— Proposed " electron tomography " or electron imaging of human body is most advanced technology to be available to do tomography of human body in comparison to existing CT(Computerised tomography), MRI(magnetic resonance imaging), PET(positron emission tomography), SPECT(single photon emission computed tomography). Keywords— electron tomography, electron imaging of human body, Computerised tomography, magnetic resonance imaging, positron emission tomography, single photon emission computed tomography.
Basic concept of radiation, radioactivity, radiation dosemahbubul hassan
This document provides information about a radiation protection training course taking place from October 24-28, 2021 in Dhaka, Bangladesh. It covers basic concepts in radiation, radioactivity, radiation dose units, types of radiation including alpha, beta, gamma, x-rays, and neutrons. It also discusses units of radioactivity, absorbed dose, dose equivalent, radiation weighting factors, and tissue weighting factors which are important concepts in radiation protection.
Chapter 2 properties of radiations and radioisotopesROBERT ESHUN
This document provides an overview of properties of radiation and radioisotopes. It discusses electromagnetic radiation and the spectrum. There are two broad categories of radiation: ionizing and non-ionizing. Ionizing radiation like alpha, beta, gamma rays and x-rays have enough energy to remove electrons from atoms and cause chemical changes, while non-ionizing radiation like ultraviolet, visible light, infrared and microwaves only have enough energy to move or vibrate atoms. The document also examines radioactivity, nuclear reactions like fission and fusion, and applications of nuclear technology like nuclear power plants.
Radioactivity is the spontaneous disintegration of an unstable atom's nucleus accompanied by radioactive emissions. There are three main types of emissions: alpha particles, beta particles, and gamma rays. Radioactive elements will continue emitting emissions until their atoms become stable. Various detectors can detect different radioactive emissions, like Geiger-Muller tubes detecting beta particles and gamma rays. Radioactive decay is when an unstable nucleus changes into a more stable one by emitting radiation. Nuclear fission and fusion involve splitting or combining atomic nuclei and release energy. Nuclear power plants use controlled fission to generate electricity while producing radioactive waste that must be carefully managed.
Chemical and Physical Properties: Radioactivity & Radioisotopes ulcerd
Lecture materials for the Introductory Chemistry course for Forensic Scientists, University of Lincoln, UK. See http://forensicchemistry.lincoln.ac.uk/ for more details.
Types of radiation
and
Interaction of radiation with matter
How different types of matter interacts with different media. Includes interaction of photon, neutron, proton, electron and alpha particles.
1. The document discusses radioactivity and radioactive decay, including definitions of key terms like alpha, beta, and gamma radiation.
2. It describes experiments that established the nuclear model of the atom, with a small, dense nucleus surrounded by orbiting electrons.
3. Characteristics of different types of radioactive decay and particles are provided, such as their ionizing power and ability to penetrate matter. Equations for alpha, beta, and gamma decay are given with examples.
This document discusses radioactive isotopes and the different types of radiation they emit when decaying. It explains that unstable atomic nuclei will emit alpha, beta, or gamma radiation to become stable. Alpha radiation is emitted as a helium nucleus, beta as a high-speed electron, and gamma as a high-energy electromagnetic wave. It describes the properties and interactions of each type of radiation, and how they can damage cells and potentially cause cancer if absorbed in the body. Examples are given of uses of radioisotopes and radiation such as electricity generation, sterilization, and food irradiation.
Basic concept of radiation, radioactivity, radiation dosemahbubul hassan
This document provides information about a radiation protection training course taking place from October 24-28, 2021 in Dhaka, Bangladesh. It covers basic concepts in radiation, radioactivity, radiation dose units, types of radiation including alpha, beta, gamma, x-rays, and neutrons. It also discusses units of radioactivity, absorbed dose, dose equivalent, radiation weighting factors, and tissue weighting factors which are important concepts in radiation protection.
Chapter 2 properties of radiations and radioisotopesROBERT ESHUN
This document provides an overview of properties of radiation and radioisotopes. It discusses electromagnetic radiation and the spectrum. There are two broad categories of radiation: ionizing and non-ionizing. Ionizing radiation like alpha, beta, gamma rays and x-rays have enough energy to remove electrons from atoms and cause chemical changes, while non-ionizing radiation like ultraviolet, visible light, infrared and microwaves only have enough energy to move or vibrate atoms. The document also examines radioactivity, nuclear reactions like fission and fusion, and applications of nuclear technology like nuclear power plants.
Radioactivity is the spontaneous disintegration of an unstable atom's nucleus accompanied by radioactive emissions. There are three main types of emissions: alpha particles, beta particles, and gamma rays. Radioactive elements will continue emitting emissions until their atoms become stable. Various detectors can detect different radioactive emissions, like Geiger-Muller tubes detecting beta particles and gamma rays. Radioactive decay is when an unstable nucleus changes into a more stable one by emitting radiation. Nuclear fission and fusion involve splitting or combining atomic nuclei and release energy. Nuclear power plants use controlled fission to generate electricity while producing radioactive waste that must be carefully managed.
Chemical and Physical Properties: Radioactivity & Radioisotopes ulcerd
Lecture materials for the Introductory Chemistry course for Forensic Scientists, University of Lincoln, UK. See http://forensicchemistry.lincoln.ac.uk/ for more details.
Types of radiation
and
Interaction of radiation with matter
How different types of matter interacts with different media. Includes interaction of photon, neutron, proton, electron and alpha particles.
1. The document discusses radioactivity and radioactive decay, including definitions of key terms like alpha, beta, and gamma radiation.
2. It describes experiments that established the nuclear model of the atom, with a small, dense nucleus surrounded by orbiting electrons.
3. Characteristics of different types of radioactive decay and particles are provided, such as their ionizing power and ability to penetrate matter. Equations for alpha, beta, and gamma decay are given with examples.
This document discusses radioactive isotopes and the different types of radiation they emit when decaying. It explains that unstable atomic nuclei will emit alpha, beta, or gamma radiation to become stable. Alpha radiation is emitted as a helium nucleus, beta as a high-speed electron, and gamma as a high-energy electromagnetic wave. It describes the properties and interactions of each type of radiation, and how they can damage cells and potentially cause cancer if absorbed in the body. Examples are given of uses of radioisotopes and radiation such as electricity generation, sterilization, and food irradiation.
Radioactive decay, kinetics and equilibriumBiji Saro
This document discusses radioactive decay, kinetics, and equilibrium. It begins by defining radioactive decay as the spontaneous emission of particles or radiation from atomic nuclei. It describes the three main types of radioactive decay and their effects on atomic and mass numbers. The document then discusses radioactive kinetics, including the concepts of half-life, mean life, and first-order decay. Finally, it covers radioactive equilibrium and the different types including transient, secular, and no equilibrium. Diagrams of activity profiles over time are provided to illustrate the different equilibrium conditions.
This document discusses the interaction of ionizing radiation with matter. It describes three main types of ionizing radiation: photons, charged particles, and neutral particles. For photons, the key interaction mechanisms are coherent scattering, the photoelectric effect, the Compton effect, and pair production. Charged particles like electrons and protons interact through soft collisions, hard collisions, and delta ray production. Neutral particles like neutrons interact primarily through scattering, absorption, and fission. The document provides details on the energy transfers and secondary emissions that result from each interaction mechanism.
Radioactivity occurs when the nuclei of unstable atoms decay and emit radiation. There are three main types of radiation: alpha, beta, and gamma. Alpha particles consist of two protons and two neutrons, beta particles are electrons or positrons, and gamma radiation consists of electromagnetic waves. The rate of radioactive decay is random, but the half-life of a radioactive isotope is the time it takes for half the nuclei in a sample to decay. Radioactivity has industrial applications and background radiation comes from natural and man-made sources.
Radioactivity is the process of spontaneous disintegration of unstable nuclei through emission of radiation. There are three main types of radiation emitted: alpha, beta, and gamma rays. Alpha particles have the highest ionizing power but lowest penetration ability. Beta particles are high energy electrons emitted from neutron decay. Gamma rays are electromagnetic radiation emitted during nuclear transitions. Radioactivity can be natural, occurring in heavy elements like uranium, or artificial through bombardment of stable nuclei. It is measured using instruments like Geiger counters and detected through ionization of matter.
Detection of Radioactivity
Characteristics of the Three Types of Emission
Nuclear Reactions
Half-Life
Uses of Radioactive Isotopes Including Safety Precautions
Radioactive decay is the process by which an unstable atomic nucleus loses energy by emitting ionizing particles such as alpha particles, beta particles, or gamma rays. Alpha decay occurs when an atom ejects an alpha particle (helium nucleus). Beta decay is the emission of an electron. Gamma decay is the release of energy in the form of electromagnetic waves.
Radiation can be ionizing or non-ionizing. Ionizing radiation includes alpha particles, beta particles, gamma rays, and x-rays and has enough energy to remove electrons from atoms. Common sources of radiation include natural sources like cosmic rays and radioactive materials in the ground, and man-made sources like medical procedures and occupational exposures. Radiation can interact with matter through processes like alpha and beta decay, gamma decay, Compton scattering, photoelectric effect, and pair production.
Radioactive waste comes in low-level and high-level forms. Low-level waste includes slightly contaminated materials that are buried or stabilized in concrete. High-level waste is highly radioactive spent nuclear fuel, which is currently stored on-site at reactors in water pools or dry casks until a national repository opens. Managing radioactive waste safely and finding locations to dispose of it long-term continues to be a politically challenging issue due to public health concerns and NIMBY opposition.
This document discusses different types of ionizing radiation and their interactions with matter. It begins by introducing different types of ionizing radiation like gamma rays, x-rays, electrons, heavy charged particles, and neutrons. It then explains the interactions of these radiations in matter through processes like Compton scattering, photoelectric effect, pair production etc. It discusses concepts like linear energy transfer and specific ionization. Overall, the document provides an overview of the various types of ionizing radiation and how they interact and deposit energy when passing through matter.
general introduction of radioactivity, it include discovery of radioactivity, types of radiation, isotopes and radioactive isotopes difference, half life, prevention and precaution from radiation. detecting devices used in laboreatory for radiation spillage and protection.
Different forms of radiation, including alpha, beta, and gamma, are emitted during radioactive decay as the unstable nucleus transforms into a more stable form. Alpha particles are helium nuclei, beta particles are electrons, and gamma radiation is electromagnetic radiation similar to x-rays. Ernest Rutherford discovered alpha particles in 1899 while studying uranium. The inverse square law states that the intensity of radiation decreases inversely with the square of the distance from the source. This law can be used to calculate intensity at different distances from a radioactive source.
There are three main types of interactions that occur when radiation interacts with matter: excitation, ionization, and radiative losses. Charged particles like electrons and alpha particles lose energy primarily through excitation and ionization of atoms in materials. The amount of energy deposited per unit length is known as linear energy transfer (LET). High LET radiations are more damaging than low LET radiations. When x-rays and gamma rays interact with matter, the main interactions are Rayleigh scattering, Compton scattering, and photoelectric absorption. Compton scattering is the predominant interaction for diagnostic x-rays, while photoelectric absorption dominates at lower energies.
The document discusses various types of interactions that occur when radiation interacts with matter, focusing on electromagnetic radiation and particulate radiation. It describes the photoelectric effect, Compton scattering, and pair production in detail. The key points are:
1) The photoelectric effect occurs when a photon transfers all of its energy to an electron, ejecting it from an atom. The probability of the photoelectric effect increases with lower photon energy and higher atomic number.
2) Compton scattering occurs when a photon collides with and scatters off an electron. It dominates between 50keV and 24MeV.
3) Pair production occurs when a photon converts into an electron-positron pair, and dominates above 24MeV.
Dr. Kamal K. Ali's lecture discusses the structure of atoms and radioactivity. It covers topics like the atom structure, isotopes, radioactive decay mechanisms, and types of radiation. It also explains techniques used to measure isotopes like mass spectrometry. Mass spectrometry works by ionizing atoms, accelerating the ions, and separating them in a magnetic field based on their mass-to-charge ratio. This allows determining the relative abundances of isotopes in a sample.
A brief presentation on radioactivity and nuclear decay process. The presentation is not too technical. The intention is only to give a brief idea about radioactivity
1) The document discusses the interaction of radiation with matter, including the different types of radiation and their properties. It describes electromagnetic radiation and the electromagnetic spectrum.
2) The main interactions that occur between radiation and matter are photoelectric effect, Compton scattering, and pair production. The photoelectric effect involves the ejection of an electron from an atom when a photon transfers all its energy. Compton scattering is the scattering of photons by loosely bound electrons, resulting in energy transfer. Pair production occurs when a photon converts into an electron-positron pair in the vicinity of a nucleus.
3) The dominant interaction depends on the photon energy - photoelectric effect dominates at low energies, Compton scattering in the soft
Option C Nuclear Physics, Radioactive decay and half lifeLawrence kok
This document provides tutorials on atomic structure, particle physics, and relative atomic mass. It discusses the scale of matter from smallest to largest, including the radius of atoms like lithium. It describes how nucleons like protons and neutrons are made up of quarks. Recent discoveries from the Large Hadron Collider like the Higgs boson and Higgs field are covered. Types of nuclear radiation such as alpha, beta, and gamma decays are summarized along with half-life calculations and applications of radioisotopes including carbon-14 dating.
From my class on nuclear physics for nuclear medicine technologists. This class covers alpha, beta, and gamma decay, plus conversion electrons, Auger electrons, and k-alpha and other X-rays
The document discusses the interaction of radiation with matter. It covers topics including the atomic structure, quantities and units used in physics, production of bremsstrahlung and characteristic x-rays, photon interactions such as the photoelectric effect and Compton scattering, beam attenuation, and the principles of radiological image formation. The interaction of radiation depends on factors like the photon energy and atomic number of the absorbing material. Different interaction mechanisms dominate based on these factors and contribute to image contrast in medical imaging.
Radiation comes in many forms and can be classified as ionizing or non-ionizing. Ionizing radiation has enough energy to remove electrons from atoms and includes gamma rays, X-rays, and alpha/beta particles. Non-ionizing radiation does not have enough energy to ionize atoms and includes visible light, microwaves, and radio waves. Radiation is measured in units like the curie and becquerel that represent radioactive decays, while exposure is measured in rads and grays representing absorbed energy doses. Radiation finds many uses in fields like medical imaging and treatment.
This document provides an overview of nuclear medicine and radiology concepts. It discusses atomic and nuclear structure, radioactive decay processes like alpha, beta, and gamma decay, and how radiation interacts with matter through processes like the photoelectric effect and Compton scattering. It also describes common radiation detectors like gas-filled detectors and scintillation detectors. Finally, it summarizes several nuclear medicine imaging systems like planar imaging with gamma cameras and emission computed tomography with SPECT and PET.
Radioactive decay, kinetics and equilibriumBiji Saro
This document discusses radioactive decay, kinetics, and equilibrium. It begins by defining radioactive decay as the spontaneous emission of particles or radiation from atomic nuclei. It describes the three main types of radioactive decay and their effects on atomic and mass numbers. The document then discusses radioactive kinetics, including the concepts of half-life, mean life, and first-order decay. Finally, it covers radioactive equilibrium and the different types including transient, secular, and no equilibrium. Diagrams of activity profiles over time are provided to illustrate the different equilibrium conditions.
This document discusses the interaction of ionizing radiation with matter. It describes three main types of ionizing radiation: photons, charged particles, and neutral particles. For photons, the key interaction mechanisms are coherent scattering, the photoelectric effect, the Compton effect, and pair production. Charged particles like electrons and protons interact through soft collisions, hard collisions, and delta ray production. Neutral particles like neutrons interact primarily through scattering, absorption, and fission. The document provides details on the energy transfers and secondary emissions that result from each interaction mechanism.
Radioactivity occurs when the nuclei of unstable atoms decay and emit radiation. There are three main types of radiation: alpha, beta, and gamma. Alpha particles consist of two protons and two neutrons, beta particles are electrons or positrons, and gamma radiation consists of electromagnetic waves. The rate of radioactive decay is random, but the half-life of a radioactive isotope is the time it takes for half the nuclei in a sample to decay. Radioactivity has industrial applications and background radiation comes from natural and man-made sources.
Radioactivity is the process of spontaneous disintegration of unstable nuclei through emission of radiation. There are three main types of radiation emitted: alpha, beta, and gamma rays. Alpha particles have the highest ionizing power but lowest penetration ability. Beta particles are high energy electrons emitted from neutron decay. Gamma rays are electromagnetic radiation emitted during nuclear transitions. Radioactivity can be natural, occurring in heavy elements like uranium, or artificial through bombardment of stable nuclei. It is measured using instruments like Geiger counters and detected through ionization of matter.
Detection of Radioactivity
Characteristics of the Three Types of Emission
Nuclear Reactions
Half-Life
Uses of Radioactive Isotopes Including Safety Precautions
Radioactive decay is the process by which an unstable atomic nucleus loses energy by emitting ionizing particles such as alpha particles, beta particles, or gamma rays. Alpha decay occurs when an atom ejects an alpha particle (helium nucleus). Beta decay is the emission of an electron. Gamma decay is the release of energy in the form of electromagnetic waves.
Radiation can be ionizing or non-ionizing. Ionizing radiation includes alpha particles, beta particles, gamma rays, and x-rays and has enough energy to remove electrons from atoms. Common sources of radiation include natural sources like cosmic rays and radioactive materials in the ground, and man-made sources like medical procedures and occupational exposures. Radiation can interact with matter through processes like alpha and beta decay, gamma decay, Compton scattering, photoelectric effect, and pair production.
Radioactive waste comes in low-level and high-level forms. Low-level waste includes slightly contaminated materials that are buried or stabilized in concrete. High-level waste is highly radioactive spent nuclear fuel, which is currently stored on-site at reactors in water pools or dry casks until a national repository opens. Managing radioactive waste safely and finding locations to dispose of it long-term continues to be a politically challenging issue due to public health concerns and NIMBY opposition.
This document discusses different types of ionizing radiation and their interactions with matter. It begins by introducing different types of ionizing radiation like gamma rays, x-rays, electrons, heavy charged particles, and neutrons. It then explains the interactions of these radiations in matter through processes like Compton scattering, photoelectric effect, pair production etc. It discusses concepts like linear energy transfer and specific ionization. Overall, the document provides an overview of the various types of ionizing radiation and how they interact and deposit energy when passing through matter.
general introduction of radioactivity, it include discovery of radioactivity, types of radiation, isotopes and radioactive isotopes difference, half life, prevention and precaution from radiation. detecting devices used in laboreatory for radiation spillage and protection.
Different forms of radiation, including alpha, beta, and gamma, are emitted during radioactive decay as the unstable nucleus transforms into a more stable form. Alpha particles are helium nuclei, beta particles are electrons, and gamma radiation is electromagnetic radiation similar to x-rays. Ernest Rutherford discovered alpha particles in 1899 while studying uranium. The inverse square law states that the intensity of radiation decreases inversely with the square of the distance from the source. This law can be used to calculate intensity at different distances from a radioactive source.
There are three main types of interactions that occur when radiation interacts with matter: excitation, ionization, and radiative losses. Charged particles like electrons and alpha particles lose energy primarily through excitation and ionization of atoms in materials. The amount of energy deposited per unit length is known as linear energy transfer (LET). High LET radiations are more damaging than low LET radiations. When x-rays and gamma rays interact with matter, the main interactions are Rayleigh scattering, Compton scattering, and photoelectric absorption. Compton scattering is the predominant interaction for diagnostic x-rays, while photoelectric absorption dominates at lower energies.
The document discusses various types of interactions that occur when radiation interacts with matter, focusing on electromagnetic radiation and particulate radiation. It describes the photoelectric effect, Compton scattering, and pair production in detail. The key points are:
1) The photoelectric effect occurs when a photon transfers all of its energy to an electron, ejecting it from an atom. The probability of the photoelectric effect increases with lower photon energy and higher atomic number.
2) Compton scattering occurs when a photon collides with and scatters off an electron. It dominates between 50keV and 24MeV.
3) Pair production occurs when a photon converts into an electron-positron pair, and dominates above 24MeV.
Dr. Kamal K. Ali's lecture discusses the structure of atoms and radioactivity. It covers topics like the atom structure, isotopes, radioactive decay mechanisms, and types of radiation. It also explains techniques used to measure isotopes like mass spectrometry. Mass spectrometry works by ionizing atoms, accelerating the ions, and separating them in a magnetic field based on their mass-to-charge ratio. This allows determining the relative abundances of isotopes in a sample.
A brief presentation on radioactivity and nuclear decay process. The presentation is not too technical. The intention is only to give a brief idea about radioactivity
1) The document discusses the interaction of radiation with matter, including the different types of radiation and their properties. It describes electromagnetic radiation and the electromagnetic spectrum.
2) The main interactions that occur between radiation and matter are photoelectric effect, Compton scattering, and pair production. The photoelectric effect involves the ejection of an electron from an atom when a photon transfers all its energy. Compton scattering is the scattering of photons by loosely bound electrons, resulting in energy transfer. Pair production occurs when a photon converts into an electron-positron pair in the vicinity of a nucleus.
3) The dominant interaction depends on the photon energy - photoelectric effect dominates at low energies, Compton scattering in the soft
Option C Nuclear Physics, Radioactive decay and half lifeLawrence kok
This document provides tutorials on atomic structure, particle physics, and relative atomic mass. It discusses the scale of matter from smallest to largest, including the radius of atoms like lithium. It describes how nucleons like protons and neutrons are made up of quarks. Recent discoveries from the Large Hadron Collider like the Higgs boson and Higgs field are covered. Types of nuclear radiation such as alpha, beta, and gamma decays are summarized along with half-life calculations and applications of radioisotopes including carbon-14 dating.
From my class on nuclear physics for nuclear medicine technologists. This class covers alpha, beta, and gamma decay, plus conversion electrons, Auger electrons, and k-alpha and other X-rays
The document discusses the interaction of radiation with matter. It covers topics including the atomic structure, quantities and units used in physics, production of bremsstrahlung and characteristic x-rays, photon interactions such as the photoelectric effect and Compton scattering, beam attenuation, and the principles of radiological image formation. The interaction of radiation depends on factors like the photon energy and atomic number of the absorbing material. Different interaction mechanisms dominate based on these factors and contribute to image contrast in medical imaging.
Radiation comes in many forms and can be classified as ionizing or non-ionizing. Ionizing radiation has enough energy to remove electrons from atoms and includes gamma rays, X-rays, and alpha/beta particles. Non-ionizing radiation does not have enough energy to ionize atoms and includes visible light, microwaves, and radio waves. Radiation is measured in units like the curie and becquerel that represent radioactive decays, while exposure is measured in rads and grays representing absorbed energy doses. Radiation finds many uses in fields like medical imaging and treatment.
This document provides an overview of nuclear medicine and radiology concepts. It discusses atomic and nuclear structure, radioactive decay processes like alpha, beta, and gamma decay, and how radiation interacts with matter through processes like the photoelectric effect and Compton scattering. It also describes common radiation detectors like gas-filled detectors and scintillation detectors. Finally, it summarizes several nuclear medicine imaging systems like planar imaging with gamma cameras and emission computed tomography with SPECT and PET.
There are three main sources of natural radiation: cosmic radiation from outer space, terrestrial radiation from the ground and building materials, and internal radiation from radioactive elements within the human body. Cosmic radiation consists of particles and gamma rays from the sun and beyond. Terrestrial radiation comes from elements like uranium and thorium in the Earth. Internal radiation originates from radioactive isotopes ingested or inhaled over a lifetime.
- Radioactivity was discovered in 1896 by Henri Becquerel, who found that uranium salts emitted radiation that affected photographic plates.
- There are three main types of radiation emitted by radioactive substances: alpha, beta, and gamma rays. Alpha rays are helium nuclei, beta rays are electrons or positrons, and gamma rays are electromagnetic waves.
- The rate of radioactive decay is described by the radioactive law of disintegration and is characterized by the half-life, which is the time for half of the radioactive atoms in a sample to decay.
The document discusses various types of ionizing radiation and their interactions with matter. It describes electromagnetic radiation as composed of photons that can interact via photoelectric effect, Compton scattering, pair production, and other processes. Compton scattering results in energy transfer between photons and recoil electrons. The probability of interaction depends on photon energy and material properties like atomic number. Higher energy photons have a greater chance of depositing energy through secondary electrons.
Radioactivity, Alpha radiation, Beta radiation, Gamma radiation, Types of radiation, properties of alpha, beta and gamma radiations, Half-life of radioactive substances, Methods to measure radioactivity, Radioactive isotopes, Isotopes of Hydrogen, Isotopes of Carbon, Sodium Iodide -131, Medicinal uses of Sodium Iodide - 131, Storage of radioactive substances, Precautions in the handling of Radioactive substances, Applications of Radiopharmaceuticals
Radiopharmacy involves the compounding and dispensing of radioactive materials for use in nuclear medicine procedures. Radiopharmaceuticals are radioactive drugs used for diagnostic or therapeutic purposes. They consist of radioactive isotopes attached to other molecules to allow for localization within the body. Radiopharmaceuticals are prepared following stringent quality control procedures to ensure safety, purity and sterility prior to administration. Effective shielding is also required to protect personnel from radiation exposure during preparation and handling.
X-rays can interact with matter through various interactions including the photoelectric effect, Compton scattering, and coherent scattering. The photoelectric effect and Compton scattering are the most important interactions in diagnostic radiology. Scatter radiation is a major source of reduced image quality and increased patient dose in x-rays, and various techniques like grids and filters are used to control scatter.
I do not have enough context to answer these questions. The document provided is a lecture on interactions of radiation with matter and does not contain questions.
Radiobiology for Clinical Oncologists, IntroductionDina Barakat
Radiobiology is the study of how ionizing radiation interacts with living things. This document provides an overview of different types of ionizing radiation including electromagnetic radiation like x-rays and gamma rays, and particulate radiation like electrons, protons, alpha particles, and heavy ions. It describes the physics of how this radiation is absorbed and can cause excitation or ionization in biological materials. Specifically, it notes that x-rays and gamma rays are indirectly ionizing since they produce fast-moving electrons upon absorption, while particulate radiations can directly ionize materials. Around 10,000 to 20,000 cases of lung cancer per year in the US are attributed to alpha particles from radon gas in homes.
1) Ionizing radiation includes x-rays, gamma rays, alpha particles, beta particles, neutrons, and charged nuclei that are capable of producing ion pairs by interacting with matter.
2) Different types of ionizing radiation have varying penetration depths and biological impacts depending on their energy and linear energy transfer. Alpha particles can be stopped by paper but are very damaging if inside the body, while x-rays and gamma rays can penetrate further.
3) Radioactive materials decay from unstable to stable states and in the process may emit various combinations of ionizing radiation particles like alpha and beta particles as well as gamma rays. Decay chains occur when a parent decays to a daughter isotope that is also radioactive.
The document summarizes the history and key discoveries related to radioactivity and nuclear physics. It discusses how Becquerel discovered radioactivity in uranium in 1896, leading the Curies to isolate the elements polonium and radium. It then covers atomic structure, the different types of radioactive decay, units of radioactivity, decay processes, and nuclear reactions including fission and fusion.
This document defines and describes different types of radiation. It discusses radioactive decay, which produces alpha particles, beta particles, and gamma rays. It also describes cosmic radiation from outer space and electromagnetic radiation, distinguishing between ionizing radiation like x-rays and gamma rays, which can remove electrons from atoms, and non-ionizing radiation like radio waves and visible light. The likelihood of different types of radiation interacting with matter is also compared, with alpha particles and neutrons being the most interactive due to their larger mass, while photons have no mass or charge and interact randomly.
The document provides an introduction to the course "Advanced Instrumental Methods of Analysis" which deals with nuclear reactions, detection of nuclear particles, extraction techniques, and amperometry. It describes various types of nuclear reactions including nuclear decay reactions like alpha, beta, gamma radiation as well as positron emission and electron capture. Nuclear fission and fusion reactions are also discussed. The course objectives are to explain the concepts of nuclear reactions and extraction techniques, analyze working of radiation detectors and electroanalytical methods, and assess analytical methodologies for studying nuclear radiations and qualitative/quantitative analysis.
1) Ionizing radiation is any electromagnetic or particulate radiation capable of producing ion pairs by interacting with matter. This includes alpha particles, beta particles, gamma rays, x-rays, and neutrons.
2) Different types of ionizing radiation have varying penetration depths and biological impacts depending on their linear energy transfer and quality factor. Alpha particles can be stopped by paper but are very damaging if inside the body. Neutrons must be slowed through collisions before being captured.
3) Radioactive materials undergo decay to become more stable, emitting ionizing radiation such as alpha or beta particles and gamma rays. Decay chains involve a parent nucleus decaying into a daughter nucleus which may also be radioactive.
The document discusses ionizing radiation and its applications. It describes three types of ionizing radiation - alpha particles, beta particles, and gamma rays. Alpha particles have the highest ionization density and shortest range, while gamma rays have the lowest ionization density and longest range. Ionizing radiation is used in applications like medical imaging, radiation therapy, smoke detectors, carbon dating, and detecting leaks. It can kill or damage living cells, making it useful for sterilization but also dangerous if not handled safely.
The document discusses atomic structure and mass spectrometry. It defines key terms like mass number, atomic number, and isotope. It explains the process of mass spectrometry, including ionization, acceleration, deflection, and detection of ions. Graphs of ionization energies are analyzed to determine electronic configurations and periodic trends. Successive ionization energies are explained by electron shielding effects. Radioactive decay and half-life are also defined.
This document discusses the dual wave-particle nature of X-rays and their interaction with matter. It notes that X-rays can behave as both waves that propagate through space, as well as particles called photons. The key interactions discussed are photoelectric effect, Compton scattering, and pair production.
The photoelectric effect results in a photon being absorbed by an atom, ejecting an electron and leaving the atom ionized. Compton scattering involves a photon ejecting an electron from an atom but also being deflected and losing some energy. Pair production occurs when a photon interacts near the nucleus of an atom and transforms into an electron-positron pair.
This document discusses the dual wave-particle nature of X-rays and their interaction with matter. It notes that X-rays can behave as both waves that propagate through space, as well as particles called photons. The two main interactions discussed are the photoelectric effect and Compton scattering.
The photoelectric effect occurs when a photon ejects an inner shell electron from an atom. This produces characteristic radiation, a photoelectron, and an ionized atom. It is most likely with low-energy photons and high atomic number elements. Compton scattering occurs when a high-energy photon ejects a loosely bound outer shell electron. This produces a recoil electron and scattered photon, with energy distributed between the two. Scattered photons are
Similar to Electron Tomography (=Controlled Electron Tomography (20)
Null Bangalore | Pentesters Approach to AWS IAMDivyanshu
#Abstract:
- Learn more about the real-world methods for auditing AWS IAM (Identity and Access Management) as a pentester. So let us proceed with a brief discussion of IAM as well as some typical misconfigurations and their potential exploits in order to reinforce the understanding of IAM security best practices.
- Gain actionable insights into AWS IAM policies and roles, using hands on approach.
#Prerequisites:
- Basic understanding of AWS services and architecture
- Familiarity with cloud security concepts
- Experience using the AWS Management Console or AWS CLI.
- For hands on lab create account on [killercoda.com](https://killercoda.com/cloudsecurity-scenario/)
# Scenario Covered:
- Basics of IAM in AWS
- Implementing IAM Policies with Least Privilege to Manage S3 Bucket
- Objective: Create an S3 bucket with least privilege IAM policy and validate access.
- Steps:
- Create S3 bucket.
- Attach least privilege policy to IAM user.
- Validate access.
- Exploiting IAM PassRole Misconfiguration
-Allows a user to pass a specific IAM role to an AWS service (ec2), typically used for service access delegation. Then exploit PassRole Misconfiguration granting unauthorized access to sensitive resources.
- Objective: Demonstrate how a PassRole misconfiguration can grant unauthorized access.
- Steps:
- Allow user to pass IAM role to EC2.
- Exploit misconfiguration for unauthorized access.
- Access sensitive resources.
- Exploiting IAM AssumeRole Misconfiguration with Overly Permissive Role
- An overly permissive IAM role configuration can lead to privilege escalation by creating a role with administrative privileges and allow a user to assume this role.
- Objective: Show how overly permissive IAM roles can lead to privilege escalation.
- Steps:
- Create role with administrative privileges.
- Allow user to assume the role.
- Perform administrative actions.
- Differentiation between PassRole vs AssumeRole
Try at [killercoda.com](https://killercoda.com/cloudsecurity-scenario/)
artificial intelligence and data science contents.pptxGauravCar
What is artificial intelligence? Artificial intelligence is the ability of a computer or computer-controlled robot to perform tasks that are commonly associated with the intellectual processes characteristic of humans, such as the ability to reason.
› ...
Artificial intelligence (AI) | Definitio
Introduction- e - waste – definition - sources of e-waste– hazardous substances in e-waste - effects of e-waste on environment and human health- need for e-waste management– e-waste handling rules - waste minimization techniques for managing e-waste – recycling of e-waste - disposal treatment methods of e- waste – mechanism of extraction of precious metal from leaching solution-global Scenario of E-waste – E-waste in India- case studies.
Use PyCharm for remote debugging of WSL on a Windo cf5c162d672e4e58b4dde5d797...shadow0702a
This document serves as a comprehensive step-by-step guide on how to effectively use PyCharm for remote debugging of the Windows Subsystem for Linux (WSL) on a local Windows machine. It meticulously outlines several critical steps in the process, starting with the crucial task of enabling permissions, followed by the installation and configuration of WSL.
The guide then proceeds to explain how to set up the SSH service within the WSL environment, an integral part of the process. Alongside this, it also provides detailed instructions on how to modify the inbound rules of the Windows firewall to facilitate the process, ensuring that there are no connectivity issues that could potentially hinder the debugging process.
The document further emphasizes on the importance of checking the connection between the Windows and WSL environments, providing instructions on how to ensure that the connection is optimal and ready for remote debugging.
It also offers an in-depth guide on how to configure the WSL interpreter and files within the PyCharm environment. This is essential for ensuring that the debugging process is set up correctly and that the program can be run effectively within the WSL terminal.
Additionally, the document provides guidance on how to set up breakpoints for debugging, a fundamental aspect of the debugging process which allows the developer to stop the execution of their code at certain points and inspect their program at those stages.
Finally, the document concludes by providing a link to a reference blog. This blog offers additional information and guidance on configuring the remote Python interpreter in PyCharm, providing the reader with a well-rounded understanding of the process.
Optimizing Gradle Builds - Gradle DPE Tour Berlin 2024Sinan KOZAK
Sinan from the Delivery Hero mobile infrastructure engineering team shares a deep dive into performance acceleration with Gradle build cache optimizations. Sinan shares their journey into solving complex build-cache problems that affect Gradle builds. By understanding the challenges and solutions found in our journey, we aim to demonstrate the possibilities for faster builds. The case study reveals how overlapping outputs and cache misconfigurations led to significant increases in build times, especially as the project scaled up with numerous modules using Paparazzi tests. The journey from diagnosing to defeating cache issues offers invaluable lessons on maintaining cache integrity without sacrificing functionality.
2008 BUILDING CONSTRUCTION Illustrated - Ching Chapter 02 The Building.pdf
Electron Tomography (=Controlled Electron Tomography
1. International Journal of Engineering Research & Science (IJOER) ISSN: [2395-6992] [Vol-4, Issue-4, April- 2018]
Page | 88
Electron Tomography (=Controlled Electron Tomography)
Prof.(Dr.) Bijay Kumar Parida(MBBS,LLB,MS,ICO,FRCSG)1
, Ms. Anannya Anupurva2
1
Associate Professor, Muthusamy Virtual University of Ophthalmology Post Graduation, Bhubaneswar, Odisha, India
2
2nd
year student, MVJ Medical College, Bangalore
Abstract— Proposed “electron tomography” or electron imaging of human body is most advanced technology to be
available to do tomography of human body in comparison to existing CT(Computerised tomography), MRI(magnetic
resonance imaging), PET(positron emission tomography), SPECT(single photon emission computed tomography).
Keywords— electron tomography, electron imaging of human body, Computerised tomography, magnetic resonance
imaging, positron emission tomography, single photon emission computed tomography.
I. INTRODUCTION
Nuclei of cells are abundant in body and having highest mass. If emissions from nucleus can be imaged it shall give highest
resolution tomogram. To be more precise the hi technology shall tap beta – particles and gamma rays. The method
contemplated is to stimulate nucleus of cells of the body to release above mentioned particles and rays.
II. HYPOTHESIS:
Electron having negative charge, if bombarded on human body and made to pass through it, it will hit protons, nucleus and
electrons in all the cells of human body (or all the bodies);organic and inorganic, then it will form neutron by combining with
protons and heat is generated. Fusion reaction shall be initiated between newly formed neutron and existing one. Neutron
itself energized by electrons of hitting and a fission reaction begins. Electrons meet electrons orbiting and get repelled further
gaining energy. From higher orbit electrons fall back and release photons.
From fusion and fission reaction of neutrons, beta particles are released. Beta negative particles along with gamma rays
emanate together from body, that can be photographed by special camera like camera for photographing beta negative
particles(electrons) which can give better image than gamma camera photographing photons because of electrons having
mass and better escape than beta + or alpha + particles.
Thus a better image than CT scan, MRI, PET and SPECT can be achieved.
High voltage difference on either sides of the body can push highly energized electrons at faster rate. This shall initiate fusion
and fission reaction.
Nucleus is present in every cell. If it can be stimulated and made to release energy, an excellent tomography can be obtained,
which shall be far better than CT scan andMRI.
Two types of camera are combined to take better photograph.
The ionization of nucleus by electrons are controlled and limited not to harm the cell.
Other possible method is specially energized photons, not reaching level of x rays, can also penetrate body and
interact with atoms there, initiating ionizing reactions and produce beta negative particles and gamma rays. But these
photons are not as competent as electrons.
Using computer, 3D image can be generated.
III. DISCUSSION:
A beta particle, also called beta ray (β), is a high-energy, high-speed electron or positron emitted in the radioactive decay of
an atomic nucleus, such as a potassium-40 nucleus, in the process of beta decay. Two forms of beta decay, β−
and β+
,
respectively produce electrons and positrons.[1]
Beta particles are a type of ionizing radiation.
Beta minus (β-) particles are the same as electrons .Beta plus (β+) particles are the same a positron. β - are electrons, while β
+ are positrons (their antiparticles). The approximate radius of an electron is calculated as follows: re = e2/(mec2) =
2.8179402894(58) cm -13 Positron are similar to electron in terms of size and mass.
2. International Journal of Engineering Research & Science (IJOER) ISSN: [2395-6992] [Vol-4, Issue-4, April- 2018]
Page | 89
Beta particles are typically one of the weakest radiation (alpha has the most energy). Ranging from 15 KeV up to 2 MeV. But
because it is so small (1/6400 the size of an alpha particle) it can penetrate through the air and the skin. A few layers of
aluminum will stop it (while alpha will only go a few inches through air, or just to the first layer of the skin).
The purpose of the machine is to excite nucleus through electrons and released particles can be imaged.
Beta decay involves changing an up quark into a down quark (Beta+) or a down quark into an up quark (Beta-). This causes a
neutron to change into a proton (Beta-) and emit a W- boson which decays into a beta particle (electron and electron
antineutrino), or, with extra energy, it causes a proton to change into a neutron (Beta+) which emits a beta particle (positron
and electron neutrino). Quarks are involved because protons and neutrons are comprised of quarks in sets of three, two up
quarks and one down quark to form a proton, and two down quarks and one up quark to form a neutron.
Beta radiation is a negatively charged electron which both penetrates and ionizes fairly well. Alpha is a helium nucleus
with 2 protons and 2 neutrons (so a +2 charge) and is very ionizing but not very penetrating.
The range of beta particles in the air is up to several hundred feet. Beta particles are emitted by specific types of radioactive
nuclei. Potassium-40 is a type of radioactive nuclei that emits beta particles.
A beta particle is an electron, this has a mass much less than a proton or neutron and so was can use zero in most situations.
However in some calculations for mass defect of whole atoms and Q-value calculations in nuclear decays it can become
important, in these calculations. An electron has a mass of 511 keV/(c^2), and an AMU is 931 MeV/(c^2). So, dividing the
electron mass by the AMU mass, we get the mass of the beta in AMU: 511/931000 = 0.00055 AMU.
A beta particle, sometimes called beta ray, denoted by the lower-case Greek letter beta (β), is a high-energy, high-
speed electron or positron emitted in the radioactive decay of an atomic nucleus, such as a potassium-40 nucleus, in the
process of beta decay. Two forms of beta decay, β−
and β+
, respectively produce electrons and positrons.[1]
Beta particles are
a type of ionizing radiation.
Alpha radiation consists of helium nuclei and is readily stopped by a sheet of paper. Beta radiation, consisting
of electrons or positrons, is halted by an aluminum plate. Gamma radiation is dampened by lead.
β− decay (electron emission): Beta decay. A beta particle (in this case a negative electron) is shown being emitted by
a nucleus. An antineutrino (not shown) is always emitted along with an electron.In the decay of free neutron, a proton, an
electron (negative beta ray), and an electron antineutrino are produced.
An unstable atomic nucleus with an excess of neutrons may undergo β− decay, where a neutron is converted into a proton, an
electron, and an electron antineutrino (the antiparticle of the neutrino):
This process is mediated by the weak interaction. The neutron turns into a proton through the emission of a virtual W−
boson.
At the quark level, W−
emission turns a down quark into an up quark, turning a neutron (one up quark and two down quarks)
into a proton (two up quarks and one down quark). The virtual W−
boson then decays into an electron and an antineutrino.
Beta decay commonly occurs among the neutron-rich fission byproducts produced in nuclear reactors. Free neutrons also
decay via this process. Both of these processes contribute to the copious quantities of beta rays and electron antineutrinos
produced by fission-reactor fuel rods. These fuel rods also help control the rate of reaction inside of a reactor.
β+
decay (positron emission: Unstable atomic nuclei with an excess of protons may undergo β+
decay, also called positron
decay, where a proton is converted into a neutron, a positron, and an electron neutrino. Beta-plus decay can only happen
inside nuclei when the absolute value of the binding energy of the daughter nucleus is greater than that of the parent nucleus,
i.e., the daughter nucleus is a lower-energy state Of the three common types of radiation given off by radioactive
materials, alpha, beta and gamma, beta has the medium penetrating power and the medium ionising power. Although the beta
particles given off by different radioactive materials vary in energy, most beta particles can be stopped by a few millimeters
of aluminium. However, this does not mean that beta-emitting isotopes can be completely shielded by such thin shields: as
they decelerate in matter, beta electrons emit secondary gamma rays, which are more penetrating than betas per se. Shielding
composed of materials with lower atomic weight generates gammas with lower energy, making such shields somewhat more
effective per unit mass than ones made of high-Z materials such as lead.
Being composed of charged particles, beta radiation is more strongly ionizing than gamma radiation. When passing through
matter, a beta particle is decelerated by electromagnetic interactions and may give off bremsstrahlung x-rays.
3. International Journal of Engineering Research & Science (IJOER) ISSN: [2395-6992] [Vol-4, Issue-4, April- 2018]
Page | 90
In water, beta radiation from many nuclear fission products typically exceeds the speed of light in that material (which is
75% that of light in vacuum),[2]
and thus generates blue Cherenkov radiation when it passes through water. The intense beta
radiation from the fuel rods of pool-type reactors can thus be visualized through the transparent water that covers and shields
the reactor.
Detection and measurement: Beta radiation detected in an isopropanol cloud chamber (after insertion of an artificial source
strontium-90).
The ionizing or excitation effects of beta particles on matter are the fundamental processes by which radiometric detection
instruments detect and measure beta radiation. The ionization of gas is used in ion chambers and Geiger-Muller counters, and
the excitation of scintillators is used in scintillation counters. Beta particles can be used to treat health conditions such
as eye and bone cancer and are also used as tracers. Strontium-90 is the material most commonly used to produce beta
particles.
Beta particles are also used in quality control to test the thickness of an item, such as paper, coming through a system of
rollers. Some of the beta radiation is absorbed while passing through the product. If the product is made too thick or thin, a
correspondingly different amount of radiation will be absorbed. A computer program monitoring the quality of the
manufactured paper will then move the rollers to change the thickness of the final product.
Beta-plus (or positron) decay of a radioactive tracer isotope is the source of the positrons used in positron emission
tomography (PET scan).
History: Henri Becquerel, while experimenting with fluorescence, accidentally found out that uranium exposed
a photographic plate, wrapped with black paper, with some unknown radiation that could not be turned off like X-rays.
Ernest Rutherford continued these experiments and discovered two different kinds of radiation:
alpha particles that did not show up on the Becquerel plates because they were easily absorbed by the black wrapping
paper
beta particles which are 100 times more penetrating than alpha particles.
He published his results in 1899.[3]
In 1900, Becquerel measured the mass-to-charge ratio (m/e) for beta particles by the method of J. J. Thomson used to study
cathode rays and identify the electron. He found that e/m for a beta particle is the same as for Thomson’s electron, and
therefore suggested that the beta particle is in fact an electron.
Health: Beta particles are able to penetrate living matter to a certain extent and can change the molecular structure of
molecules exposed to this type of radiation
Positron- emission tomography (PET)[4]
is a nuclear medicine functional imaging technique that is used to observe metabolic
processes in the body as an aid to the diagnosis of disease. The system detects pairs of gamma rays emitted indirectly by
a positron-emitting radionuclide (tracer), which is introduced into the body on a biologically active molecule. Three-
dimensional images of tracer concentration within the body are then constructed by computer analysis. In modern PET-
CT scanners, three-dimensional imaging is often accomplished with the aid of a CT X-ray scan performed on the patient
during the same session, in the same machine.
If the biologically active molecule chosen for PET is fludeoxyglucose (FDG), an analogue of glucose, the concentrations of
tracer imaged will indicate tissue metabolic activity as it corresponds to the regional glucose uptake. Use of this tracer to
explore the possibility of cancer metastasis (i.e., spreading to other sites) is the most common type of PET scan in standard
medical care (90% of current scans). One of the disadvantages of PET scanners is their operating cost.[5]
Single-photon emission computed tomography (SPECT, or less commonly, SPET) is a nuclear medicine tomographic
imaging technique using gamma rays.[6]
It is very similar to conventional nuclear medicine using a gamma camera (that
is, scintigraphy).[7]
However, it is able to provide true 3D information. This information is typically presented as cross-
sectional slices through the patient, but can be freely reformatted or manipulated as required.
The technique requires delivery of a gamma-emitting radioisotope (a radionuclide) into the patient, normally through
injection into the bloodstream. On occasion, the radioisotope is a simple soluble dissolved ion, such as an isotope of
4. International Journal of Engineering Research & Science (IJOER) ISSN: [2395-6992] [Vol-4, Issue-4, April- 2018]
Page | 91
gallium(III). Most of the time, though, a marker radioisotope is attached to a specific ligand to create a radioligand, whose
properties bind it to certain types of tissues.
Up until 2010, 5 billion medical imaging studies had been conducted worldwide.[8]
Radiation exposure from medical imaging
in 2006 made up about 50% of total ionizing radiation exposure in the United States.[9]
As a discipline and in its widest sense, it is part of biological imaging and incorporates radiology which uses the imaging
technologies of X-ray radiography, magnetic resonance imaging, medical ultrasonography or ultrasound, endoscopy,
elastography, tactile imaging, thermography, medical photography and nuclear medicine functional imaging techniques
as positron emission tomography (PET) and Single-photon emission computed tomography(SPECT).
Creation of three-dimensional images: Volume rendering techniques have been developed to enable CT, MRI and ultrasound
scanning software to produce 3D images for the physician.[10]
Traditionally CT and MRI scans produced 2D static output on
film. To produce 3D images, many scans are made, then combined by computers to produce a 3D model, which can then be
manipulated by the physician.. With the ability to visualize important structures in great detail, 3D visualization methods are
a valuable resource for the diagnosis and surgical treatment of many pathologies. It was a key resource for the famous, but
ultimately unsuccessful attempt by Singaporean surgeons to separate Iranian twins Ladan and Laleh Bijani in 2003. The 3D
equipment was used previously for similar operations with great success.
It is clear that beta –rays(electrons) with photons from nuclear decay initiated by electron can produce far superior resolution
tomography, slices of much lesser thickness and by use of special camera to photograph electrons and gamma camera to
photograph photons. Two types of cameras like camera for electrons and gamma camera are planned.
IV. CONCLUSION
Proposed “electron tomography is a superior technology in comparison to existing CT, MRI, PET, SPECT and shall produce
photographs of highest resolution because abundant nuclei and thinnest slice possible. Two types of camera are combined to
take better photograph. The ionization of nucleus by electrons are controlled and limited, not to harm the cell.
COPYRIGHT TRANSFER
This article is original and I am the only author.
No financial support has been received from any source. I transfer my copyright to the editor to publish.
REFERENCES
[1] Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory (9 August 2000). "Beta Decay". Nuclear Wall Chart. United States Department of Energy.
Retrieved 17 January 2016.
[2] The macroscopic speed of light in water is 75% of the speed of light in a vacuum (called "c"). The beta particle is moving faster than
0.75 c, but not faster than c.
[3] E. Rutherford (8 May 2009) [Paper published by Rutherford in 1899]. "Uranium radiation and the electrical conduction produced by
it". Philosophical Magazine. 47 (284): 109–163. doi:10.1080/14786449908621245
[4] Bailey, D.L; D.W. Townsend; P.E. Valk; M.N. Maisey (2005). Positron-Emission Tomography: Basic Sciences. Secaucus, NJ:
Springer-Verlag. ISBN 1-85233-798-2.
[5] Carlson, Neil (January 22, 2012). Physiology of Behavior. Methods and Strategies of Research. 11th edition. Pearson.
p. 151. ISBN 0205239390.
[6] SPECT at the US National Library of Medicine Medical Subject Headings(MeSH)
[7] Scuffham J W (2012). "A CdTe detector for hyperspectral SPECT imaging". Journal of Instrumentation. IOP Journal of
Instrumentation. 7: P08027. doi:10.1088/1748-0221/7/08/P08027.
[8] Roobottom CA, Mitchell G, Morgan-Hughes G; Mitchell; Morgan-Hughes (November 2010). "Radiation-reduction strategies in
cardiac computed tomographic angiography". Clin Radiol. 65 (11): 859–67. doi:10.1016/j.crad.2010.04.021. PMID 20933639.
[9] "Medical Radiation Exposure Of The U.S. Population Greatly Increased Since The Early 1980s"
[10] Udupa, J.K. and Herman, G. T., 3D Imaging in Medicine, 2nd Edition, CRC Press, 2000.