Iran during 1980 to 1982. The education institutions like universities were shut down for the 3-year period. And this gap in education brought significant influence on the youth of Iran at that time. However, the education gap was made up successfully after the revolution.
· State the thesis statement:
· The education gap is made up by the youth in Iran. They promoted the student movement to help the society recover from the revolution.
· The scars left from the revolution
· The revolution lasted 3 years, young people who were supposed to be students had to quit school. The government forced schools to close. The chain of delivering knowledge was broken. And young people cannot find proper things to do when quitting school.
· Student movements
· After the cultural revolution, people in Iran realized they need to correct the current education situation recover the damages resulted from the revolution. Since Iran’s youth has a great number in the society, their power was not to be ignored. They started to fight for their own rights and profits. They were looking for ways to make up the damage has been down. Then the student movement eventually worked for recovering Iran’s education level.
· Conclusion
· The cultural revolution in Iran hurt its education continuity. However, the youth of Iran managed to make up for the damage caused by the cultural revolution. Student movements played the dominant role in this recovering process.
Bibliography:
Khosrow Sobhe (1982) Education in Revolution: is Iran duplicating the Chinese Cultural Revolution?, Comparative Education, 18:3, 271-280, DOI: 10.1080/0305006820180304
Mashayekhi M. The Revival of the Student Movement in Post-Revolutionary Iran. International Journal of Politics, Culture & Society. 2001;15(2):283. doi:10.1023/A:1012977219524.
Razavi, R. (2009). The Cultural Revolution in Iran, with Close Regard to the Universities, and its Impact on the Student Movement. Middle Eastern Studies, 45(1), 1–17. https://doi-org.ezproxy.lib.ou.edu/10.1080/00263200802547586
ZABARDAST, S. (2015). Flourishing of Occid.
Ziyan Huang (Jerry)
Assignment 4
Brand Positioning
Professor Gaur
Target audience:
HR in Ping An Bank Co., Ltd. HRs (interviewers who hire people) from Ping An Bank are usually female, aged 30-40, who look friendly and easy-going. They are sophisticated and skeptic when checking people’s resumes and asking questions during interview. Usually, HRs care about four things: 1. Graduate school ranking. 2. Working experience in bank 3. Oral expression. 4. Personal character. They prefer people who are enthusiastic, energetic and hard-working.
Q1:
Compared to other people who also look for jobs in Ping An Bank, my points of parity would be: 1. I have earned a master degree in a Top 40 U.S. graduate school. 2. I have some intern experience in another bank. My points of differentiation would be: 1. I am confidence in speaking and self-expression. I can serve both Chinese and American clients because I speak fluent Mandarin and English. 2. I am energetic and hard-working. I always have passion in learning something new, which is a key for me to develop working skills.
Q2:
My brand essence: “Energetic, hard-working and modest.”
Q3:
Positioning statement:
Ziyan Huang is for employers from bank,
Who look for excellent employees.
Ziyan Huang is an energetic, hard-working NYU graduate student,
That has passion in developing new working skills.
Because he can speak fluent Mandarin and English,
And have one year working experience in China Merchant Bank,
So that employers can trust him as a reliable candidate.
.
Zhtavius Moye
04/19/2019
BUSA 4126
SWOT Analysis
Dr. Setliff
PORSCHE
Strengths
· Brand Recognition
Not only a brand, but a status symbol for wealth and luxury
· Lean Factory Production
Manpower is low compared to the use of raw materials and supplies
· High Profit Share
The reputation is well-known for good treatment
Weaknesses
· Small automotive manufacture
Porsche has offered the same line of cars for years before extending.
· Limited Customer Sector
Not everyone can afford a Porsche
· Location
Since beginning of time, Porsche has been in Stuttgart, Germany. No space to expand
Opportunities
· Expansion
Deliveries increased in China by 12% but needs more in Asia, Japan, and Indonesia.
· Electric Mobility
A chance to expand Porsche name to many more industries and markets with top competitors such as Tesla.
· S1, O2: Brand recognition extends the range for profitability for the 2020 fully electric Porsche Taycan.
· S3, O1: The annual profitability of the company will encourage others to become a part of the business.
· S2, O1: The cost of a Porsche effects expansion, but by expanding to China could significantly increase rates.
· S3, O1: The location in Germany is a problem for expansion due to limited space of Stuttgart.
Threats
· Technology
Modern technology is advancing to lower cost vehicles.
· Market Competition
Vehicles with similar characteristics at lower cost.
· S3, O2: Weighing heavily on the market Porsche’s reputation will continue to stand abroad its competitors.
· S2, O1: Limited labor will call for more software developers in the more modern technology, especially introducing the fully electric Porsche Taycan.
· S1, O1: Porsche is a company that believes in staying at its classic and luxury perception to their buyers. Still giving all newly updated technology certain things such as an automatic start engine will not be an asset.
· S2, O2: Combined leaves Porsche at a limitation of customers making it hard to expand the market.
VIOLATION OF CIVIL RIGHTS ACT IN ELECTIONS 1
VIOLATION OF CIVIL RIGHTS ACT IN ELECTIONS 2
Violation of Civil Rights Act in Elections
Jake Bookard
Savannah State University
Violation of Civil Rights Act in Elections
Introduction
Despite the assurance of minority voter’s rights by the constitution and the fourteenth amendment, cases of rights violation with regards to the voting process are still on the rise in the US. Minority groups are often discriminated or blocked from participating in the voting process both in ways that they can discern and through cunning plans that can involve the voting process. Some of the main reasons why minorities’ constitutional rights are violated include racial discrimination by majority races, and to manipulate the outcome of the elections so as to keep minority groups out of the political leadership structure. The fourteenth amendment and the constitution do not sufficiently safeguard the rights of minority groups during elections beca.
Zichun Gao Professor Karen Accounting 1AIBM FInancial Stat.docxransayo
Zichun Gao Professor Karen Accounting 1A
IBM FInancial Statement Analysis
Financial Ratios 2019 2018 Formula
Current Ratio 1.02 1.29 CA/CL
Profit Margin 12.22% 12.35% Net Income/Total Revenue
Receiveables Turnover 9.80 10.71 Revenue/Average AR
Average Collection Period 36.72 33.62 365/Receiveables Turnover
Inventory Turnover 25.11 25.36 COST/Average Inventory
Days in Inventory 14.53 14.39 365/Inventory Turnover
Debts to Asset Ratio 0.86 0.86 Total Debts/Total Assets
IBM's days in inventory is around two weeks and this means that goods in the inventory
as efficnetly distributed and that there is a consitantly good inventory control for the
company.
The company's debts to assets ratio is the same for two years and this means that the
company has less debt than asset. However, it is still a relatively poor ratio because this
might show that there are potential problems for the company to generate sufficient
revenue.
The current ratio of the company has decreased over the year, and this means that the
company has less liquid assets to cover its short term liabilities. Since the ratio is
currently approaching 1, the company might be having liquidation problem.
The profit margin for IBM is very stable and it has been about 12% for two years. The
company is performing the profit-generating ability at an average level and it is having
an average profit margin in the industry.
The receiveables turnover is good for the company while between these two years, there
is a decline. As the company is collecting its accounts receiveables around 10 times per
year, the collection is frequent.
The company has been collecting money from customers on credit sales approximately
once every month, and the company usually has fast credit collection, which means that
the risk for credit sales is relatively low.
Inventory turnover measures how many times a company sells and replaces inventory
during a year and for IBM, the number of times is stable and it is constantly around 25.
This means that the company has an efficient control of its goods in the inventory.
Free Cash Flow 11.90 11.90 CF_Operation-Capital Expenditures
Return on Assets 0.06 0.08 Net Income/Total Assets
Asset Turnover 0.51 0.65 Revenue/Assets
Figures From Financial Statement
From Income Statement pg.68
Net Income 9431 9828
Total Revenue 77147 79591
Cost 40657 42655
From Consolidated Balance Sheet pg.70
Current Assets 38420 49146
Current Liabilities 37701 38227
Accounts Receiveables 7870 7432
Inventory 1619 1682
Total Assets 152186 123382
Total Liabilities 131202 106452
From Cash Flow Overview pg.59
Net Cash From Op 14.3 15.6
Capital expenditures 2.4 3.7
The company currently has 11.9 billion dollars free cash flow for two years and this is a
relatively high level of free cash flow. With the high free cash flow, the company can
have more oportunity to expand, invest in new projects, pay dividends, or invest the
money into Resea.
Zheng Hes Inscription This inscription was carved on a stele erec.docxransayo
Zheng He's Inscription
This inscription was carved on a stele erected at a temple to the goddess the Celestial Spouse at Changle in Fujian province in 1431. Message written before his last voyage.
The Imperial Ming Dynasty unifying seas and continents, surpassing the three dynasties even goes beyond the Han and Tang dynasties. The countries beyond the horizon and from the ends of the earth have all become subjects and to the most western of the western or the most northern of the northern countries, however far they may be, the distance and the routes may be calculated. Thus the barbarians from beyond the seas, though their countries are truly distant, "have come to audience bearing precious objects and presents.
The Emperor, approving of their loyalty and sincerity, has ordered us (Zheng) He and others at the head of several tens of thousands of officers and flag-troops to ascend (use) more than one hundred large ships to go and confer presents on them in order to make manifest (make it happen) the transforming power of the (imperial) virtue and to treat distant people with kindness. From the third year of Yongle (1405) till now we have seven times received the commission (official permission) of ambassadors to countries of the western ocean. The barbarian countries which we have visited are: by way of Zhancheng (Champa Cambodia), Zhaowa (Java), Sanfoqi (Palembang- Indonesia) and Xianlo (Siam/Thailand) crossing straight over to Xilanshan (Ceylon- Sri Lanka) in South India, Guli (Calicut) [India], and Kezhi (Cochin India), we have gone to the western regions Hulumosi (Hormuz Between Oman and Iran), Adan (Aden), Mugudushu (Mogadishu- Somalia), altogether more than thirty countries large and small. We have traversed more than one hundred thousand li (distance of 500 meters) of immense water spaces and have beheld in the ocean huge waves like mountains rising sky-high, and we have set eyes on barbarian regions far away hidden in a blue transparency of light vapours, while our sails loftily unfurled like clouds day and night continued their course (rapid like that) of a star, traversing those savage waves as if we were treading a public thoroughfare. Truly this was due to the majesty and the good fortune of the Court and moreover we owe it to the protecting virtue of the divine Celestial Spouse.
The power of the goddess having indeed been manifested in previous times has been abundantly revealed in the present generation. When we arrived in the distant countries we captured alive those of the native kings who were not respectful and exterminated those barbarian robbers who were engaged in piracy, so that consequently the sea route was cleansed and pacified (to make someone or something peaceful) and the natives put their trust in it. All this is due to the favours of the goddess.
We have respectfully received an Imperial commemorative composition (essay/piece of writing) exalting the miraculous favours, which is the highest recompense and.
Zhou 1Time and Memory in Two Portal Fantasies An Analys.docxransayo
Zhou 1
Time and Memory in Two Portal Fantasies: An Analysis of Alice’s Adventure in Wonderland and "Windeye"
Life is a collection of moments, and some memories last forever. Brian Evenson
demonstrated this in “Windeye,”a story of a man who faces mental challenges because of the
life-long memory of his sister. In spite of the fact that his mother insists that the sister did not
exist, the protagonist stuck to this belief until his old age. The basis of the protagonist’s
problems is the intense love and unforgettable memories he shared with his imagined sister.
A great portion of his childhood memories is centered around his sister and their exploration
of the windeye. Windeye, the corruption of the word window, is a portal that causes the
disappearance of the protagonist’s sister. The popular portal fantasy, Alice’s Adventure in Wonderland, illustrates a similar story in the same sub-genre where a girl travels through a
rabbit hole and experiences a fantasy world which chronicles her changes from naive child-
like responses to more adult-like problem solving reactions. In “Windeye,” Brian Evenson
utilizes the portal trope to develop conflict and outcomes while exploring the themes of time
and memory. In both stories, the use of the portal trope creates a distinct world that is
separate from reality; however, the outcomes are different, and ultimately, Alice’s Adventure in Wonderland presents the theme of growth while “Windeye” explores time and memories.
The use of time factors allows the reader to travel back to the origin of the story in “Windeye” and experience the beginning of the central conflict. It is in his past that the
protagonist develops strong childhood memories of a sister, which is the cause of his future
mental challenges. In the present, the narrator is old and rickety as he uses a cane to walk but
is still reminiscent of the past (Evenson). He holds firm to the belief that he might have a
chance of meeting his sister again and thus contemplates the future and the sister’s
appearance. The plot of “Windeye” is composed of distinctive life moments: the past, the
present, and the future, which offer a clear and complete description of the events. The theme
Zhou 2
of time allows the reader to understand why the protagonist profoundly feels that his sister exists. In essence, it is time travel that gives the story a picture of the events that lead to the current situation.
The portal fantasy is a fictional literary device where a character enters into a
fantastical world through a portal or a hole. In Alice’s Adventures in Wonderland, Carroll
uses a rabbit hole as a physical portal to move through time. Comparably, Evenson utilizes
the windeye, a window that can only be seen from one side, as a physical portal. When the
sister touches the windeye, her brother believes that she enters into another reality through
the portal as Alice does. In contrast, the protagonist also experiences a new reality as he is.
Zhang 1
Yixiang Zhang
Tamara Kuzmenkov
English 101
June 2, 2020
Comparing Gas-Powered Cars and Electric Cars
Electric cars have become increasingly popular in the past century. These cars use
electric motors instead of conventional gasoline engines. Electric cars pollute less and utilize
energy more efficiently than gas-powered vehicles; therefore, modern research is focusing on
improving electric vehicles, such as increasing the storage capacity of the batteries. This essay
seeks to identify the differences and similarities between the two types of cars focusing on their
performance, price, and convenience.
An electric car is a car that is primarily powered by electricity. The conventional gas-
powered cars require diesel or gasoline to power the engines. These cars have gas tanks that store
fuel and the engine converts the gas to the energy that powers the motor. Similarly, electric cars
have batteries, or fuel cells that store and convert electricity to energy used to propel electric
motors (What Are Electric Cars?). Four components present in electric cars distinguish it from
the gas-powered cars (Alternative Fuels Data Center: How Do All-Electric Cars Work?). The
first is the charge port. Since electricity powers an electric car, there has to be a port to connect
to an external power source when charging the battery. The second is an electric traction motor
that propels the vehicle. The third is a traction battery pack. This battery serves the same purpose
as the gas tank; thus, it stocks electric power to propel the motor. The forth is a direct current
converter. This component converts the current to low voltage power that is needed to power the
electric engine.
Tamara Kuzmenkov
90000001730094
You need to watch the panapto session for this paper assignment and FOLLOW the instructions I give there. Your topic sentence must follow the patterns set forth by your thesis. So, this first paragraph must have a topic sentence about GAS POWERED cars and PRICE. That is what you have set forth in your thesis. Watch the panapto session. And ask me questions if you do not understand what I mean.
Tamara Kuzmenkov
90000001730094
No, you cannot 'announce' what your essay will do. And this is NOT the thesis I approved. What I approved:"Both gas-powered cars and electric cars are now in use, but their price, performance and convenience may vary, which may influence people's decisions about which type to use."
Zhang 2
Differences between gas-powered cars and electric cars
The initial purchase price of an electric car is much higher than that of a gas-powered car.
Consumers intending to own a vehicle have the option of buying or leasing. The initial cost of a
car depends on an individual's disposable income and savings. Knez et al. noted that "When it
comes to financial features, the most important thing seems to be the total price of the vehicle"
(55). The difference in price between electr.
Zhang �1
Nick Zhang
Mr. Bethea
Lyric Peotry
13 November 2018
Reputation by Taylor Swift
After Taylor Swift fell into disrepute, she was truly reborn. As a creative singer
who reveals a lot of real life emotions and details in her works, she constantly refines
and shares her emotional connection with her audience. In her new album, people find
resonance in her work, connect it with their own lives. "Reputation" is not only the
original efforts of Taylor Swift, but also means that she turned gorgeously and
dominated. This album is like a swearing word from her to the world. Revenge fantasy,
sweet love, painful growth... all the good and bad things that happened in these stages
of life, her music seems to have gone through with us all over again.
But last August, the now 28-year-old singer declared that "the old Taylor is
dead" in her eerie single "Look What You Made Me Do," the beginning of a new era for
Swift (Weatherby). The disclosure of the society, the accusations of rumor makers,
these straight-forward lyrics shred the ugly face of those unscrupulous people. Taylor
Swift did not endure the rumors in the society, but created this rock album after the
silence. If 1989 is still what Taylor hopes to gain the understanding of the public, this
album is really a matter of opening up the past concerns, saying goodbye to the past
as well as being a true Taylor Swift. No longer caring about the so-called "reputation ",
preferring to be burned to death by those ridiculous "images." This air of newfound
jadedness is one of the many ways in which Swift broadcasts her long-overdue loss of
Zhang �2
innocence on “Reputation,” an album that captures the singer during the most
turbulent but commercially successful period of her career. (Primeau)
The cover is black and white, the picture is Taylor's head, and the side is the
newspaper's article and title words. The cover of the album may be a metaphor, it
reveals that Taylor can no longer stand the report of the gossip media, and the chain on
the neck represents depression and breathlessness. The theme and style of the album
are all refined from their own lives. The emotions and themes interpreted in her songs
make the audience feel more deeply that her album is her life. Without even using any
real words, fans can surmise what this means — a reference to the endless headlines
and stories the singer has spurred in recent years. (Primeau) Reputation, come to diss
the past and all opponents.
The lyrics and MV are full of real stalks in Taylor Swift's life , with Taylor's
resentment for circles and industry since his debut. In the era of streaming singles, she
is the rare young star who still worships at the altar of the album, an old-fashioned
instinct that serves her surprisingly well. (Battan) "Look What You Made Me Do" is a
counterattack against Kanye West and Kim Kardashian, Katy Perry and numerous
online "black mold". And .
Zero trust is a security stance for networking based on not trusting.docxransayo
Zero trust is a security stance for networking based on not trusting any users, devices, or applications by default, even those that are already on the network. The zero trust model uses identity and access management (IAM) as a foundation for an organization’s security program. For this assignment:
Research the zero trust model.
Write a report that describes the following:
The purpose of zero trust and what differentiates it from other security models
An overview of how zero trust works in a network environment
How zero trust incorporates least privilege access through role-based access control (RBAC) and/or attribute-based access control (ABAC)
Need 2 pages around 600 words
.
Zero plagiarism4 referencesNature offers many examples of sp.docxransayo
Zero plagiarism
4 references
Nature offers many examples of specialization and collaboration. Ant colonies and bee hives are but two examples of nature’s sophisticated organizations. Each thrives because their members specialize by tasks, divide labor, and collaborate to ensure food, safety, and general well-being of the colony or hive.
In this Discussion, you will reflect on your own observations of and/or experiences with informaticist collaboration. You will also propose strategies for how these collaborative experiences might be improved.
Of course, humans don’t fare too badly in this regard either. And healthcare is a great example. As specialists in the collection, access, and application of data, nurse informaticists collaborate with specialists on a regular basis to ensure that appropriate data is available to make decisions and take actions to ensure the general well-being of patients.
Post
a description of experiences or observations about how nurse informaticists and/or data or technology specialists interact with other professionals within your healthcare organization. Suggest at least one strategy on how these interactions might be improved. Be specific and provide examples. Then, explain the impact you believe the continued evolution of nursing informatics as a specialty and/or the continued emergence of new technologies might have on professional interactions.
.
Zero plagiarism4 referencesLearning ObjectivesStudents w.docxransayo
Zero plagiarism
4 references
Learning Objectives
Students will:
Develop diagnoses for clients receiving psychotherapy*
Analyze legal and ethical implications of counseling clients with psychiatric disorders*
* The Assignment related to this Learning Objective is introduced this week and
submitted
in
Week 4
.
Select a client whom you observed or counseled this week. Then, address the following in your Practicum Journal:
Describe the client (without violating HIPAA regulations) and identify any pertinent history or medical information, including prescribed medications.
Using the
Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Health Disorders
, 5th edition (DSM-5), explain and justify your diagnosis for this client.
Explain any legal and/or ethical implications related to counseling this client.
Support your approach with evidence-based literature.
.
Zero Plagiarism or receive a grade of a 0.Choose one important p.docxransayo
Zero Plagiarism or receive a grade of a 0.
Choose one important police function: Law enforcement, order maintenance or service, etc.
OR
Choose one important police strategy: Traditional Policing, Community Policing, Data Driven Policing, etc.
Write a research paper describing the strateugy or function in detail and discussing the significance of the strategy or function with respect to the roles in society.
Format: Title Page, Outline, Text, and References
Must have 3 sources
You can use your textbook: Cox, Steven M., et al. (2020). Introduction to Policing. Fourth Edition. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications, Inc.
Paper must by 6 pages long
APA Style
.
ZACHARY SHEMTOB AND DAVID LATZachary Shemtob, formerly editor in.docxransayo
ZACHARY SHEMTOB AND DAVID LAT
Zachary Shemtob, formerly editor in chief of the Georgetown Law Review, is a clerk in the US District Court for the Southern District of New York. David Lat is a former federal prosecutor. Their essay originally appeared in the New York Times in 2011.
Executions Should Be Televised
Earlier this month, Georgia conducted its third execution this year. This would have passed relatively unnoticed if not for a controversy surrounding its videotaping. Lawyers for the condemned inmate, Andrew Grant DeYoung, had persuaded a judge to allow the recording of his last moments as part of an effort to obtain evidence on whether lethal injection caused unnecessary suffering.
Though he argued for videotaping, one of Mr. DeYoung’s defense lawyers, Brian Kammer, spoke out against releasing the footage to the public. “It’s a horrible thing that Andrew DeYoung had to go through,” Mr. Kammer said, “and it’s not for the public to see that.”
We respectfully disagree. Executions in the United States ought to be made public.
Right now, executions are generally open only to the press and a few select witnesses. For the rest of us, the vague contours are provided in the morning paper. Yet a functioning democracy demands maximum accountability and transparency. As long as executions remain behind closed doors, those are impossible. The people should have the right to see what is being done in their name and with their tax dollars.
This is particularly relevant given the current debate on whether specific methods of lethal injection constitute cruel and unusual punishment and therefore violate the Constitution.
There is a dramatic difference between reading or hearing of such an event and observing it through image and sound. (This is obvious to those who saw the footage of Saddam Hussein’s hanging in 2006 or the death of Neda Agha-Soltan during the protests in Iran in 2009.) We are not calling for opening executions completely to the public — conducting them before a live crowd — but rather for broadcasting them live or recording them for future release, on the web or TV.
When another Georgia inmate, Roy Blankenship, was executed in June, the prisoner jerked his head, grimaced, gasped, and lurched, according to a medical expert’s affidavit. The Atlanta Journal-Constitution reported that Mr. DeYoung, executed in the same manner, “showed no violent signs in death.” Voters should not have to rely on media accounts to understand what takes place when a man is put to death.
Cameras record legislative sessions and presidential debates, and courtrooms are allowing greater television access. When he was an Illinois state senator, President Obama successfully pressed for the videotaping of homicide interrogations and confessions. The most serious penalty of all surely demands equal if not greater scrutiny.
Opponents of our proposal offer many objections. State lawyers argued that making Mr. DeYoung’s execution public raised safety concerns..
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Zeng Jiawen ZengChenxia Zhu English 3001-015292017Refl.docxransayo
Zeng
Jiawen Zeng
Chenxia Zhu
English 3001-01
5/29/2017
Reflective Essay
Becoming a good writer is a challenging and continuous process that need to constantly improving your writing skills in different area as same as constructive reflection for identification of both progress and directions for further development. My writing competence has improved significantly during the ten weeks of English 3001 Writing Proficiency course in such areas as grammar, use of verb tenses, and content quality.
The most serious problems I faced in writing process previously were grammar issues and poor content of the essays. To be more precise, I used to lack empirical competence in proper use of verb tenses. My confusions of tense forms destroyed all the sense of the essay, and often improper sentence structure made the result of the writing process insufficient to meet the University Writing Skills Requirements. Initially, when I tried to improve my skills in the given area, I only paid attention to the highlighted mistakes and comments of the tutor. Nonetheless, I realized it was not enough. Therefore, I changed this strategy to a more constructive one. To be more precise, I started reading more books in English and wrote essays diverse topics apart from the course tasks. It was an effective type of training since in several weeks my essays revealed particular progress which I took into consideration and continued.
I realize that it does not suffice to finally meet the University Writing Skills Requirements since this is only a fraction of real competence in writing. The next step of self-improvement the given sphere is editing that also has numerous issues and challenges to be dealt with. It means that there are two domains within the notion of writing competence, and both of them have no limits and require constant self-improvement. Therefore, my goal to meet academic requirements is only one more step in the course of acquisition of linguistic competence and capacity to master English in terms of writing essays and academic papers.
Moreover, I know that currently I need to focus more on content issues, persuasive capacity and proper use of diverse materials employed to support evidence which are crucial elements of writing papers per University requirements. On the other hand, I see that all the core problems with linguistic competence which I have faced earlier, are solved, which means that I need to focus on further self-improvement and keep constructive work in order to achieve my next targets in the field of concern. Furthermore, I have considerable progress in such important dimensions of academic paper construction as thesis development, use of testimony and personal observations, and alignment of different ideas into a coherent, justified and credible academic entity. Now I do not permit run-ons, excessive use of articles or comma splices to emerge in my works. It means that flaws of basic and medium level are dealt with, and further self-de.
zClass 44.8.19§ Announcements§ Go over quiz #1.docxransayo
z
Class 4
4.8.19
§ Announcements
§ Go over quiz #1
§ Practice listening quiz
§ Lecture on social organization of Hindustani music
z
Announcements
§ Aashish Khan recital on April 28
§ Assignment #1 will be posted this week
§ Summer course on Indian rhythm
z
Practice listening quiz
z
Terms
§ Socio-musical identity – the connection of social rank to musical
status; prevalent throughout musical communities in South and
Central Asia
§ Soloist – the lead musical role
§ Accompanist – the supporting musical role(s)
§ Heterophony – style of music in which a melody is closely
imitated by another instrument or voice
z
Questions to keep in mind
§ What does social class have to do with music performance?
§ How is authority created and controlled?
§ How is it challenged?
§ What is the relationship between soloist and accompanist?
§ How does this affect music performance?
§ What is the relationship between student and teacher?
z
Social class and caste in South Asia
§ Societies were stratified in a social hierarchy
§ High caste – rulers, priests, elite
§ Low caste – manual laborers
§ Dalits – “untouchables”
§ Caste specialization of artisan trades common among Muslim communities
§ Carpentry, pastoralism, leather making, jewelry making, and music!
§ The community to which you were born determined your social rank and the
opportunities that would be available to you
§ People could ”change” their class through certain strategies
§ Marriage, contesting the hegemony of the upper classes
z
Organization of specialist knowledge
§ Music is a practice of specialized communities
§ Music is your life!
§ No word for “musician”
§ Rather, terms denoting the specialty of the performer are used
§ This categorization indicates musical identity (the instrument one
performs) as well as that person’s social rank and roles
z
Organization of specialist knowledge
§ Dhrupadiya – singer of dhrupad
§ Gawaiya – vocalist
§ Binkar – bin (veena) player
§ Khayalia – singer of khyāl
§ Sitariya – sitar player
§ Sarodiya – sarod player
§ Tabliya – tabla player
§ Sarangiya – sarangi player
§ Rubabi – rubab player
§ Qawwal - singer of Qawwali
z
Instrument association
Soloist
Vocal
Sitar
Rudra veena
Sarod
Dance
Rubab
Surbahar
Bansuri
Accompanist
Sarangi
Tabla
Harmonium
z
Social roles and ranks
§ Relationship between occupation and social identity is very
close
§ Soloists are venerated and have great prestige
§ Accompanists have lower social and musical status
§ They are subservient to soloists in both roles
z
Performance structure
§ Soloist (Dhrupad, khyāl, thumri, ghazal
§ Vocal
§ Instrumental
§ Accompanist
§ Melodic
§ Sarangi
§ Harmonium
§ Student
§ Heterophony
§ Rhythmic
§ Tabla
§ Dholak
§ Drone
§ Tanpura
z
Social roles and ranks
§ Soloists and accompanists belonged to different social class
§ Never intermarried
§ Cousin marriages
§ Soloist class – kalawant
§ Accompanist classes – mirasi, dhari (dhadhi).
zClass 185.13.19§ Announcements§ Review of last .docxransayo
z
Class 18
5.13.19
§ Announcements
§ Review of last class
§ Finish lecture on Qawwali, begin intro to Pakistan
z
Announcements
§ Keshav Batish senior recital, June 5 – Extra credit
§ Exam #1 results posted
§ 2 perfect scores, 25 A’s, 46 B’s, 37 C’s, 17 D and lower
§ Summer course on Indian rhythm (second session)
§ Learn tabla and dholak!
§ Enrollment open now!
z
Last class review
§ Qawwali – “Food for the soul”
§ Sufi devotional poetry set to music
§ Performed at dargah
§ ‘Urs
z
Terms
§ Mehfil – small, intimate gatherings that involve entertainment of
various sorts, including music, poetry, dance etc.
z
Tum Ek Gorakh Dhandha Ho
§ “You are a baffling puzzle”
§ Written by Naz Khialvi (1947-2010)
§ Pakistani lyricist and radio broadcaster
§ Popularized by Ustad Nusrat Fateh Ali Khan (1948-1997)
z
Tum Ek Gorakh Dhandha Ho
kabhi yahaan tumhein dhoonda
kabhi wahaan pohancha
tumhaari deed ki khaatir kahaan
kahaan pohancha
ghareeb mit gaye paamaal ho
gaye lekin
kisi talak na tera aaj tak nishaan
pohancha
ho bhi naheen aur har ja ho
tum ik gorakh dhanda ho
At times I searched for you here,
at times I traveled there
For the sake of seeing You, how
far I have come!
Similar wanderers wiped away
and ruined, but
Your sign has still not reached
anyone
You are not, yet You are
everywhere
You are a baffling puzzle
z
Bhar Do Jholi Meri
§ Traditional song
§ Popularized in movie “Bajrangi Bhaijaan” (2015)
z
Bhar Do Jholi Meri
Tere Darbaar Mein
Dil Thaam Ke Woh Aata Hai
Jisko Tu Chaahe
Hey Nabi Tu Bhulata Hai
Tere Dar Pe Sar Jhukaaye
Main Bhi Aaya Hoon
Jiski Bigdi Haye
Nabi Chaahe Tu Banata Hai
Bhar Do Jholi Meri Ya Mohammad
Lautkar Main Naa Jaunga Khaali
They come into Your court
clenching their hearts
Those people whom You desire to
see , O Prophet!
I’ve also come to Your door with
my head bowed down
You’re the One who can fix
broken fates, O Prophet!
Please fill my lap, O Prophet!
I won’t go back empty handed
z
Ustad Nusrat Fateh Ali Khan
(1948-1997)
§ Pakistani vocalist
§ Sang classical (khyāl) but more famous as a Qawwali singer
§ Brought classical performance techniques to Qawwali
§ Visiting artist at University of Washington from 1992-93
§ Legacy carried on through his nephew, Rahat Fateh Ali Khan
z
Introduction to Pakistan
Badshahi Mosque, Lahore
Built in 1671 by Emperor Aurangzeb
z
Pakistan
§ Prominent Bronze Age (3000-1500BCE) settlements of Mohenjo
Daro and Harrapa along Indus River Valley
§ Hinduism widespread during Vedic Age (1500-500BCE)
§ Ruled by series of Hindu, Buddhist, and eventually Muslim
(Persian) dynasties
§ Islam introduced by Sufi missionaries from 7th to 13th centuries
§ Ethnically and linguistically diverse
z
Indus Valley civilization
z
Pakistan ethnicities
z
Modern India and Pakistan
§ By the end of 19th century British rule was in effect over much of
old Mughal Empire territory
§ The Hindu and Muslim divide among this territory was be.
The Art Pastor's Guide to Sabbath | Steve ThomasonSteve Thomason
What is the purpose of the Sabbath Law in the Torah. It is interesting to compare how the context of the law shifts from Exodus to Deuteronomy. Who gets to rest, and why?
How to Make a Field invisible in Odoo 17Celine George
It is possible to hide or invisible some fields in odoo. Commonly using “invisible” attribute in the field definition to invisible the fields. This slide will show how to make a field invisible in odoo 17.
Unit 8 - Information and Communication Technology (Paper I).pdfThiyagu K
This slides describes the basic concepts of ICT, basics of Email, Emerging Technology and Digital Initiatives in Education. This presentations aligns with the UGC Paper I syllabus.
Welcome to TechSoup New Member Orientation and Q&A (May 2024).pdfTechSoup
In this webinar you will learn how your organization can access TechSoup's wide variety of product discount and donation programs. From hardware to software, we'll give you a tour of the tools available to help your nonprofit with productivity, collaboration, financial management, donor tracking, security, and more.
The Indian economy is classified into different sectors to simplify the analysis and understanding of economic activities. For Class 10, it's essential to grasp the sectors of the Indian economy, understand their characteristics, and recognize their importance. This guide will provide detailed notes on the Sectors of the Indian Economy Class 10, using specific long-tail keywords to enhance comprehension.
For more information, visit-www.vavaclasses.com
This is a presentation by Dada Robert in a Your Skill Boost masterclass organised by the Excellence Foundation for South Sudan (EFSS) on Saturday, the 25th and Sunday, the 26th of May 2024.
He discussed the concept of quality improvement, emphasizing its applicability to various aspects of life, including personal, project, and program improvements. He defined quality as doing the right thing at the right time in the right way to achieve the best possible results and discussed the concept of the "gap" between what we know and what we do, and how this gap represents the areas we need to improve. He explained the scientific approach to quality improvement, which involves systematic performance analysis, testing and learning, and implementing change ideas. He also highlighted the importance of client focus and a team approach to quality improvement.
A Systematic Literature Review of Servant Leadership Theoryi.docx
1. A Systematic Literature Review of Servant Leadership Theory
in Organizational Contexts
Denise Linda Parris • Jon Welty Peachey
Received: 20 February 2012 / Accepted: 8 April 2012 /
Published online: 22 April 2012
� Springer Science+Business Media B.V. 2012
Abstract A new research area linked to ethics, virtues,
and morality is servant leadership. Scholars are currently
seeking publication outlets as critics debate whether this
new leadership theory is significantly distinct, viable, and
valuable for organizational success. The aim of this study
was to identify empirical studies that explored servant
leadership theory by engaging a sample population in order
to assess and synthesize the mechanisms, outcomes, and
impacts of servant leadership. Thus, we sought to provide
an evidence-informed answer to how does servant leader-
ship work, and how can we apply it? We conducted a sys-
2. tematic literature review (SLR), a methodology adopted
from the medical sciences to synthesize research in a sys-
tematic, transparent, and reproducible manner. A disci-
plined screening process resulted in a final sample
population of 39 appropriate studies. The synthesis of these
empirical studies revealed: (a) there is no consensus on the
definition of servant leadership; (b) servant leadership
theory is being investigated across a variety of contexts,
cultures, and themes; (c) researchers are using multiple
measures to explore servant leadership; and (d) servant
leadership is a viable leadership theory that helps organi-
zations and improves the well-being of followers. This
study contributes to the development of servant leadership
theory and practice. In addition, this study contributes to the
methodology for conducting SLRs in the field of manage-
ment, highlighting an effective method for mapping out
thematically, and viewing holistically, new research topics.
We conclude by offering suggestions for future research.
3. Keywords Leadership � Leadership theory � Servant
leadership � Systematic literature review
Introduction
Leadership is one of the most comprehensively researched
social influence processes in the behavioral sciences. This is
because the success of all economic, political, and organi-
zational systems depends on the effective and efficient
guidance of the leaders of these systems (Barrow 1977). A
critical factor to understanding the success of an organiza-
tion, then, is to study its leaders. Leadership is a skill used to
influence followers in an organization to work enthusiasti-
cally towards goals specifically identified for the common
good (Barrow 1977; Cyert 2006; Plsek and Wilson 2001).
Great leaders create a vision for an organization, articulate
the vision to the followers, build a shared vision, craft a path
to achieve the vision, and guide their organizations into new
directions (Banutu-Gomez and Banutu-Gomez 2007; Kotter
2001). According to Schneider (1987), the most important
part in building an organization with a legacy of success is
4. the people in it, which includes the followers (i.e., employees
and volunteers) as well as the leaders. Leadership theories
attempt to explain and organize the complexity of the nature
of leadership and its consequences (Bass and Bass 2008).
Over the years, some leadership scholars have called atten-
tion to the implicit connection between ethics and leadership.
A burgeoning new research area and leadership theory that
D. L. Parris (&)
Barney Barnett School of Business & Free Enterprise, Florida
Southern College, 111 Lake Hollingsworth Drive,
Lakeland, FL 33801-5698, USA
e-mail: [email protected]
J. W. Peachey
Division of Sport Management, Department of Health and
Kinesiology, Texas A&M University, 4243 TAMU,
College Station, TX 77843, USA
e-mail: [email protected]
123
J Bus Ethics (2013) 113:377–393
5. DOI 10.1007/s10551-012-1322-6
has been linked to ethics, virtues, and morality is servant
leadership (Graham 1991; Lanctot and Irving 2010; Parolini
et al. 2009; Russell 2001; Whetstone 2002).
Servant leadership theory’s emphasis on service to others
and recognition that the role of organizations is to create
people who can build a better tomorrow resonates with
scholars and practitioners who are responding to the growing
perceptions that corporate leaders have become selfish and
who are seeking a viable leadership theory to help resolve the
challenges of the twenty-first century. Despite servant
leadership being coined by Robert K. Greenleaf over three
decades ago in 1970, it remains understudied yet still
prominently practiced in boardrooms and organizations
(Bass and Bass 2008; Spears 2005). It has received signifi-
cant attention in the popular press (e.g., Fortune magazine
and Dateline) (Spears Center 2011) and leading organiza-
6. tional management authors have discussed the positive
effects of servant leadership on organizational profits and
employee satisfaction; see Max DePree (Leadership is an
Art 1989), Stephen Covey (Principle Centered Leadership
1990), Peter Senge (The Fifth Discipline: The Art and Styles
of the Learning Organization 1990), Peter Block (Steward-
ship: Choosing Service over Self Interest 1993), and Mar-
garet Wheatley (Finding Our Way: Leadership in an
Uncertain Time 2005). However, Greenleaf’s (1970, 1977)
conceptualization of servant leadership as a way of life rather
than as a management technique perhaps has slowed the
acceptance of this leadership theory in academia as scholars
ask the question: If it is a way life—a philosophy, how can it
be empirically tested? Even Greenleaf admitted servant
leadership is unorthodox and would be difficult to opera-
tionalize and apply, as ‘‘it is meant to be neither a scholarly
treatise nor a how-to-do-it manual’’ (Greenleaf 1977, p. 49).
The majority of research to date on servant leadership con-
7. sists of developing theoretical frameworks and establishing
measurement tools with the intention that future scholars can
apply these tools to explore servant leadership in practice
and as a tenable theory. Only a limited amount of research
has empirically examined this construct.
As an aid in advancing servant leadership theory, we
sought to identify these empirical studies that investigated
servant leadership by engaging a sample population in order
to assess and synthesize its mechanisms, outcomes, and
impacts. Currently, there does not exist a comprehensive
summary of empirical studies exploring servant leadership
theory in organizational settings (e.g., a systematic litera-
ture review (SLR)), which is a gap in the extant literature.
Through exploring empirical studies investigating servant
leadership theory in organizational contexts, we provide
evidence that servant leadership is a tenable theory.
As a promising new field of research, servant leadership
faces the challenges once addressed by the early services
8. marketing and sport management scholars whose new ideas
and concepts were accepted slowly within the conservative
culture of academia (Shannon 1999). Similarly, servant
leadership scholars have sought a variety of publication
outlets for their work while they confront a debate on the
distinctiveness and significance of this leadership theory for
organizations as well as employees. In addition, the accel-
eration of knowledge production in the management field
has resulted in a body of knowledge that is increasingly
transdisciplinary, fragmented, and interdependent from
advancement in social sciences. In management research the
literature review is a key tool used to manage the diversity of
knowledge for an academic inquiry; however, a critique of
these reviews is that they are typically descriptive accounts
of contributions of selected writers often arbitrarily chosen
for inclusion by the researcher, and that these reviews may
lack a critical assessment of included studies (Tranfield et al.
2003). In contrast, a SLR is different from traditional nar-
9. rative reviews in that it adopts a replicable, scientific and
transparent process that aims to mitigate bias through
exhaustive literature searches and by providing an audit trail
of the conclusions. A current gap in management research is
a discussion of how to conduct a SLR, how to critically
assess studies, and how to integrate the conclusions. In this
SLR, we not only ascertain the current state of the field in
servant leadership research and synthesize divergent studies,
but also advance a rigorous methodology for conducting a
SRL in management research.
Thus, the purpose of this study was to systematically
examine and organize the current body of research litera-
ture that either quantitatively or qualitatively explored
servant leadership theory in a given organizational setting.
In this SRL we only included empirical studies that
investigated servant leadership in an organizational context
and excluded studies with a primary focus on model
development or testing measurement instruments. Earlier
10. reviews on the concept of servant leadership focused on:
identifying key characteristics (Russell and Stone 2002),
measurement development (Barbuto and Wheeler 2006),
and proposing a theoretical framework (Van Dierendonck
2011). Although these reviews help provide insight into
how researchers have attempted to operationalize servant
leadership, none of them was done in a systematic manner
(i.e., no methodology to select articles or limit bias), and
none of them specifically explored empirical research.
The following research questions guided this SLR:
(a) How was servant leadership defined? (b) In what contexts
was servant leadership theory empirically investigated?
(c) How was servant leadership examined (i.e., the meth-
odology)? and (d) What were the results of the examination?
We begin this paper by summarizing the origin of servant
leadership and follow with a short discussion of the devel-
opment of servant leadership as a theory and a new research
area. Next, a summary of the method used for selecting and
11. 378 D. L. Parris, J. W. Peachey
123
reviewing the literature is explained, with details on search
strategy, analysis, and assessment of the quality of the
reviewed studies. Then, we present our findings of the SLR
on empirical studies that have explored servant leadership
theory. In addition, we discuss the methodological contri-
bution of conducting SLRs in the field of management as an
effective method for mapping out thematically, and viewing
holistically, new research topics. We conclude by offering
suggestions for future research and practice.
Origin of Servant Leadership by Robert K. Greenleaf
Servant leadership was introduced into an organizational
context through Greenleaf’s three foundational essays—
The Servant as Leader (1970), The Institution as Servant
(1972a), and Trustees as Servants (1972b)—all of which he
published after retiring from 40 years of management work
12. at AT&T. Greenleaf (1977) defined servant leadership as
not just a management technique but a way of life which
begins with ‘‘the natural feeling that one wants to serve, to
serve first’’ (p. 7). Greenleaf (1977) conceptualized the
servant as leader from his impressions of Journey to the
East by Hesse (1956) and used the character Leo to
describe a true servant: ‘‘Leadership was bestowed upon a
man who was by nature a servant… His servant nature was
the real man, not bestowed, not assumed, and not to be
taken away’’ (p. 21). Servant leaders are distinguished by
both their primary motivation to serve (what they do) and
their self-construction (who they are), and from this con-
scious choice of ‘doing’ and ‘being’ they aspire to lead
(Sendjaya and Sarros 2002). Greenleaf (1977) believed
servant leadership was an inward lifelong journey.
Upon retirement in 1964, Greenleaf launched a second
career, which spanned 25 years, in which he articulated his
new leadership paradigm—servant leadership. He pro-
moted servant leadership in many publications and pre-
13. sentations, including lectures at Massachusetts Institute of
Technology’s (M.I.T.) Sloan School of Management,
Harvard Business School, Dartmouth College, and the
University of Virginia; and served as leadership consultant
to institutions such as Ford Foundation, Lilly Endowment,
M.I.T., R.K. Mellon Foundation, and the American Foun-
dation for Management. In 1964 he founded the Center for
Applied Ethics, renamed the Robert K. Greenleaf Center
for Servant Leadership in 1985, which helps people
understand the principles and practices of servant leader-
ship (Greenleaf Center 2011). Over 20 % of Fortune
magazine top 100 companies have sought guidance from
the Greenleaf Center for Servant Leadership, such as
Starbucks, Vanguard Investment Group, Southwest Air-
lines, and ID Industries (Greenleaf Center).
Although the contemporary study of servant leadership
evolved largely from Greenleaf (1970, 1977), the practice of
servant leadership is not a new concept, with roots dating
14. back to ancient teachings of the world’s great religions, as
well as to statements of numerous great leaders and thinkers
(Sendjaya and Sarros 2002). The concept of servant leader-
ship echoes the messages of Mother Theresa, Moses, Harriet
Tubman, Lao-tzu, Mohandas Gandhi, Martin Luther King,
Jr., Confucius, and many other religious, historic, and current
leaders (Keith 2008). Many scholars model Jesus Christ’s
teachings to his disciples as the ultimate example of servant
leadership (Ebener and O’Connell 2010; Lanctot and Irving
2010; Winston 2004). Whereas other leadership theories are
traditionally defined only by what the leader does, servant
leaders are defined by their character and by demonstrating
their complete commitment to serve others. This creates
one of the core challenges for theorists; how to construct
models that encompass Greenleaf’s theoretical message of
‘‘servanthood-through-leadership-through-practice’’ (Pros-
ser 2010, p. 28) that operates not only on a surface-level but
deep within a person’s being. Although scholars have agreed
15. theories, frameworks, and models will increase our under-
standing of the meaning, implications, and applications of
servant leadership, it is important to remain aware of the
more abstract, underlying principles and concepts of a ser-
vant as a leader (Spears 1998; Keith 2008; Prosser 2010).
Servant Leadership as a Theory
Although servant leadership is a growing trend being prac-
ticed by private and non-profit organizations alike, there is
still a lack of research in this area (Farling et al. 1999). The
majority of research in servant leadership has streamed from
Greenleaf’s (1977) foundational texts and the Greenleaf
Center (see Akuchie 1993; Bordas 1995; Brody 1995;
Buchen 1998; Chamberlain 1995; Frick 1995; Gaston 1987;
Kelley 1995; Kiechel 1995; Kuhnert and Lewis 1987; Lee
and Zemke 1995; Lloyd 1996; Lopez 1995; McCollum 1995;
McGee-Cooper and Trammell 1995; Rasmussen 1995;
Rieser 1995; Senge 1995; Smith 1995; Snodgrass 1993;
Spears 1995, 1996; Tatum 1995; Vanourek 1995). Many of
16. these writers present narrative examples of how servant
leadership is being used in organizational settings; however,
this is also the primary limitation of much of the servant
leadership literature, which is anecdotal in nature instead of
empirical (Bowman 1997; Northouse 1997; Sendjaya and
Sarros 2002). Bass (2000) acknowledged that servant lead-
ership requires extensive research, emphasizing that ‘‘the
strength of the servant leadership movement and its many
links to encouraging follower learning, growth, and auton-
omy, suggests that the untested theory will play a role in the
future leadership of the learning organization’’ (p. 33). The
Servant Leadership Theory in Organizational Contexts 379
123
promise of servant leadership has since motivated scholars
and practitioners to explore the possibilities of the servant-
first paradigm.
Since Farling et al.’s (1999) call for empirical studies,
17. there have emerged three streams of research (Van Diere-
ndonck and Patterson 2011): (a) a conceptual stream (Spears
1998; Laub 1999; Patterson 2003); (b) a measurement stream
(Page and Wong 2000; Wong and Page 2003; Ehrhart 2004;
Barbuto and Wheeler 2006; Dennis and Bocarnea 2005;
Liden et al. 2008; Sendjaya et al. 2008; Van Dierendonck and
Nuijte 2011); and (c) model development (Russell and Stone
2002; Van Dierendonck 2011). Notably absent from the
above streams are empirical studies that explore servant
leadership theory in a given organizational setting. In addi-
tion, in spite of the growing amount of research on servant
leadership, the theory is still under-defined, with various
authors grappling with definitions (Anderson 2009). This is
as Greenleaf (1977) predicted, when he warned that servant
leadership would be difficult to apply and operationalize. He
did not provide a management how-to-do-it-manual; instead,
he challenged readers to reflect, ponder, and grow (Frick
2004; Spears 1995).
18. To date, three reviews of servant leadership have been
conducted, which help provide insight into how researchers
have organized the complexity of Greenleaf’s concepts on
servant leadership into a theoretical framework. Russell
and Stone’s (2002) review revealed the following nine
functional attributes, or operative qualities and distinctive
characteristics of servant leaders; vision, honesty, integrity,
trust, service, modeling, pioneering, appreciation of others,
and empowerment. In addition, Russell and Stone deter-
mined 11 accompanying attributes, which are interrelated
and supportive of the nine core attributes listed above:
communication, credibility, competence, stewardship, vis-
ibility, influence, persuasion, listening, encouragement,
teaching, and delegation. From this assimilation of attri-
butes, Russell and Stone developed a model of servant
leadership to spark future application and research. While
their review provides a conceptual overview of servant
leadership, it lacks a methodology. Barbuto and Wheeler
19. (2006) developed an integrated model of servant leadership
after conducting a literature review, which synthesized the
attributes of servant leadership into five factors; altruistic
calling, emotional healing, persuasive mapping, wisdom,
and organizational stewardship. The third review by Van
Dierendonck (2011) also concludes with another concep-
tual model, which identifies six key characteristics of ser-
vant leadership: empowering and developing people,
humility, authenticity, interpersonal acceptance, providing
direction, and stewardship. All of these reviews exemplify
different interpretations of Greenleaf’s writings employing
different terminologies; however, all include the funda-
mental dimension of servanthood or the willingness to
serve others. These reviews highlight the plurality of ser-
vant leadership theory, leaving the researcher, student, or
practitioner to ponder exactly what servant leadership
theory is. As DiMaggio (1995) pointed out ‘‘there is more
than one kind of good theory’’ (p. 391).
20. Given that previous reviews have examined the devel-
opment of conceptual frameworks and measurement tools
for servant leadership, the present review focuses only on
empirical studies that have explored servant leadership
theory in an organizational context. As such, the current
study is the first review to provide a synthesis, based upon
evidence in published peer-reviewed journals, of empirical
studies conducted on servant leadership theory in organi-
zational settings.
Methodology
The SLR is often contrasted with traditional literature
reviews because systematic reviews are objective, repli-
cable, systematic, comprehensive, and the process is
reported in the same manner as for reporting empirical
research (Weed 2005). The origin of SLRs is in the med-
ical, health care, and policy fields, where they have been
used to assemble the best evidence to make clinical and
policy decisions (Cook et al. 1997; Tranfield et al. 2003).
21. SLRs in management are used to provide transparency,
clarity, accessibility, and impartial inclusive coverage on a
particular area (Thorpe et al. 2006). Klassen et al (1998)
define SLR as ‘‘a review in which there is a comprehensive
search for relevant studies on a specific topic, and those
identified are then appraised and synthesized according to a
pre-determined explicit method’’ (p. 700). This SRL spe-
cifically explored research studies that have examined
servant leadership theory in a given organizational setting.
Since our focus was gaining insight on the empirical
investigation of servant leadership theory, we excluded
studies with a primary focus on model development or
testing measurement instruments. The approach of this
review entailed extensive searches of relevant databases
with the intention of ensuring, as far as possible, that all
literature on servant leadership was identified while
maintaining the focus on literature of greatest pertinence to
the research questions (i.e., empirical studies that have
22. investigated servant leadership theory in organizational
settings). Next, we discuss our search methods, inclusion
and exclusion criteria, sample, and data analysis.
Search Methods
Published studies were identified through searches of
electronic databases accessible through the authors’ uni-
versity library system. Databases included in this review
380 D. L. Parris, J. W. Peachey
123
were: PsycInfo, Eric, Sociological Abstracts, PAIS Inter-
national, Social Services, Communication Abstracts,
International Bibliography of the Social Sciences (IBSS),
Physical Education Index, World Wide Political Abstracts
from the vendor CSA, Academic Search Complete, Busi-
ness Source Complete, Communication and Mass Media
Complete, Education and Administration Abstracts, Gen-
der Studies, CINAHL, Health Source: Nursing/Academic
23. Edition, Human Resources Abstracts, and Medline through
the vendor EBSCO. All results were limited to English-
only peer-reviewed journal articles. The searches for pub-
lished studies were conducted in a systematic manner,
following the order of the databases listed above.
Inclusion and Exclusion Criteria
The initial search required that articles included in the
review were studies that must: (a) be published in a peer-
reviewed journal; (b) be in the English language; and
(c) use the keyword ‘‘servant leadership.’’ No restriction
was placed on year of publication. The number of articles
containing the keyword ‘‘servant leadership’’ retrieved
from each database was recorded. Next, we examined if
there were any external duplicates from the current data-
base being searched and the previous databases that had
already been searched. We recorded the number of external
duplicates, and then deleted the duplicated journal articles
from the last database searched while keeping a running
24. total of new articles found.
Once all possible studies had been identified, we con-
ducted a second screening to assess eligibility against
inclusion criteria and then full text articles were retrieved
for those that met the inclusion criteria. The inclusion
criteria for the second screening required that the published
peer-reviewed article meet all of the following four spec-
ifications: (a) be in the English language; (b) be an
empirical study (i.e., not an essay, book review, letter,
literature review, editorial, opinion, journalistic or antidotal
article); (c) discuss servant leadership as the main topical
theme; and (d) examine servant leadership theory either
quantitatively or qualitatively. Articles were excluded if
any of these four components was not addressed in the
abstract, results, or discussion sections of the respective
study. Finally, additional articles meeting the inclusion
criteria were found by examining the bibliographies of
resources identified through the secondary screening.
25. Sample
Peer-reviewed publications were identified using the key
terms outlined in the inclusion and exclusion criteria sec-
tion above. In all, a total of 381 articles where retrieved;
however, after duplicates were deleted there remained 255
articles meeting the initial inclusion criteria. After the
secondary search process was conducted, a final sample of
44 appropriate studies was obtained. Upon retrieving full
text articles, an additional five articles were excluded after
further examination because they did not satisfy the
screening criteria. The final sample of articles constituted
39 empirical studies. Peer-reviewed articles meeting the
outlined criteria were published between 2004 and 2011.
The 39 published articles were drawn from a variety of
peer-reviewed journals (n = 27). Table 1 depicts the list of
journals included in the study, the number of articles
included from each journal, and the database they were
accessed through.
26. We grouped the journals by their area of focus, which
showed a concentration of research taking place in leader-
ship (n = 9), education (n = 7), business (n = 6), and
psychology (n = 6), with the fields of nursing (n = 3),
management (n = 2), personal selling and sales manage-
ment (n = 2), ethics (n = 1), parks and recreation admin-
istration (n = 1), services marketing (n = 1), and sports
(n = 1) representing a smaller number of empirical studies.
Data Analysis
The Matrix Method (Garrard 1999) was utilized as the
strategy for organizing and abstracting pertinent informa-
tion from these publications. For this study, the following
information was abstracted from each article: (a) How was
servant leadership defined? (b) In what contexts was ser-
vant leadership theory empirically investigated? (c) How
was servant leadership examined? and (d) What were the
results of the examination? Last, for each publication, the
methodology used to examine servant leadership was
27. evaluated. For qualitative studies, we used a critical
appraisal tool designed by Letts et al. (2007), and for
quantitative studies we used a critical appraisal tool
designed by the Institute for Public Health Sciences (2002).
In addition to these two appraisal assessments we used
Stoltz et al.’s (2004) critical appraisal tool, which assessed
both quantitative and qualitative studies. We adopted these
three critical appraisal tools to create a three-point scale to
reflect the quality of studies: high (I); medium (II)—used if
studies did not meet criteria for high (I) or low quality; and
low (III). Table 2 describes our classification for high to
low quality studies, which was based on the three critical
appraisal tools mentioned above.
The findings from these studies were summarized and
placed into matrixes (i.e., tables). Our SLR findings consist
of a synthesis of the results from all 39 empirical studies
along with the assessment of quality for each study. Fur-
ther, we assess the level of supporting evidence for the-
28. matic conclusions drawn from combining the results of
multiple studies.
Servant Leadership Theory in Organizational Contexts 381
123
Findings
Overall, this review highlights that servant leadership theory
is being researched and tested across a variety of contexts,
cultures, disciplines, and themes. Our sample included 11
qualitative studies, 27 quantitative studies, and one mixed
method study, all empirically assessing servant leadership
theory. Thus, this review illustrates that servant leadership is
Table 1 Database and journals
included in systematic literature
review
Database Journal Count
Eric Alberta Journal of Educational Research 1
PsycInfo Business Ethics: A European Review 1
29. Eric Catholic Education: A Journal of Inquiry & Practice 1
Eric Educational Management Administration & Leadership 2
PsycInfo European Journal of Work and Organizational
Psychology 1
Scopus Global Virtue Ethics Review 1
CINAHL Health Care Management Review 1
PsycInfo Home Health Care Management & Practice 1
Business Source Complete International Journal of Business
Research 1
Eric International Journal of Leadership in Education 2
Scopus International Journal of Leadership Studies 2
PsycInfo International Journal of Sports Science & Coaching 1
PsycInfo Journal of Applied Psychology 3
Business Source Complete Journal of Business & Economics
Research 1
Academic Search Complete Journal of Interprofessional Care 1
PsycInfo Journal of Management Development 1
Academic Search Complete Journal of Park & Recreation
Administration 1
PsycInfo Journal of Personal Selling & Sales Management 2
30. Business Source Complete Journal of the Academy of Business
& Economics 1
Eric Journal of Women in Educational Leadership 1
PsycInfo Leadership 1
PsycInfo Leadership & Organization Development Journal 6
PsycInfo Nonprofit Management and Leadership 1
PsycInfo Personnel Psychology 1
Business Source Complete Review of Business Research 2
Business Source Complete Services Marketing Quarterly 1
PsycInfo The International Journal of Human Resource
Management 1
Table 2 Classification and quality assessment of studies
I = High II = Medium III = Low
QNT Study using quantitative analysis of data. Clearly focused
study, sufficient background provided, well planned,
method appropriate, measures validated, applicable and
adequate number of participants, data analysis
sufficiently rigorous with adequate statistical methods,
findings clearly stated
31. – Not focused study, insufficient background provided,
poorly planned, inappropriate method, invalidated
measures, inapplicable and inadequate number of
participants, data analysis insufficiently rigorous, with
inadequate statistical methods, unclear findings
QAL Study using qualitative analysis of data. Purpose stated
clearly, relevant background literature reviewed, design
appropriate, identified researcher’s theoretical or
philosophical perspective, relevant and well described
selection of participants and context, procedural rigor in
data collection strategies and analysis, evidence of the
four components of trustworthiness (credibility,
transferability, dependability, and confirmability) results
are comprehensive and well described
– Vaguely formulated purpose, insufficient background, few
or unsatisfactory descriptions of participants and context,
trustworthiness inadequately addressed, lacks in
description of data collection, data analysis, and results
32. QNT quantitative study, QAL qualitative study, I high quality,
II medium quality, III low quality
382 D. L. Parris, J. W. Peachey
123
being explored both quantitatively and qualitatively, and the
topic has an international appeal with studies being con-
ducted in 11 countries. In the quality assessment, 22 studies
were classified as high, 12 as medium, and five as low
quality. Conclusive statements were made based upon the
synthesis of findings from each article. The conclusions (see
Table 3) were classified as A (strong evidence) or B (mod-
erate evidence) based on scientific strength.
If two or more studies of high quality supported a
conclusion or one study of high quality in addition to two
or more studies of medium quality supported the conclu-
sion, we assigned it an (A) rating. On the other hand,
conclusions with one study of high quality and one study of
medium quality or two studies of medium quality were
33. assigned a (B) rating. If a conclusion(s) did not fall under
(A) strong evidence in favor of conclusion or (B) moderate
evidence in favor of conclusion, we classified it as insuf-
ficiently supported and labeled insufficient evidence. The
following discussion of our findings is organized around
the four central research questions.
How was Servant Leadership Defined?
Servant leadership theory was introduced to readers by
authors of empirical studies by citing one or all three of the
following: Greenleaf (1977), Spears (1995, 1998, 2004), and
Laub (1999). Generally, authors described servant leader-
ship by quoting one of these three authors in addition to citing
multiple other authors, including, but not limited to: Barbuto
and Wheeler (2006), Graham (1991), Ehrhart (2004), Liden
et al. (2008), Page and Wong (2000), and Patterson (2003).
Here, we discuss the three most cited authors on servant
leadership that have provided definitions.
Greenleaf (1970, 1972a, b, 1977), the grandfather of
34. servant leadership, was cited by 37 of the 39 empirical
studies. The majority of authors used part or all of
Greenleaf’s description from his original essay, The Ser-
vant as Leader (1970):
It begins with the natural feeling one wants to serve,
to serve first. Then conscious choice brings one to
aspire to lead. That person is sharply different from
one who is leader first.
… The difference manifests itself in the care taken by
the servant-first to make sure that other people’s
highest priority needs are being served. The best test,
and difficult to administer, is this: Do those served
grow as persons? Do they, while being served,
become healthier, wiser, freer, more autonomous,
more likely themselves to become servants? And,
what is the effect on the least privileged in society?
Will they benefit or at least not be further deprived?
(Greenleaf 1970 as cited in Greenleaf 1977, p. 27).
35. The majority of authors in our sample, like Greenleaf
himself, defined servant leadership theory in a descriptive
manner. These descriptions usually cited multiple scholarly
works in the conceptual and measurement research
streams, in addition to citing leading organizational
management authors.
The second most referenced author defining servant
leadership theory was Larry Spears. Like Greenleaf, Spears
gained his knowledge from practice with most of his works
being non-empirical. He served for 17 years as the head of
the Greenleaf Center, has authored more than 10 books on
servant leadership, and in 2008 established the Larry C.
Spears Center for Servant Leadership, Inc. (Spears Center
2011). Spears (1995, 1998, 2004) identified 10 character-
istics of servant leaders from Greenleaf’s writings: listen-
ing, empathy, healing, awareness, persuasion, philosophy,
conceptualization, foresight, stewardship, commitment to
the growth of people, and building community. These
36. attributes are described in Table 4.
Four of the qualitative studies in our sample used
Spear’s 10 characteristics to inform their analysis (Crippen
2004; Crippen and Wallin 2008a, b; Sturm 2009).
The third most cited author in defining servant leader-
ship theory is Laub (1999). His Organizational Leadership
Assessment (OLA) was an outcome of his dissertation. The
OLA assesses an organization’s health based upon the six
key areas of an effective servant-minded organization by
exploring the perceptions of top leaders, managers and
supervisors, and the workforce; however, it does not assess
the servant leadership of individual leaders (OLA Group
2011). Authors in our sample used Laub’s definition, which
terms the practice of servant leadership as placing ‘‘the
good of those led over the self-interest of the leader’’
(1999, p. 81). In addition, authors would list and describe
Laub’s six key variables of an effective servant-led orga-
nization: (a) values people—believing, serving, and non-
37. judgmentally listening to others; (b) develops people—
providing learning, growth, encouragement and affirma-
tion; (c) builds community—developing strong collabora-
tive and personal relationships; (d) displays authenticity—
being open, accountable, and willing to learn from others;
(e) provides leadership—foreseeing the future, taking ini-
tiative, and establishing goals; and (f) shares leadership—
facilitating and sharing power. The OLA has been widely
used in health organizations (OLA Group), and was used in
six quantitative studies in our sample (Herman 2010; Black
2010; Cerit 2010; Cerit 2009; Irving and Longbotham
2007; Joseph and Winston 2005).
In summary, our results confirm Anderson’s (2009) and
Van Dierendonck’s (2011) assessments that servant lead-
ership theory remains under-defined with no consensus on
its definition or theoretical framework. Scholars are still
seeking to articulate Greenleaf’s conceptualization of
Servant Leadership Theory in Organizational Contexts 383
125. e
H
e
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a
n
(2
0
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0
)
(Q
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384 D. L. Parris, J. W. Peachey
123
servant leadership by using a variety of definitions sourced
from multiple works.
In What Contexts was Servant Leadership Theory
126. Empirically Investigated?
Our sample illustrates servant leadership theory is being
studied across cultures, contexts, and across a diversity of
research foci. Overall, the sample consisted of studies in 11
countries, which included four cross-cultures studies.
These findings demonstrate that servant leadership is being
practiced in various cultures, specifically: U.S. (n = 23),
Canada (n = 4), China (n = 2), Turkey (n = 2), Indonesia
(n = 1), New Zealand (n = 1), Kenya (n = 1), and the
Republic of Trinidad (n = 1), with five cross-culture
studies comparing U.S. and Ghana, U.S. and UK, U.S. and
China (n = 2), and Indonesia and Australia.
A contextual analysis of the sample revealed that servant
leadership theory is being applied in the following orga-
nizational settings: education (n = 17), which consisted of
religious schools (n = 6) and secular schools (n = 11);
secular for profit organizations (n = 17), which notably
included financial services (n = 4) and nursing (n = 3);
127. public organizations (n = 2); religious organizations
(n = 1); non-profit organizations (n = 1); and in a histor-
ical context (n = 1). It is important to note that servant
leadership was examined in a religious context in seven of
the 39 studies, and that the education field represents 44 %
of the contextual environment for the entire sample.
This synthesis also revealed seven key research themes,
with some studies containing more than one area of focus.
The themes and their associated studies are presented in
Table 3. An overall count and description of each theme is
as follows: (a) cross-cultural applicability—acceptance,
practices, and different weights of servant leadership in a
variety of cultures (n = 7); (b) servant leadership attri-
butes—conceptual models characteristics were studied
(n = 7); (c) team level effectiveness—effects of servant
leadership explored at the unit level (n = 20); (d) follow-
ers’ well-being—effects on employees in a servant-
led environment (n = 20); (e) spirituality—connection
128. between spiritual workplace and servant-led workplace was
investigated (n = 1); (f) demographics (n = 3); and
(g) implementation of servant leadership (n = 3). We
discuss a synthesis of these themes below in the last section
of our findings, where we provide an overview of the
results of studies included in the sample.
How was Servant Leadership Examined
(i.e., the Methodology)?
All of the 27 quantitative studies used surveys as the data
collection method. The two most popular measures ofT
a
b
le
3
c
o
n
ti
n
u
e
d
147. 123
servant leadership theory used by these empirical studies
were Laub’s (1999) OLA instrument—used by six studies
(Herman 2010; Black 2010; Cerit 2009, 2010; Irving and
Longbotham 2007; Joseph and Winston 2005) and the
Servant Leadership Scale developed by Ehrhart (2004)—
used by six studies (Ehrhart 2004; Jaramillo et al. 2009a, b;
Mayer et al. 2008; Neubert et al. 2008; Walumbwa et al.
2010). Instruments that were utilized by two studies
included: Barbuto and Wheeler’s (2006) instrument (Jen-
kins and Stewart 2010; Garber et al. 2009); Liden et al.’s
(2008) instrument (Hu and Liden 2011; Schaubroeck et al.
2011); and Sendjaya et al.’s (2008) survey (Pekerti and
Sendjaya 2010; Sendjaya and Pekerti 2010). Taylor et al.
(2007) used Page and Wong’s (1998) self-assessment
measure. Washington et al. (2006) used Dennis and Win-
ston’s (2003) instrument, which was an adopted version of
148. Page and Wong’s (2000) instrument. Rieke et al. (2008)
used Hammermeister et al.’s (2008) instrument, which was
also an adopted version of Page and Wong’s instrument.
Babakus et al. (2011) and Hale and Fields (2007) used
lesser known scales, those of Lytle et al. (1998) and Dennis
(2004), respectively. One study tapped a survey designed
by the U.S. Office of Personal Management (OPM). Four
studies used surveys developed specifically for the
research: Fridell et al. (2009), Reinke (2004), and
McCuddy and Cavin (2008, 2009). In summary, out of 27
survey studies, there were 14 different measures used. It is
important to note that the majority of authors combined
multiple measurement scales to construct their surveys. In
addition, the majority of these measures explored servant
leadership theory at the unit level of analysis (i.e., group or
team performance) while only a few examined it at the
individual level of analysis (i.e., individual performance).
Similarly, the 11 qualitative studies used a variety of
149. servant leadership frameworks to inform their analyses,
while three studies did not provide any information on
frameworks. Four of the qualitative studies used Spears
(1998) 10 characteristics to inform their analyses (Crippen
2004; Crippen and Wallin 2008a, b; Sturm 2009). Two
studies used Patterson (2003) and Winsten’s (2003) mod-
els—Dingman and Stone (2007) and Winston (2004). Han
et al. (2010) used multiple dimensions and definitions of
servant leadership in Western literature including but not
limited to: Barbuto and Wheeler (2006); Liden et al.
(2008); Ehrhart (2004); and Sendjaya et al. (2008). The
multiple quantitative and qualitative measures used by the
studies in our sample reinforce our findings for research
question one, where it was found that authors have defined
servant leadership in various ways. Similarly, as this
review demonstrates, there is still not an agreed upon
measurement strategy for servant leadership theory.
What were the Results of the Examination?
150. Our sample of empirical studies illustrates that servant
leadership is a tenable theory. It is viable and valuable on
an individual and an organization level, which can lead to
increased overall effectiveness of individuals and teams. In
Table 3, a synthesis of the conclusions from our sample of
articles is divided by theme, with a rating of the evidence to
support each individual conclusion. We discuss the results
of these empirical studies by theme below.
Table 4 Spears’ (1998) 10 characteristics of a servant leader
Characteristic Description
Listening Automatically responding to any problem by
receptively listening to what is said, which allows them to
identify
the will of the group and help clarify that will
Empathy Striving to accept and understand others, never
rejecting them, but sometimes refusing to recognize their
performance as good enough
Healing Recognizing as human beings they have the opportunity
to make themselves and others ‘whole’
Awareness Strengthened by general awareness and above all
self-awareness, which enables them to view situations
151. holistically
Persuasion Relying primarily on convincement rather than
coercion
Conceptualization Seeking to arouse and nurture theirs’ and
others’ abilities to ‘dream great dreams’
Foresight Intuitively understanding the lessons from the past,
the present realities, and the likely outcome of a decision for
the future
Stewardship Committing first and foremost to serving others
needs
Commitment to the growth
of people
Nurtures the personal, professional, and spiritual growth of each
individual
Building community Identifies means of building communities
among individuals working within their institutions, which can
give
the healing love essential for health
386 D. L. Parris, J. W. Peachey
123
152. Cross-Cultural Applicability
The cross-cultural studies (Hamilton and Bean 2005—U.S.
and UK; Hale and Fields 2007—U.S. and Ghana; Han et al.
2010—U.S. and China; Pekerti and Sendjaya 2010—
Indonesia and Australia; Schaubroeck et al. (2011)—U.S.
and China) all indicate servant leadership’s acceptability
across a variety of cultures. However, these studies also
show that the different attributes perceived to make up
servant leadership are not weighted equally across cultures.
For example: Hale and Fields (2007) found that vision had
a significantly stronger relationship with leader effective-
ness for Ghanaians in comparison to North Americans; Han
et al. (2009) found ‘‘being dutiful’’ to be an extended form
of servant leadership in China; Hamilton and Bean (2005)
discovered that introducing servant leadership within a
Christian context was perceived as obtrusive in the United
Kingdom; and Pekerti and Sendjaya (2010) found that
Australian leaders exhibited more behaviors with authentic
153. self (leadership flows out of who we are as opposed to what
we do), while Indonesian leaders exhibited more behaviors
with responsible morality (reflective moral reasoning
employed to assess whether or not the process and out-
comes of one’s leadership are ethical) and transforming
influence (articulation and implementation of a shared
vision which provides inspiration, meaning to one’s work,
and creates a positive work environment). In contrast to
these findings, Schaubroeck et al. (2011) found no signif-
icant differences in perceptions of servant leadership
between Hong Kong and the U.S. These cross-cultural
studies, along with studies conducted in different countries,
imply that servant leadership might be practiced across a
variety of cultures, but culture-specific perceptions of ser-
vant leadership exist based on socialization and national
context.
Servant Leader Attributes
Seven studies explored the conceptual definitions of ser-
154. vant leadership, and found Spears (1998), Patterson’s
(2003), and Winston’s (2003) attributes to be representa-
tive of servant leadership in different contexts. Five studies
(Boroski and Greif 2009; Crippen 2004; Crippen and
Wallin 2008a, b; Sturm 2009) within three different con-
texts (schools, community, and nursing) supported Spears
10 characteristics (see Table 3). Two studies (Winston
2004; Dingman and Stone 2007) provided support for
Patterson’s (2003) leader-to-follower and Winston’s (2003)
follower-to-leader models of servant leadership. Patter-
son’s model of leader–follower interaction starts with the
leaders’ agapaó (love for others) which she conceptualizes
as a collection of the following seven values: being
teachable; showing concern for others; demonstrating
discipline; seeking the greatest good for the organization;
showing mercy in actions and beliefs with all people;
meeting the needs of followers and the organization; and
creating a place where peace grows within the organiza-
155. tion. These seven values are based upon the biblical con-
cept of the seven beatitudes from Matthew 5 (Patterson
2003; Winston 2003, 2004). Instead of focusing on leader-
follower interaction as Patterson’s model does, Winston’s
model focuses on the follower-to-leader interactions.
Winston’s follower-to-leader model starts with the fol-
lowers’ agapaó and then shows how the followers are
servant leaders themselves by utilizing the same variables
as Patterson’s model. As stated above, studies confirm the
applicability of the variables in both of these models: trust,
empowerment, vision, altruism, intrinsic motivation, com-
mitment, and service (Winston 2004; Dingman and Stone
2007). Thus, the attributes identified by Spears, Patterson,
and Winston were represented within the measurement
instruments discussed above.
Team Level Effectiveness
Sixteen empirical studies explored servant leadership
theory at a unit level. Overall, these studies found that a
156. servant-led organization enhances leader trust and organi-
zational trust, organizational citizenship behavior, proce-
dural justice, team and leader effectiveness, and the
collaboration between team members. Several studies
found that a servant-led environment provided affirmation
of justice and fair treatment, which is positively associated
with procedural justice, or the perception of how a work
group as a whole is treated (Ehrhart 2004; Walumbwa et al.
2010; Chung et al. 2010). Procedural justice fosters trust in
the servant leader and in the servant-led organization
(Joseph and Winston 2005; Reinke 2004; Sendjaya and
Pekerti 2010; Washington et al. 2006). This creates an open
and trusting environment, which can enhance collaboration
among team members (Garber et al. 2009; Sturm 2009;
Irving and Longbotham 2007). Collaboration in a servant-
led organization creates a helping culture (i.e., a spirit of
willingness), which increases team members’ organiza-
tional citizenship behavior, defined as pro-social and
157. altruistic behaviors that have been shown to improve
organizational performance (Ebener and O’Connell 2010;
Hu and Liden 2011; Ehrhart 2004; Walumbwa et al. 2010).
Servant leadership also improves overall team effective-
ness (Taylor et al. 2007; Mayer et al. 2008; McCuddy
and Cavin 2008) and can enhance leaders’ effectiveness
(Irving and Longbotham 2007; Schaubroeck et al. 2011;
Hu and Liden 2011). In summary, servant leadership
creates a trusting, fair, collaborative, and helping culture
that can result in greater individual and organizational
effectiveness.
Servant Leadership Theory in Organizational Contexts 387
123
Followers’ Well-Being
Findings from 15 empirical studies illustrate that servant
leadership enhances followers’ well-being. These studies
showed conceptually and empirically how servant leader-
158. ship influences followers’ well-being by creating a positive
work climate (Neubert et al. 2008; Black 2010; Jaramillo
et al. 2009a), which is related to greater organizational
commitment (Cerit 2010; Hamilton and Bean 2005; Hale
and Fields 2007; Han et al. 2010; Pekerti and Sendjaya
2010). Greater commitment to the organization increases
employee job satisfaction (Cerit 2009; Jenkins and Stewart
2010; Mayer et al. 2008; Chung et al. 2010) and conse-
quently decreases employee turnover (Jaramillo et al.
2009b; Babakus et al. 2011). Servant leaders create these
positive outcomes by developing trust while nurturing
followers, which encourages the creativity, helping
behaviors, and well-being of followers (Jaramillo et al.
2009a; Babakus et al. 2011; Rieke et al. 2008). Overall,
these studies support the notion that servant leadership can
improve followers’ well-being.
Spirituality
One study (Herman 2010) found a positive connection
159. between workplace spirituality and servant leadership, while
six studies explored servant leadership within religious
intuitions. In addition, many scholars described servant
leadership using the teachings of Jesus Christ as a reference
(Ebener and O’Connell 2010; Hamilton and Bean 2005;
Winston 2004). Although there appears to be a relationship
between spirituality and servant leadership, there was
insufficient evidence to draw conclusions for this review.
Demographics
Three studies (Fridell et al. 2009; McCuddy and Cavin
2009; Taylor et al. 2007) attempted to identify demo-
graphic characteristics conducive to practicing servant
leadership. However, these studies lacked methodological
quality sufficient to support any conclusions. In addition,
many of the findings of these studies contradicted each
other as well as other studies within our sample. For
example, one study found significant differences between
men and women’s servant leadership style usage—female
160. leaders were more likely to practice daily reflection and
consensus building, foster self worth, and engage in healing
relationships (Fridell et al. 2009), while another study
found no difference (McCuddy and Cavin 2009). Also, one
study found that socio-economic factors were positively
related to servant behaviors (McCuddy and Cavin 2009),
while another study found that no demographic variables
were significantly related to servant leadership (Taylor
et al. 2007) Therefore, it remains to be discovered if there
are in fact demographic characteristics that are related to
servant leadership.
Implementation of Servant Leadership
Three studies examined servant leadership in various
organizational processes (Hamilton and Bean 2005—
leadership development; Savage-Austin and Honeycutt
2011—organizational change; Dingman and Stone 2007—
succession planning). Nevertheless, these studies were not
supported by other empirical studies nor were their meth-
161. odological quality sufficient to provide any conclusions.
Limitations
Although this SLR was conducted in a disciplined manner,
potential limitations must be acknowledged. We limited
the search process to indexed journals available through the
authors’ university library system that were peer-reviewed
published articles written in the English language. Thus,
this review did not include non-indexed journals or dis-
sertations because they are not peer-reviewed, or peer-
reviewed servant leadership articles published in a lan-
guage other than English. Given the apparent universal
interest in servant leadership, as identified in our review,
perhaps there are more empirical studies being published in
other languages that would complement or contradict some
of the conclusions drawn from this review. The method-
ology and findings of the studies included in the review
were assessed by two independent reviewers aided by a
critical assessment tool, which was utilized to make the
162. evaluation phase more accurate. However, our attempt to
integrate results conducted with qualitative as well as
quantitative data analysis may have limited the ability to
sufficiently explore all methodological considerations
when fusing the findings of both types of empirical studies
into a coherent text. In order to guide future scholars in
conducting SLRs, more work is needed on how to assess
the quality of qualitative and quantitative research in the
field of management. Given SLRs origins are in the med-
ical field, which conduct controlled trial studies, there are
few critical appraisal tools that are applicable to the
research methods used in other disciplines, such as quali-
tative inquiry and cross-sectional studies.
Conclusion
This SLR demonstrates servant leadership theory is appli-
cable in a variety of cultures, contexts, and organizational
settings. Even though Greenleaf first coined the philosophy
388 D. L. Parris, J. W. Peachey
163. 123
in the 1970s, it has taken until 2004 for servant leadership
to be explored in an empirical manner. This SLR did not
place any limitation on the publication year of peer-
reviewed journal articles; however, no empirical studies
were found across all the databases searched before 2004.
To date, the majority of research in servant leadership is
either attempting to conceptually define and model the
theory or develop measurement tools to empirical test it.
Thus, the greater part of research on servant leadership is
addressing one of the major criticisms of the theoretical
construct, which is the difficulty of operationalizing its
concepts and principles (Brumback 1999; Wong and Davey
2007). Quay is not alone in his sentiments on Greenleaf’s
works: ‘‘For all his good advice and many practical ideas,
he is a Don Quixote trying to convince managers to pursue
good and eschew evil’’ (1997, p. 83). By Greenleaf’s own
164. admission, his ideas are unorthodox, yet the value of this
review illustrates that servant leadership works and is a
tenable theory.
The first question of this review sought to discover how
servant leadership is being defined. Although our findings
indicated the majority of authors use Greenleaf (1970,
1972a, b, 1997), Spears (1998), and Laub (1999) to help
define servant leadership, there still does not exist an
accepted consensus over its definition. This lack of con-
sensus creates confusion (Van Dierendonck 2011) amongst
researchers, as they create their own variations of defini-
tions and theoretical models. Perhaps one day there will be
a generally accepted theory of servant leadership, but the
empirical cross-cultural studies in this review highlight that
while servant leadership has been researched in a variety of
cultures, it has different meanings based on socialization
and national context. In addition, Greenleaf (1977) argued
that servant leadership is an inward life-long journey,
165. implying that the meaning of servant leadership could
change throughout one’s life time. Therefore, this review
does not conclude with a model or another definition of
servant leadership; however, it does provide an overview of
multiple definitions of servant leadership currently being
used in empirical studies in order to further our conceptual
understanding.
Second, this review explored the contexts in which
servant leadership is being empirically investigated. Our
review illustrates the diversity of cultures, organizational
settings, and research foci in which servant leadership is
being explored. There seems to be pronounced interest in
investigating servant leadership in the U.S. and throughout
the Asia Pacific region; however, there is a paucity of
studies being conducted in other parts of the world. Cur-
rently, the majority of studies are exploring servant lead-
ership in an educational setting (44 % of our sample).
Organizational settings that have received less attention
166. from researchers include medical institutions, public
organizations, non-profit organizations, and community-
level organizations. Research on servant leadership is
concentrated in the fields of leadership, education, business
and psychology; whereas, there is only a small number of
studies in the fields of nursing, management, personal
selling and sales, ethics, parks and recreation administra-
tion, services marketing, and sports. The research themes
being explored the least are: spirituality, demographics,
and implementation of servant leadership. Thus, this
review helps researchers identify areas and contexts which
are relatively unexplored in relation to servant leadership
and thus ripe for further investigation.
Third, this review examined the tools that can be used to
measure the existence and outcomes of servant leadership.
The multiple quantitative and qualitative measures used by
the studies point to the fact that there is currently not an
agreed upon measurement instrument of the theoretical
167. construct. This review can point researchers towards the
current measurement tools available, how they are being
used, and in what contexts they are being applied. Last, this
review synthesized the findings of these empirical studies
(see Table 3). Seven research themes emerged: cross-cul-
tural applicability, servant leadership attributes, team-level
effectiveness, followers’ well-being, spirituality, demo-
graphics, and implementation of servant leadership. This
synthesis can help researchers identify the current findings
in the extant literature and to discover research foci that
remain relatively underexplored.
Several intriguing directions for future research emerged
from our SLR. First, this SLR only identified 39 empirical
studies that explored servant leadership theory in organi-
zational settings, highlighting the need for researchers to
empirically investigate the construct of servant leadership
in a variety of organizational contexts. In the burgeoning
field of entrepreneurship, researchers could explore how to
168. build a servant-led organization, or in the field of organi-
zational change, studies could explore how to implement
servant leadership in an established organization or during
a merger or acquisition. Second, there is a need to inves-
tigate the antecedents of servant leadership development,
such as personal attributes of the leader, background of the
leader, and organizational history and trajectory. Third,
researchers can examine other outcomes of servant lead-
ership, such as voluntarily organizational turnover, suc-
cession planning, affective organizational commitment,
and employee well-being through generative growth. Last,
there is a need to develop critical appraisal tools for
quantitative and quantitative research used in the field of
management to conduct SLRs. Perhaps our integration of
several appraisal tools can serve as a template, as we
assessed the level of supporting evidence for thematic
conclusions drawn from combining the results of multiple
studies.
169. Servant Leadership Theory in Organizational Contexts 389
123
This SLR is the first synthesis of empirical studies
exploring servant leadership theory in organizational con-
texts that utilizes a rigorous methodology to mitigate bias
through exhaustive literature searches and by providing an
audit trail of the conclusions. This review enhances our
understanding of the definition(s) of servant leadership,
illustrates the diversity of cultures, organizational settings,
and research foci in which it is being examined, identifies
tools that can be used to measure its existence and out-
comes, and shows that servant leadership is a viable
leadership theory that helps organizations and the well-
being of followers. Our findings synthesize empirical
research on servant leadership theory across the multidis-
ciplinary fields of business, medicine, psychology, religion,
leisure, education, and economics and law. Scholars
170. exploring servant leadership are using theories from other
disciplines to build upon existing theory and to develop
theory that is uniquely applicable to their field (e.g.,
organizational behavior, sport, gender). Thus, this SLR
validated servant leadership as a viable and valuable the-
ory, and therefore, illustrates how servant leadership theory
can be used to inform future empirical studies. In addition,
and importantly, this SLR contributes to advancing the
methodology of conducting a SLR in the management
context. Here, we showcase how a SRL can provide an
effective method for mapping out thematically the current
body of research literature that empirically explores servant
leadership theory in organizational contexts. However, this
type of systematic review with rigorous methodology can
be applied to other research streams within management as
an aid in holistically synthesizing the state of the field in
various topical areas.
As a viable leadership theory, servant leadership can
171. perhaps provide the ethical grounding and leadership
framework needed to help address the challenges of the
twenty-first century: technological advancements, eco-
nomic globalization, increased communications, the Inter-
net, rising terrorism, environmental degradation, war and
violence, disease and starvation, threat of global warming,
intensifying gap between the poor and rich worldwide, as
well as many other unsolved issues. Servant leadership
contrasts, traditional leader-first paradigms, which applaud
a Darwinism, individualistic, and capitalist approach to
life, implicating that only the strong will survive. Sadly,
this belief system is operating at the heart of most orga-
nizations and is the consequence of most of our modern
tragedies: Arthur Andersen and Enron, Dennis Kozlowski
and Tyco, and Bernard Ebbers and WorldCom (Forbes
2010). Servant leaders believe ‘‘the world does not have to
be like this’’ (Keith 2008, p. ix) and actively work at
changing society for the better. In short, this review shows
172. servant leadership can help address these ethical dilemmas.
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