Editing booklet gcse a level film studies revision homework distance lerning remote learning for sale

EDITING
NAME_____________________________________________
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SECTION 1: Introduction and history
YOUR SUMMARY OF THIS SECTION:

SECTION 2: Pace

SECTION 3: Style: transitions and cuts

SECTION 4: Visual effects

SECTION 5: Assessment
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SECTION 1: INTRODUCTION AND HISTORY
.
INTRODUCTION: HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT
There is an argument that there are two techniques that really set film out as an art form which
was different to any other and as being so fundamental to the medium that they cannot be
replicated in any other format. We’ll come back to these shortly.
As we have seen earlier in the year, the earliest filmmakers simply pointed
a camera at a subject and held the shot until the film ran out or until they
got bored. The Lumiere Brothers for example, depicted scenes from
everyday life in France and whilst these short films are an interesting
historical document and for a contemporary audience these were also an
interesting curio, but they were incredibly limited in scope. Auguste Lumiere
for example, was quite pessimistic about the artform he had helped to
create and said that “cinema was an invention without a future”. Presumably his belief was that when
people had seen the moving images that he and others could produce, why would they continue to seek
out films of things that they could see themselves, simply be walking around and looking at people? In
an indirect response to this, filmmaker Edwin S Porter who, in LIFE OF AN AMERICAN FIREMAN, took
two separate shots or scenes, that of someone trapped in a burning
building and fireman rushing to the scene, and cut them together to
show that time was passing at the same time for both scenes. This seems
like the most basic of principles now, but in 1903 this was revolutionary
and allowed the filmmaker to manipulate the audience’s emotional
reaction: Porter created suspense through the juxtaposition of the two
scenes and the audience are naturally inclined to want the firefighters to
reach the stranded people as quickly as possible.
In these earliest of days, editing developed, evolved and transformed cinema in a matter of just a few
years. One such evolution was the jump cut. With the film almost literally jumping from one shot to
another, the focus for the audience changes but within the same scene. This then was also combined with
our second key technique, the close-up. Of course, the close-up is a shot size and not an editing
technique, but the use of the close-up directly after a wide shot, achieved via a jump cut, allowed
George Albert Smith, one of the first filmmakers to do this, to show the same image in a new, larger,
more detailed manner. The change from one shot to another was created through editing, something that
other artforms cannot simply manage, and this example from THE LITTLE DOCTOR AND THE SICK
KITTEN, not only changed how audiences saw this film, but changed how audiences would see films
forever more.
How then, were these techniques literally achieved? Editing is the art and craft of cutting and assembling
a film. This work is done by an editor who helps to both complete the director's vision of the movie but
sometimes also offer guidance and advice on how a film could benefit from a change that may occur
during the editing process. As a result, an editor has a range of creative choices that they can make and
these will be a combination of what they think is best for the film and what the director (and producers)
want for the finished project. Editing is mostly done during post-production and in modern filmmaking,
can involve the manipulation of physical strips of celluloid film, digital files, or both. This manipulation
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can speed up or slow down time, the timing of a cut can make people laugh or jump, and the length of
time that a shot is on screen can shape our response.
Some Hollywood films with a large budget may shoot as much as 200 hours of
film and one task for the editor is to somehow work through all of this footage
and select the shots that will make up roughly 2 hours of run time. Even then,
with each individual frame making up 1/24ths of a second, the film will be
thousands of shots long and simply cutting from one shot to another wouldn’t
work. In fact, a large aspect of editing is manipulating the shots to create a
feeling, a tempo or a rhythm to a film. In most films, this isn’t literally creating a
noticeable rhythm relating to a song or music, rather manipulating the film to ensure that it flows, that it
never feels as though it’s stumbling or is artificial in any way. This can be done through hundreds of
different techniques or transitions, but whether the technique is a jump cut, a flashback, creating parallel
action or using a match-cut, the key for 99% of films is to use continuity editing to ensure that the film is
fluid and almost forcing the audience to pay attention to something specific, but often without making this
focus seem overtly clear. Because it’s often difficult to spot or because it’s done so well, editing is often
referred to as the invisible art - the ‘better’ the editing, the more invisible it is.
The somewhat clandestine nature of editing is also seen in the INVISIBLE nature of editors, who
generally aren’t as well-known as Directors, actors or producers, and often work alone or in small
groups and do their work well away from the eyes of audiences. These people are generally therefore
‘cutting’ the film down and cutting from one scene or shot to another. In the days of celluloid film, this
process literally involved cutting the film and then gluing or attaching to the next frame so that when
played back through a projector, the film depicted differing shots or scenes next to each other.
It was this process that Russian filmmakers began really exploring in the 1920s, and the experiments of
Kuleshov and Eisenstein with juxtaposition and montage respectively. By placing shots of a person next
to a shot of something, Kuleshov realised that he could manipulate the audience into thinking and feeling
specific reactions. For example, placing a shot of a man next to a bowl of soup made the audience feel
that the man was hungry, and this juxtaposition has been used ever since to connect two separate shots
in a way to make the audience believe that there is not only a connection between the two but also some
make that connection make the audience think and feel something specific. Eisenstein developed this
idea further in his work on montage and he sought to place a variety of shots together for various
reasons, but always doing so in a way which made sense to the audience, even if Eisentstein did things
that humans cannot do, like speed up time by removing parts of a scene and cutting to different shot
sizes during a continuous scene. A typical understanding of montage is that this is the process of cutting
footage in order to collapse several hours into a few short minutes of footage. However, Eisenstein’s
idea around montage were much more complex and whilst we won’t be looking at them here, are
important to recognise given their influence over filmmaking and editing ever since, especially in his
assertion that the editing of shots rather than the content of the shot alone constitutes the force of a film.
The influence of the likes of Kuleshov, Eisenstein with BATTLESHIP POTEMPKIN, and Vertov through his
landmark film MAN WITH A MOVIE CAMERA, essentially created modern editing as we know, and
almost every editing technique or transition featured in these films are used widely today. Below we can
see how an excerpt, the famous ‘Odessa Steps’ sequence from BATTLESHIP POTEMPKIN (for which I’ve
omitted some shots to focus on just one character) tells a story through the juxtaposition of shots rather
than through dialogue, a narrator or on-screen text.
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TASK: Look carefully at the shots below. Summarise below what do you think is happening in this section
here, focusing on shots 1 and 2 to provide the scenario and shot 3 showing the instant reaction? HINT:
you may need to look closely to shots 4, 5 & 6 closely to work out what is being shown.
TASK 2:
TASK 2: For each shot, explain what is happening and even better, refer to the shot size and/or camera
angle for each.
CONTINUITY EDITING
Editing then, essentially seeks to present a series of differing images, shots, and moments into a
cohesive scene, often for the purpose of telling a very specific story or creating a specific
reaction. The process of doing so, is called continuity editing. By combining different
components from generally different shots, whole sequences or scenes can be created and
therefore creating the sense that the scene is continuous, ‘natural’ or has a distinct narrative to follow.
This can be described as temporal continuity as the process allows the audience to appreciate that,
despite the differing shots or images used, the entire sequence is designed to create one cohesive flow of
time. Achieving continuity editing in a way that makes sense can be done in numerous ways, but for now
we’ll consider just three: shot-reverse shot, ellipsis and match on action.
ELLIPSIS
The most direct and obvious way to maintain that temporal continuity is to shoot the entire duration of a
story. This of course, is simply not practical, especially when a story may cover a period of days or even
years! The easiest way to ‘slim down’ a long period of time is to use ellipsis. Ellipsis is a break in the time
that is implied in the film and thereby only showing some moments on screen. For example, a journey of
a young girl to school from her home will not show every step she takes, but might show her leaving
home, waiting for a bus, boarding the bus, sitting in a seat, leaving a bus and walking through the
school gates. This shortens the time on screen of the journey, but still maintains key moments from the
journey as part of the film and as it was edited into order, therefore ensuring temporal continuity.
Removing too much from the journey or omitting key sections may mean that the sequence does not
make sense to the audience so a balance needs to be struck between removing enough of a larger
sequence so that it makes sense, alongside removing enough of the shot footage to make the final
sequence short enough for the good of the film.
1 2 3
4 5 6
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TASK: Draw a journey in which a character leaves once place and arrives at another using ellipsis to
highlight at least 4 key parts of their journey.
MATCH ON ACTION
As previously mentioned, a core aspect of achieving successful continuing editing is the process of match
on action. The use of multiple cameras and multiple takes when filming allows the editor to use a take
from one angle, shot size or movement and then seamlessly switch to another angle, shot size or camera
movement whilst the scene is ongoing. By selecting and connected at exactly the right frames, temporal
continuity can be preserved because, despite the unnatural nature of the cut, the audience is not likely to
notice the change in perspective because it appears that the continuity has been achieved.
TASK: Draw a scene where one person walks from outside through a door and into a room using match
on action for each. TIP: ensure that the scene looks like it is continuing throughout but each shot should
look slightly different in shot size, angle or camera movement.
SHOT-REVERSE SHOT
Shot-reverse shot is an example of classical Hollywood editing where one character is shown looking
at another character (who is often off-screen), and then the other character is shown looking back
at the first character. For this reason it’s most often employed as a way to show scenes of
dialogue, with two characters ‘looking’ at each other even if not on screen at the same time.
Viewers will see characters who are shown facing in opposite directions, so the viewer automatically
assumes that they are looking at each other. As these shots are placed directly next of each other, this is
a form of continuity editing which seeks to make the transitions between shots as ‘seamless’ as possible
and the audience understands that this continuous action develops linearly, chronologically, and
logically.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5UE3jz_O_EM
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The shot-reverse shot also usually features another example of a continuity editing technique called the
eyeline match. This technique is based on the idea that an audience will focus on what the character on
screen is seeing or looking at. An eyeline match then, begins with a character looking at someone or
something off-screen, followed by a cut to another shot of a person or object: for example, a shot
showing a man looking off-screen is followed by a shot of a television.
TASK: Draw three shots that use shot reverse shot. However, this time ensure that the shot size is quite
large so that the eyes can be seen clearly. Make sure that the eyes are looking in the direction that the
person is sat or stood, even though the characters are not in the same shot.
Continuity editing then is about making the images on screen ‘flow’, seemingly in a ‘natural’ manner. If
certain techniques are used well, continuity editing can fill the gaps that occur in front of us, instead
focusing on what we can see and hear and how these make sense to us. Because editing can manipulate
the images we see, this also means that specific relationships can be created, developed, and
maintained through their inclusion and positioning within a sequence.
CONTINUITY EDITING AND CHARACTERS-THE KULESHOV EFFECT
As we have learned, edited footage can create a mental phenomenon: even if we do not
see everything that occurs, viewers derive more meaning from the interaction of two
sequential shots than from a single shot in isolation. As a result, two shots next to each
other in the same sequence can create a very specific response. This is seen most famously in
the work of Russian filmmaker, Lev Kuleshov, who edited a short film in which a shot of the
expressionless face of an actor which was followed by another shot such as a bowl of soup, a
girl in a coffin and a woman on a bed. The film was shown to an audience who believed that
the expression on the actor’s face was different each time he appeared, depending on whether
he was "looking at" the bowl of soup, the girl in the coffin, or the woman on the bed. The
audience were apparently unaware that the actor’s facial expression was actually the same
each time, but still felt that he depicted various
feelings, namely hunger, grief, or desire. Kuleshov
used the experiment to indicate how effective
editing can be as the implication was that viewers
brought their own emotional reactions to the
sequence of images and then attributed those
reactions to the actor. Kuleshov believed this, along
with montage, had to be the basis of film as being
unique as a form of art and is something that has
been studied by film students and psychologists
ever since. Despite there being some doubt as to
the accuracy and validity of the claims about the
Kuleshov Effect, it is still useful to explore given how
it may explain how shot-reverse shot and continuity editing may work. The Kuleshov Effect may
also allow us to appreciate how it is that audiences are manipulated to think and feel about
characters and relationships.
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The Kuleshov effect is used in this scene to intimate to audiences how they should think and feel in
combination with how Catwoman thinks and feels.
TASK: Identify the shot sizes and/or camera angles in the shots of Catwoman. What are they, how do
they make the audience feel and why do you think that they change slightly each time?
Shot 1: Shot 2:
Shot 3: Shot 4:
Shot 5: Shot 6:
TASK 2: Use the boxes below to draw a short scene where someone watches an event. Aim to use a
very blank looking expression for the person watching and instead draw the event in a way that
suggests to audience how the viewer would be feeling.
TASK 3: Thinking about what we’ve learned about performance and mise-en-scene, can you think why
the idea of the Kuleshov effect might not be entirely accurate?
1 2
3 4
5 6
In these shots on the left, we can
see how the Kuleshov Effect
suggests an emotion for Catwoman
after each shot of Batman being
beaten. We can see how her eyeline
matches the location of Bane and
Batman so that it’s clear that she is
looking directly at them, and as we
see her face in the next frame, we
assume that her reaction is of what
she is looking at. She has no
dialogue here and her facial
expression is quite neutral, not
revealing too much explicitly, but to
an audience it’s clear how she likely
feels due in a large part to the
juxtaposition of the images.
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USING EDITING TO CREATE RELATIONSHIPS
Given that we have seen how editing so often features characters in different shots, it may be a
surprise to consider just how powerful editing is in creating relationships and suggesting
feelings and emotions between characters. A large aspect of this is how the cinematography
uses shot size etc to present a character and then the use of performance from mise-en-scene to really
help sell the idea of a feeling. To then create an actual relationship or suggest one, the juxtaposition of
one shot next to another can literally link characters and place them next to one another. A core idea is
to also consider eyelines to see where people are looking (and this is an important job for the director
and crew involved in continuity) but to also see how people react if they are shown directly after
someone or something.
MINI-ASSESSMENT: Below are a series of images of shots and reactions. Pay close attention to
the editing here as well as the use of mise-en-scene and cinematography in order to explore
and explain how the characters think and feel.
Here we see how these three shots are used to create the emotions of our character. Note how the happy facial expression is mirrored in the
open body language and that this can be seen because the medium close-up allows the viewers to see the character clearly. The eyeline is
clear here too, showing that she is looking “off screen” and not directly in front of her so must be talking to someone to the side of the shot
we will see next. The slight lean forward suggests that she is especially interested or is perhaps having to speak up for some reason. In the
second shot we see where she was looking: at a mysterious character in the back of the frame off to one side of the character in the centre
of the shot. This technically makes our character shot in an extreme long shot and now explains why the woman was leaning forward-so
that she can see the character better and be heard by him. The final shot then seemingly moves to his POV as we now see the armchair
from shot 2 in the way and the woman from shot 1 is further away now in a long/extreme long shot. Despite this, we can still see her
reaction: joy, excitement and recognition that the person she saw in shot 2 is really ‘famous’.
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GLOSSARY
editing
editor
montage
transition
juxtaposition
continuity editing
eye-line match
ellipsis
match-on action
Kuleshov effect
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SECTION 2: PACE
So far, we’ve looked at how one shot or frame is replaced by another and how this suggests
or creates specific reactions. These reactions can be further enhanced by use the use of
pace.
When referring to pace of editing we’re exploring how long the images are on screen for. As we
discovered in Unit 1 on film history, films are generally (though not exclusively) shot in 24 frames per
second (or FPS). This means that for every second of film we watch, there needs to be 24 individual
frames (essentially 24 individual photos) that have been shot and shown. As we have seen in section 1,
these frames do not need to run in the order they were shot and our brains can even fill in temporal
‘blanks’ for these images to make sense.
Pace then is managed in two main ways: by the using more or less frames and by editing how many of
these frames are displayed on screen. With films projected and generally exhibited at a speed of 24fps,
the more frames that are shown in one second, the longer that the shot is on screen. From this, the longer
that a shot is on screen, the slower the pace of the scene and the film. This then, is how slow-motion
footage is created-more frames are shot and then because there are more of them to watch, it takes
longer to play back and therefore appears more slowly. The more frames you shoot then, the slower the
footage when played back at 24fps. (For reference, mobile phones and DSLRs may shoot slow motion at
around 260fps and specialised equipment may shoot as many as 10,000fps or even more.) Over the
years and with the advent of emerging technologies, cameras can film in a variety of frame speeds, and
most modern digital cameras can shoot a variety of speeds including 24, 30 and 60fps. 60fps is also an
especially interesting as it’s becoming an increasingly popular way to shoot amateur footage for projects
online as the sheer number of frames results in a very smooth image when played back at the regular
speed of 24fps. In fact, it’s so smooth that some people find the resulting footage to be ‘unreal’ given
that we are almost trained to see films and video in 24fps and 60fps is so clear and devoid of blurring
that the clarity seems unnatural to audiences.
Of course, the opposite is true: the fewer the frames on
screen the quicker the pace of the imagery. Whilst this is
difficult to replicate using static rather than moving
images, many examples can be found online on
YouTube, the best of which offer examples of how the
same footage looks and feels different when recorded in
differing frame rates.
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Whilst it seems obvious to point out, not every shot on screen will last for 24 frames or 1 second.
Some shots may whizz by in just a few frames perhaps to shock, scare or make the audience
question what they’ve seen. Many shots will be of a are fairly ‘standard’ length-the average
Hollywood film today has an average shot length (or ASL) of around 2 and half seconds.
This feels fairly natural-try looking at any object or person and 3 seconds feels comfortable-it doesn’t feel
too brief to take in details of what you’re looking at and crucially it doesn’t feel like it’s especially
‘boring’ by being too long. As is widely recognised though, the ASL in Hollywood has dramatically
shortened. During the peak attendance for cinemas during the golden age of Hollywood (generally
speaking, the 30s), ASL was around 12 seconds, almost 4 times longer.
As an exercise, try to look at something for 12 seconds without looking away-does this feel too long or is
it ok? How does it make you feel? Would looking at somethings for 12 seconds feel more comfortable
than others?
Have a go with these three images below; try looking at each one for 12 seconds without looking away
and pay attention to how you feel, what you pay attention to and how you feel looking at each one
specifically.
TASK: Why do YOU think the ASL has deceased in the last 90 years? What reasons can you think of?
Think back to our unit on film history and consider what has changed since the 1930s and how that
might have an influence on films. What other reasons or aspects of context might have contributed to film
studios and editors reducing the ASL over the last 90 years?
The second way that pace is managed then is simply by editing a sequence and cutting it to shorten
in or by letting it run, making it longer. As we saw in Section 1, the word cut used to literally mean
cutting the film and then attaching the reel to the next frame. Whilst digital, linear editing
software now means that this doesn’t need to happen literally with actual celluloid, the process is
similar and means cutting or stopping one sequence, moment or shot. By cutting, the image on screen
will literally change from one to another and how frequently it does this dictates the pace of the scene. If
a film changes shots often, it means that it has a fast pace, but if a film tends to stay on the same shot for
a longer period of time without cutting, it means the pace is slower. Generally then we can refer to pace
in terms of simply fast or slow. There is the middle ground of ‘normal’ speed but this is especially difficult
to quantify as there is no rule about what makes something technically ‘fast’ or ‘slow’ and whilst it will
seem obvious, pace is generally judged by the feeling that it evokes. No one can count the FPS so an
audience will simply feel that a shot or scene is slow or fast in pace.
So how do we explore pace? Well our first role as a film audience is to feel, to understand and
appreciate what the scene is trying to tell us or make us feel. From this we then identify if the pace is fast
or slow and then we consider why it’s fast or slow-what was the intention of the filmmakers in making
their decision about pace? It’s important to remember that the vast majority of films will have a variety of
paces within one film and will vary depending on the nature of the scene and what the film is trying to
make the audience think and feel.
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A quicker pace is generally used for action scenes or moments of intensity in terms of sheer amount of
things happening. A quick pace here may be used as there is simply a lot that people need to see and a
lot that people need to try watch to appreciate what is happening. A quicker pace can also suggest to
the audience a sense of frenzy or excitement-consider when we run we do not focus on one thing that
we run past, things move quickly from our eyeline and in the same way, fast paced films try to replicate
that feeling. This is also why we see fast paced chase scenes in films and the most likely example of a
fast-paced scene.
A slower pace is generally used for moments of important or intense dialogue or to build tension. The
slow pace allows the audience to focus on what they can see and what they can hear without having to
watch many things and many quick changes. The slow pace can create tension as the slower pace
allows the audience to think more, to look around a screen more and to spend time focusing on
something specific, rather than trying to take in everything that is happening occurs during a fast-paced
scene.
TASK: Watch the two clips featuring the images above.
Why does the pace suit the nature of each scene?
What is the purpose of each scene and how does each make us feel and
Overall, why does the pace of each suit the scenes?
In these first images on the left from the
James Bond film QUANTUM OF SOLACE, we
see 13 different shots in 10 seconds! This
makes the ASL less than 1 and makes for a
frenetic pace that is genuinely quite difficult
to follow: rapid cuts after rapid cuts make for
a scene that is quite difficult to follow. Watch
below and answer the questions at the bottom
of the page. https://youtu.be/89aTFgtsXX0
In contrast, another James Bond film SKYFALL
uses an incredibly slow pace with just 1 shot
and NO cuts in 1 minute 30 seconds of film.
The two shots we see are technically different
as the actor moves into a position much closer
to the camera and the camera tilts upwards,
but the editing doesn’t cut at all during this
sequence. This scene is features quite intense
dialogue and is our introduction to the villain
and therefore his personality.
https://youtu.be/g9d3DfDWsEE
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MINI-ASSESSMENT:
Watch the following scene from CITY OF GOD, identify pace, describe how that pace was achieved and
then why you think that pace was chosen for that moment.
https://youtu.be/QujbbyEUXjo
Watch the following scene from NO COUNTRY FOR OLD MEN, identify pace, describe how that pace
was achieved and then why you think that pace was chosen for that moment.
https://youtu.be/OLCL6OYbSTw
Now watch these scenes from QUANTUM OF SOLACE (https://youtu.be/yfYC_CBNtiM) and this scene
from 2001: A SPACE ODYSSEY (https://youtu.be/QFSE4dUJYM8). As before, identify pace, describe
how that pace was achieved and then why you think that pace was chosen for that moment, but this time
GO FURTHER and consider how the pace reflects not just what is happening but also allows the viewer
to feel as though they are in that scene at that time. Consider all these ideas to answer the following
question:
How does the pace reflect the movement that the characters are making?
GLOSSARY
pace
frame
tension
FPS
ASL
sequence
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SECTION 3: STYLE: TRANSITIONS AND CUTS
So far, we have explored why the editing in a film may place two mages next to each other and
why the filmmakers cut at distinct moments. However, so far we haven’t considered how films
may cut from one frame to another. Once again, the idea of a cut refers to the time when
editors (who were often women) would literally cut the reel of film after a specific frame and
then then continue the film with the very next frame literally attached together, creating a ‘cut’ from one
scene, moment or shot to another. However, there are other techniques, methods, and possibilities in
moving from one frame to the next and these are known as transitions. Whilst an editor will be making
decisions about what shot to use and what exact frame to cut or begin with, they also need to consider
pace and the style of the editing overall. An important aspect of editing style beyond
pace are the transitions used and these can be used much like punctuation in writing-to
help convey tone, mood, time, or narrative.
One thing that we’ve not yet considered when thinking about why to cut, is the idea of
rhythm. As with many aspects of film language, editing borrows some terms from
literature, with one example being caesura. This refers to a rhythmical pause and
break in a line of verse and in poetry, a caesura is a pause that occurs within a line,
with this pause usually marked by punctuation such as a full stop, comma, ellipsis, or
dash. In editing, a caesura can be conveyed using a cut, and just like placing a comma in a line
correctly, a correctly-timed and placed cut will feel very different to a cut or a comma placed at random.
Editors and Directors will generally then seek to find places to cut so that it feels rhythmically ‘right’-not
too early or too late, creating pace that isn’t too fast or too slow. However, the filmmakers may make
the opposite decision, if they want a film with a unique editing style: it’s not uncommon to watch a film
that may be designed to make an audience feel confused, awkward or just slightly off-kilter with cuts that
don’t feel natural, that feel somehow difficult to watch.
These styles of editing can be made even more specific and arguably powerful by introducing music into
the considerations of editing. Whilst the power of the images are important, the use of music and sound
in conjunction with the images can be a much more evocative package. Our first key exploration of
editing style then, is how sound is used in an asynchronous manner; asynchronous sound is when the
sound isn’t synchronized with the video either in tone, mood or style or
not matching the pace, or style of the editing. This may be done to lead
the audience in to a new shot, to emphasise something or draw
attention to someone or something, especially if something is not as
expected as seen in this example from A CLOCKWORK ORANGE:
https://youtu.be/HtRGeyznv7k
The opposite of this is the use of synchronous sound, which sees the music used match the tone, style or
cuts in a scene. If the cuts are set to match the beat or rhythm of the soundtrack very tightly, this may be
suitable for some productions but not many, as matching the cut to occur with the beat of a song is
traditionally what a music video will do. Films by their nature tend not to have obviously synchronous
sound as this is the technique perhaps most readily seen in music videos and therefore, “cutting to the
beat” too tightly can result in a film or sequence which feel especially artificial and drawing the attention
of the artificiality of the situation.
These examples all presume that the music is non-diegetic (we’ll cover this in the next unit of
work), but the use of sound and specifically music, is something which generally will be added
during post-production when the editing process is taking place. As a result, sound and
editing often work closely in tandem and can be excellent techniques in helping to achieve a
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specific style. For now, let’s focus exclusively on editing techniques involving specific transitions and
cuts. Editing is a complex area which, because of its unique nature in the work of art, is something which
can be especially exciting because it’s an area of film which manages to combine the traditions
established at the beginning of the development of film with new ideas and techniques all the time. For
the sake of clarity, we’ll be focusing on 8 main transitions and then look at a couple of more advanced
and innovative transitions and cuts.
JUMP CUT
As we have already learned, a jump cut is where the action seems to ‘jump’ from one scene or moment
to another by simply changing from one frame to another, different subject. This is also known as a
straight cut meaning that there is no transition, that’s to say that we see no techniques or effects on
screen. These can also be referred to as a straight cut if the action just cuts from one thing (such as a
new camera angle, shot size or moment in the narrative) another in the same scene, but can be called a
jump cut if it jumps from one scene to another, different one.
A jump cut is key in
cross-cutting, the
process of having
one story or scene
unfolding but then
jumping to another
scene. This does
not mean that the action in the first scene has ‘finished’-indeed it continues as we now watch another
scene or perspective that takes place at the same time as the first scene. By then jumping between the
two scenes we see how the two scenes are different even when they take place during the same time
period. Jump cuts work because the audience does not need to see every moment of a scene and
jumping (and therefore missing parts of a scene) to a later part of the scene or a different scene that
takes place during the same time-period, still makes sense because we’re able to make meaning without
being told what’s happening between the gaps.
DRAMACTIC EFFCT? Because we do not need to see everything that happens during a scene for it t
make sense, jump cuts are great for ellipsis and creating or generally managing pace. Cross-cutting is a
great way to increase tension or to show differences between people and situations. A good example of
these is in the use of montage which show a variety of short sections from various moments in time,
usually to time passing or progress being made. They are often set to music and help to show people
training so are especially useful in showing the passing of time and/or a change that happens over time.
CONSIDER: How might a scene feel if the ‘jumps’ between shots are too long or omit too much
narrative? How can a jump cut be used to manipulate audience reaction? Why are they used so much?
EXAMPLE OF CROSS CUTTING: https://youtu.be/Sjn3ELLcy2U
TASK: CAN YOU THINK OF/FIND EXAMPLES OF FILMS AND SCENES THAT USE THIS TRANSITION?
DRAW AN EXAMPLE USING THE BOXES BELOW:
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MATCH-ON ACTION
Match-on action is a cut that connects two different views of the same action at the same moment within
the movement. By carefully matching the movement across the two shots, filmmakers make it seem that
the motion continues uninterrupted. For match-on action to be especially convincing the action should
begin in the first shot and end in the second shot with a classic example being that of a person who
enters a door in one shot but then jumps to a new angle and we see them come through the door in one
seamless movement. A more ambitious film may not have the movement end in the second shot and
indeed may then begin a new movement. We often see these in actions films, especially ones which try
to make the protagonists look especially skilled.
DRAMACTIC EFFCT? The use of match-on action not only helps to make a scene and the action within
that scene much more fluid, but also makes a scene more interesting to watch. It allows for new
perspectives which doesn’t allow an audience to potentially ‘get bored’ of a shot as it changes
frequently. This also allows for some good examples of audiences being able to see cause and effect: a
character does something and then we see the reaction of this in the very next shot.
CONSIDER: Match-on action is used in almost every single film nowadays. How might a film feel if it
didn’t use match-on action?
EXAMPLE: https://youtu.be/fuCe9uaRx_0
FADE OUT
A fade out is a visual transition: the audience can see the images literally change on screen when the
picture is gradually replaced by black screen or any other solid colour. Traditionally, fade outs have
been used to conclude movies but they can be used for a variety of other reasons. Fades though, are
generally used sparingly because they have such close connotations with the end of a major story
segment or because they have traditionally depicted a character falling asleep or dying. Fades are also
utilised to give an audience time to catch their breath after an intense sequence.
DRAMACTIC EFFECT?
A fade to black is the closest example of the literal ‘change of scene’ that humans experience when they
close their eyes, fall asleep or pass out-the word we see almost seems to face to black. For this reason,
the use of a fade, especially a fade to black, is especially powerful as it replicates a feeling that we
recognise and can therefore understand what it signifies.
CONSIDER: What might a fade to white suggest and indicate? If a fade to black suggests a person is
asleep, where might a person potentially not see total blackness, but total whiteness?
EXAMPLE: https://youtu.be/Ywiz8Q88Wrk
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DISSOLVE
Dissolves happen when one shot gradually replaces by the next. As one shot disappears, the next shot
appears slowly and the two are both seen on screen as the new shot becomes the dominant image. For
a few seconds then, they seem to overlap and both are visible. Dissolves are often used to signify the
passage of time and it’s also common to see clocks dissolve from one shot of time to a shot of the same
clock with a slightly later time on, again to show the passing of time. These are good examples of
dissolves happening within the same scene, but dissolves can link one scene or location with another,
another, creating or highlighting a connection between the two.
DRAMATIC EFFECT? Using a dissolve is a very purposeful choice because it’s a dynamic transition and is
obvious in its use. One way in which it has an effect is to make clear that the scenes are changing as
both are visible for a while, something that isn’t the case in all transitions, and as a result audiences are
almost directly being told to pay attention as to why we can still see both images. Often, the nature of
the dissolve itself is important-it’s as if the audience needs to consider other things which dissolve and
what the nature of something dissolving means: that one thing takes over or becomes the other.
CONSIDER: For dissolves then, consider why one shot may be disappearing and why we see this.
EXAMPLE: https://youtu.be/Bd3-HakNEGM
CUT AWAY
As the name implies, in the basic cutaway, the film focuses on one aspect of the narrative and then
focuses on another before returning to the first aspect. This is shown by almost having the film ‘moving’
from the action to something else, and then coming back to the action. Cutaways can be used to edit out
boring shots or add action to a sequence by changing the pace of the footage that can be incorporated
when the camera cuts away. However, a cutaway is most used to show someone looking at something
and then returning to their original point, perhaps so that the audience can see something different or to
help align us to the character-we see what they see.
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DRAMATIC EFFECT? One way to consider the use of cutaway is to imagine the camera and the editing
like a person looking at one thing, then looking away at something else, and then back at the thing they
were looking at in the first place. For example, imagine looking at something, hearing something that
gets your attention called so you look elsewhere but you then return to looking at the first thing you paid
attention to. In editing, this is shown as 3 separate shots rather than relying on camera movements
(though those can be used too), but eyelines are key so that the audience can appreciate that the
character is looking at something else.
CONSIDER: What is the important need for a cut away in creating a relationship between the audience
and the character ‘looking away’? Why might a film need to cut away in some instances?
EXAMPLE: https://youtu.be/WrIwfImLXOA
WIPE
Wipes are a dynamic transition. This means that we literally see the on screen doing something that
effects and changes the image that we see on screen. We see wipes happen when one shot literally
pushes or wipes over, another shot though they have no set way of moving so come in an almost infinite
number of shapes and movements. George Lucas deliberately used them throughout the STAR
WARS series to show that the film was moving from one story or location to another, and the wipes often
followed the direction of the action on screen. For example, characters moving from left to right might
have a wipe also move from left to right to emphasise the movement on screen. Whilst wipes tend to
happen quickly, they are a useful way of directing the audience towards a specific part of the screen or
helping them to see where the action goes from and then to. Wipes can also be ‘invisible’, using walls or
screens within the world to wipe across the screen and to create a transition or to hide something.
DRAMATIC EFFECT: The dramatic effect of a wipe will depend on what type of wipe is it. A natural
wipe is similar to an invisible cut: it aims to seamlessly transition from one shot to the next to the extent
that the audience might not even notice. An unnatural wipe (traditionally called an iris wipe) is the
opposite and helps to create that link between the two scenes for whatever reason that may be and can
even be emphasised by the shape of the wipe itself-for example a heart shaped wipe could be used to
suggest love for the character who is ‘wiped’.
CONSIDER: How might a film look and feel is too many wipes are used? Why might a film not choose to
use any wipes? How do you think wipes are supposed to ‘feel’ to the audience?
EXAMPLE: https://youtu.be/BF3g_kaUnCA
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TASK: DRAW AN EXAMPLE USING THE BOXES BELOW:
GRAPHIC MATCH
This cut helps to show two otherwise disconnected scenes by establishing a relationship between them.
This is done by changing from one shot to another by choosing a compositional elements (shape, colour,
size, etc.) and then matching this to a similar shape in the beginning frame of the next shot. This isn’t
used often and when it’s done well it’s oddly both almost seamless but also very striking.
DRAMATIC EFFECT: Graphics matches are interesting because they’re not strictly dynamic-we don’t see
one shape replace another, rather the edit will jump between one frame and another. However,
because the shapes in the two frames ‘match’, this is another example of a transition creating and
suggesting a direct link between two different objects or people.
CONSIDER: The most famous example of a graphic match is perhaps the use in 2001: A SPACE
ODYSEY, where we see a bone thrown by a money suddenly change into a space station. What does
this graphic match do in the film? What does it tell the audience? What might have changed?
EXAMPLE: https://youtu.be/L2ixDyItm04
SMASH CUT
In the same way that a ‘smash’ is an almost instant and quite shocking thing, a smash cut takes place
quickly and often in a way that is shocking as it tends to occur in a way that feels as though it has
interrupted something rather than at the end of something as many edits will. This can be used as a
“jump scare”, to disorientate the audience in some form by rapidly moving from one scene to another, to
interrupt a moment of action or to add a comedic reveal or change of pace in an instant. A smash cut is
essentially a jump cut, but one that seems to revel in making the cut as jarring as possible-the smash cut
has no respect for the end of a scene or moment and in some instances, such as a smash cut from a
dream sequence back to ‘being awake’. As a result, the smash cut helps to emphasise the difference
between the two scenes and ensures that there is no gentle transition between the two as it seeks to
evoke the sudden, jarring feeling that we experience is waking from a dream with no warning.
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DRAMATIC EFFECT: Given that smash cuts are named after the idea of something “smashing”, we can
assume that the purpose is generally to grab the attention of the audience or to interrupt something
abruptly. Either way, the audience should be instantly draw to the attention of the cut and then
considering why it is that the cut has taken place, especially as they are designed to not simply and
subtly link two scenes like many other transitions but rather draw attention to the differences between the
two scenes.
CONSIDER: Why might a smash cut not always be appropriate for horror films? Why do smash cuts
work for comedies-what connections or similarities do they have to the real world that may be funny?
EXAMPLE: https://youtu.be/1RkWUo0zg88
EDITING USING SOUND
Our exploration of editing so far has focused on the visual connection or change from one
visual frame to another. However, sound is also something that can be utilised to help edit
scenes together and to create connections. Typically, these are called ‘sound bridges’ because
on a literal level these sounds bridge one frame or scene to another. The most frequently used
example takes place during a montage: whilst the screen will show many different scenes across
a period of time, often the same soundtrack is played over all these scenes non-digetically. This
helps to unify the scenes and make it clear that they are all connected, even if they don’t
visually look the same. In this respect a sound bridge can join any scenes whether a montage or
not, as the sound, which can be dialogue, a sound effect or soundtrack, is played across more
than one scene, joining the two together.
Some edits using sound can also help to bridge things that have previously happened or to
signpost what may happen next. These edits are called J and L cuts, named after the pattern the
cut makes on the differing visual timelines on editing software. These usually work like so: in a J
cut, the audio from the next scene plays over video from the footage on screen before the scene
begins. For example, in Scene A we hear audio from scene B even when scene a is still on
screen, essentially meaning that the audio from scene B overlaps the picture from the Scene A.
In an L cut the opposite happens-we watch Scene B take place but we hear sounds from Scene
A even though the scene has visually ended.
In the same way that visual edits and transitions can create connections or connote change,
these uses of sound can be jarring but are used to ensure that the audience is especially aware
of changes on screen and potentially drawn to connections that may exist, even if the scenes
look visually different. Of course, a soundtrack can also help to establish pace, atmosphere and
theme but in this instance works to help make connections across visuals too.
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CREATIVE TRANSITIONS
Just like every other aspect of filmmaking, there is no limit or restriction as to how a film could or should
be edited, beyond the imagination of the filmmakers and especially the editors. Whilst we have defined
8 transitions (not including the use of sound) there are an infinite number of combinations and
possibilities that mean that not all edits and transitions will be easily identifiable. When exploring and
analysing editing transitions, the best step is to identify what is obvious, what stands out and what is
clearly recognisable. Even if the transition does something that appears to be new and innovative, it will
still have its roots in classic movements, effects, or transitions in general. Key then, is to ensure that you
focus on WHY the transition is used before struggling to describe the transitions in exhaustive detail. As
with previous work on camera movement in cinematography, focus first on what the filmmakers want for
the audience to think or feel, and then explore how that was achieved via the transition. A great
example of this is in the film SCOTT PILGRIM VS THE WORLD, which, as an adaptation of a comic book,
uses a wide variety of traditional editing transitions but also many creative and quite innovative
transitions (something for which Director Edgar Wright is well-known) which create pace, comedy,
intrigue, and often just interesting ways to move through the narrative in a quick but genuinely enjoyable
ways.
TASK: Watch the following visual essay and make notes about how the editing in the film helps to
communicate key ideas about character, narrative and theme https://youtu.be/pij5lihbC6k
TASK 2: Of all of the transitions mentioned in the essay, stood out and why? Which did you find was the
most interesting or inventive?
TASK 3: Imagine you were making a film and had to show a character going to an event that they did
not want to go to. Using what you’ve learned so far, what creative transition could you come up with?
Describe, or draw, in detail below.
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MINI-ASSESSMENT:
Watch the following clip: https://youtu.be/YyFGnad27yw and make notes on to help explain what you
feel the purpose of the scene is and/or what we learn watching.
From there, identify any transitions you notice and then note what you think were the 3 most interesting
or useful transitions.
For each, try to describe what you saw on screen (how the transition moved from one scene to another)
and then how that transition made you feel/communicated key ideas to you.
GLOSSARY
pace
frame
tension
FPS
ASL
sequence
transition
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SECTION 4: VISUAL EFFECTS
Visual effects in film and TV are now so ubiquitous and advanced that they are in practically
everything we watch and are often so good that we don’t even recognise that they’re being
used. Visual effects, or VFX as we’ll be referring to them as, have become an increasingly
important part of filmmaking and, as they’re mostly completed after a film is made, they’re
often explored in a similar manner to editing, given that that too is completed during post-production.
Whilst VFX to be mostly used in spectacular science fiction movies and big-budget action movies, it can
now be seen in everything from rom-coms to Westerns, and everything in between.
So what is VFX? It is the term used to describe imagery that is
created, manipulated, or enhanced for film that doesn't take
place during the shooting of the film itself. VFX often involves the
integration between the actual footage shot and the crated or
manipulated imagery to create realistic looking environments or
even characters. These created elements can be too dangerous to
shoot, characters which may be too difficult to make using practical effects. Or simply worlds that just
don’t exist. They use computer-generated imagery (CGI), and very specific and complex VFX software to
make it happen. Whilst we won’t be exploring every aspect of the VFX ‘pipeline’ (one way of describing
the method and order of planning, prepared, producing and then adding VFX into a film), perhaps the
most important thing to note is that VFX producers communicate with directors and cinematographers to
determine which scenes require them to shoot with green/blue screens and then work with the VFX teams
in post-production whilst also liaising with the other crew members like editors in order to bring the
whole film together.
It’s important to pay attention to the difference between visual effects (VFX) and special effects (SFX):
generally, SFX are things which can be achieved ‘in real life’,or using practical effects. These could be a
controlled explosions, fake gunshot wounds, a blank gun being shot, a character wearing complex
prosthetics etc. VFX however requires the use of a computer to create something entirely new or to
manipulate something which already existed in the film but needs to be altered, extended or changed in
some form. Examples of these might be people floating in space, dragons flying through the sky, an
android who can quickly change appearance/abilities, superhero powers or just ‘extending’ an already
existing environment.
Before we explore VFX in detail, let’s take a quick look at SFX.
SPECIAL EFFECTS
Practical effects have a long history in cinema, with perhaps the
most famous exponent during the earliest days of cinema being
George Méliès who would hand-paint frames with colour, use
multiple exposures (using the same film more than once to capture
more than one image on the same frames), dissolves and the
‘substitution splice (where essentially one person or object was
replaced from one frame to the next but the environment stays the same making it look like the person or
object has magically disappeared or changed. He, along with others, ushered a new form of storytelling
and playfulness with film and influenced generations of filmmakers and movie goers alike. Through the
last 120 years of cinema, pratical effects have evolved so much that often practical effects movies will
produce a more realistic look and feel than CGI for the simple reason that the ‘illusion’ produced is
simply real.
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SO WHAT ARE PRACTICAL OR SPECIAL EFFECTS?
Practical effects include but can be much than, the creation, manipulation and use of props,
sets, creatures, vehicles and makeup-things made by hand, and never computer generated.
They add a sense of realism to a story because they are real and tangible to the world of the film
and therefore ethe audience watching. This is essentially because the effect will be a 3D object that has
weight and dimensions that actors can interact with. While some CGI ages poorly over time due to the
increasing fidelity and quality of the technology, good quality practical effects will look convincing for
decades. There is nothing that practical effects haven't been used for in filmmaking and many are
incredibly famous, in part for their quality but also for their innovation. This video provides a useful
‘highlight reel’:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NEAihk8QaVc
As an overview, we’ll look at 3 areas where special effects have typically been used: creature and gore
effects; models, explosions and props and sets and camera tricks.
CREATURE AND GORE EFFECTS
Perhaps some of the most memorable and effective (and indeed affecting) example of practical effects
are in the use and manipulation of creature and gore effects. These are also some of the oldest: from the
make-up used on vampires and monsters in the early days of cinema to the arguably peak of special
effects in the late 70s and early 80s, practical effects have terrified audiences for generations. Creature
effects are often made from things such as latex, foam, or other easily malleable materials and are then
used to otherworldly monsters and creatures. These effects have helped to create the harmless and
family friendly E.T., to the horrifying xenomorph alien in Aliens, creature effects allow audiences to
experience creatures from other worlds and dimensions.
TASK: Why do you feel that practical effects are the most convincing and useful for characters,
especially ones which aren’t real? What benefit do they have over CGI characters?
One of the greatest achievements in practical effects movie history is the transformation scene in AN
AMERICAN WEREWOLF IN LONDON which sees a person transform into a werewolf in camera, with
no CGI used. Made in 1981, the film used 30 technicians, needed 6 months of prep and a full week of
shooting just for this one scene. The specifics of how it was done, from literally pulling hair through
rubber, to physically stretching out prosthetic limbs, every moment was made and manipulated by hand,
helping to really develop the sense of realism and pain associated with the transformation on screen.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=83WmQdyV1zQ
Some of the earliest creature effects were seen in the film JASON AND
THE ARGONAUTS in 1963. The film used stop-motion animation as a
form of creature effect that isn’t used much today, but produced
fantastic effects for its time using puppets and dolls that were slowly
moved, manipulated and filmed frame by frame. A painstaking process-
full length films created using this method may take several years to be
made, but this film created monster effects that were ahead of the times.
Another movie famous for its creature effects is John Carpenter’s THE
THING from 1982. This film features an alien which can embody almost literally everyone and thing and
during the film takes on many grotesque transformations and with the use of the practical effects of
blood, slime, tentacles and much more (including a scene which appears to show the alien make the
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appearance of a man receiving life-saving CPD but then literally bites the arms off another man using
giant teeth in its ‘stomach’!) the creature is entirely believable, if entirely disgusting to watch.
TASK: Why might actors prefer to work with practical effects rather than using CGI? Try to think of and
list at least 3 reasons.
TASK 2: Research and find at least 2 more films that used practical effects and explain why you think
they chose practical effects rather than CGI.
MODELS, EXPLOSIONS AND PROPS
Models have been an important part of practical effects since
the very beginning of cinema and to this day some of the
best practical effects are achieved using models, or
miniatures. Artists and special effects masters to do this day create
boats, spaceships, planes, buildings and more from any material then
require, from wood to concreate, metal to plastic. As with every
other practical effect these miniatures
give a realistic look and feel to film that
employ them well by filming from a perspective that makes the models look
‘normally’ sized. Some of the most famous examples of use of scale
models is the original STAR WARS trilogy, exterior shots of Hogwarts in
the HARRY POTTER franchise and many shots from TITANIC.
Making something small is considerably cheaper and easier than building a full-size version and means
that filmmakers can be a touch more easy-going with the models as they can be easily replaced.
Therefore, many films that use models that may utilise these by creating real, ‘mini’ explosions.
Sometimes though, filmmakers may choose to blow up things for real, using live, controlled explosions.
The director Christopher Nolan is known for his use of miniatures and his use of practical effects as well.
For example, in the famous hospital scene from THE DARK KNIGHT, Christopher Nolan blew up a real
building to create this haunting moment. He has a full-size and fully working Batmobile, motorbike and
(to an extent) ‘Batwing’ plane made for his Batman trilogy and even blew up an actual, real-life Boeing
747 for his latest film, TENET. With this he only got one take, but the execution was flawless, and the
effect is bewilderingly spectacular for an audience.
Finally, as we saw in an earlier unit, props are objects that actors interact with for a wide range of
reasons. Whenever someone in a movie uses a prop, such as a sword, a gun, or a weapon of any kind,
it's a practical effect. From common household items to laboratory equipment, anything the actors use
and interact with is a prop and therefore can be considered a practical effect.
TASK: What examples of props can you recall from our earlier Unit on mise-en-scene? Which of these
were especially impressive and why?
TASK 2: List at least 3 advantages and 2 disadvantages of using miniatures when making a film.
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TASK 3: Design, label and describe a prop for a new sci-fi film. It can be a prop of any kind, but must
suit the genre and the possible story lines or character/s that may exist in a film from that genre.
SETS AND CAMERA TRICKS
Another way to use of practical effects is to build sets which,
much like scale models, are built to create places that do not
exist in the real world or that need to be altered or destroyed in
some way. At the ‘Universal Backlot’ in Los Angeles, some of
the most famous sets in the world were built and shot, with
BACK TO THE FUTURE perhaps the most famous. The use of
shooting on set has huge advantages given the control that this
gives filmmakers and the manipulation that is available means
that films can achieve all kinds of results that filming on location
may not afford. As we discovered in the unit on mise-en-scene, shooting on location can provide a high-
level of fidelity, but can be very expensive and not allow the filmmakers to alter or change things in a
way that suits the film. Building a set then, allows the production to tailor the specifics of the set to the
needs of the film, with no better example than that of 2001: A SPACE ODYSSEY, where director Stanley
Kubrick had a giant centrifuge set built at a cost of £750,000 which in 2021 is approximately
£16million. He did so because he needed to simulate the effects of a space station and in the late 1960s
CGI/green screen sets and shooting in space simply weren’t options. The building of the set came at a
huge cost then, but the finished product is mesmerising and absolutely lifts the overall quality of the film
because of the clear relationship between the character/s and the environment that they are in.
Camera tricks can also be classified as practical effects with perhaps the
most famous example is the used of forced perspective in the LORD OF THE
RINGS trilogy. Director Peter Jackson used forced perspective to take two
‘normal’ sized actors and made them seem hugely different in height by
having one person closer to the camera than another. Whilst slightly more
complex that this, the core idea of using perspective to create an illusion,
shows just how simple but effective some practical effects can be.
VISUAL EFFECTS (VFX)
There are many aspects to the VFX process and it’s an aspect of filmmaking
that is constantly improving and evolving. For now then we’ll focus on three main types: CGI,
compositing, and motion capture. The reason why we consider them as a branch of editing is because
each of them, as with editing, typically takes place after principal photography (the filming of at least the
major scenes and set pieces in the film, but usually all live moments) or simultaneously in a dedicated
space such as a motion capture studio (more on this later). Visual effects artists use digital tools that help
in all capacities of blending the line between "real" and "unreal” and it’s the desire to constantly ‘blur’
that line by improving the quality of the CGI that means that CGI from an earlier time period will
invariably not look as good as the CGI produced today.
TASK: Using the space below, write the opening few sentences to a film that would need VFX to be used
in some form, focusing on the description of the setting to make the location vivid but ambitious.
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CGI
CGI stands for computer generated imagery, which is the use of computer
graphics in art and media. These can be 2D or 3D animations, objects, or
renderings; the type of art or media can be a film, television program, video
game, or simulation. CGI can be used in films ranging from science fiction
epics to quiet intimate dramas. How the CGI is used varies, from animating
entire locations to subtle work on characters and environments. In recent
years, CGI has been the go-to visual effect for most major movies, whether its
use is subtle or obvious though that wasn’t always the case. The question then
of “When was CGI invented?” can be traced back to the 1960s, when companies were experimenting
with very basic computers. We know that by the 1990s CGI was used much more widely, but it was the
1970s were CGI technology first emerged with use in films. A digital POV was created in WESTWORLD
in 1973, and classic ‘computer screens’ with wire-frame models were used in STAR WARS in 1977 and
ALIEN in 1979. The role of CGI would evolve even further in the 1980s, with films like TRON in 1982,
THE LAST STARFIGHTER 9 1984 and perhaps most influentially YOUNG SHERLOCK HOLMES in 1985.
VFX work today can include 3D models of people, monsters, buildings,
cars, explosions, and many other things which can then be put into a
live-action scenario, such as a monster attacking a city or a car being
blown up by an explosion. These types of CGI effects are used in many,
many films and though tend to dominate films with a large budget and
with narratives that call for large-scale events or spectacles. However, CGI can also be seen in movies
with a range of genres, with period dramas using CGI to fill out locations with period-specific details,
such as background environments full of buildings, people, and vehicles.
What is important to remember, is that all visual effects are not CGI. Whilst computers are necessary for
nearly all forms of visual effects, but the key difference between VFX and CGI is that CGI imagery made
completely within computers. Other types of visual FX use computers to enhance or combine live action
footage. Examples to of CGI would be CGI animation such as those created by Pixar. CGI is not a
panacea though: not all CGI is great, and is certainly a problem in some movies, but the best type of
CGI is the one where you don’t even notice it. Most movies then, blend a considered use of CGI effects,
other VFX work and practical effects. JURASSIC PARK (1993) might be the gold
standard of this, as it used CGI along with practical effects to create realistic looking
dinosaurs that, 28 years later, still looks flawless, despite the CGI being created on
relatively basic computers and software.
Since movies are using CGI now more than ever, there is a constant churn of
innovation and likely much more to be had yet. Perhaps the most impressive
and possibly revolutionary has come from the home of Industrial Light and
Magic, Lucasfilm with something called StageCraft, aka “the Volume”, which is
used on the Disney+ show THE MANDALORIAN. StageCraft is a development
of the ideas from green and blue screen technology but instead of having a
coloured sheet behind the actors, the Volume has an Ultra High-Definition projection on it so that the
backgrounds are present while the actors are performing on the set. Combined with the real-time lighting
and real props on the set, the Volume uses its LED screens to create the scene as if the actors were there,
whether a desert landscape or icy tundra. The result is a realistic looking scene that is all done in-
camera, on-set, in real time.
TASK: Why do you think that filming with a realistic looking background might be easier for both actors
and for the CGI artists working on the film/TV show after filming has been completed?
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COMPOSITING AND GREEN SCREEN FX
As a result of the emerging technologies such as the Volume, the use of green screen may be in its
descent and perhaps with it, a significant decrease in the use of compositing. When using a green or
blue screen, compositing is called chroma keying and simply refers to the process of taking a solid
background colour and replacing with a new background image as compositing is defined by combining
multiple images. Another way of combining multiple images is to use a double exposure, This can be
done on-set and in-camera or during Post-Production. There are dozens of different ways to composite
shots but perhaps the most common example is when a weatherman is placed in front of a greenscreen
with the weather details behind them, but there are many other, more
advanced filmmaking techniques such as green screen capture, computer
generated imagery, and rotoscoping. However, compositing imagery has
existed in cinema since the very earliest days, and can be traced back to
the turn of the 20th century with Georges Méliès, and with his film THE
ONE MAN BAND he used a seven-fold multiple exposure technique to
give the impression he was playing every instrument in a band.
Melies was also a pioneer of mattes or masks, where he would black out or matte out parts of the frame
using black paint and a piece of glass. He would black out one part so no light would reach the film and
then rewind the film to then combine the two or more images into a single shot. Things like a matte
painting for example, could be added to the area that was ‘matted out’ so that the images could then
blend with the rest of the shot and combine to create an entire shot. Before the advent of CGI, this was
the best way to create large expanses or fantastic worlds.
After Melies and others who used multiple exposures, background projection became increasingly
common in film. This technique has the background content of a scene being projected onto a screen to
give the impression of one picture as seen in the image here from TO CATCH A THIEF. Nearly every
driving scene from the Golden Age of Hollywood used background projection and despite it looking less
than convincing for modern audiences, it was still very useful.
RESEARCH TASK: Find some examples of background projection and describe: the name of the film that used it,
a description of the scene when it was used and at east 2 positives and 2 negatives of the technique.
ROTOSCOPE
Rotoscoping is the process in which footage is traced over, by hand, frame-by-frame. This effect was
invented in 1915 by animator Max Fleischer to improve the movement of animated characters and to
make them look more realistic. The technique was originally achieved
by filming scenes and then projecting the film onto glass panels so an
animator could trace the action in every frame and, thus capturing the
movement of the actors. Used by Disney in the 1930s, many of their
most famous and celebrated early titles like SNOW WHITE AND THE
SEVEN DWARVES, CINDERELLA and ALICE IN WONDERLAND were
all created via rotoscoping. This technique also allows filmmakers to trace over and add in part of a
frame that was matted out or to significantly alter how the filmed image looks. More recently, this
manual process has been replaced by computers and adopted by the visual effects (VFX) industry to
manipulate images by doing things like removing stunt wires, placing characters in different settings or,
as seen in the STAR WARS films, creating the light effects for lightsabres.
TASK: Why do you think that rotoscoping was used by animators? What benefits did it give the
animators and how did it improve the quality of the animation?
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MOTION CAPTURE
Motion capture (or mocap) is a form of VFX technology that has been
around for a number of years but, as with all VFX work, is improving all
the time. Mocap is the process of recording, or capturing,
the movement of objects or people and is used in a huge range of
industries such as military, sports, medicine and of course, the
entertainment industry. In filmmaking and in video game development, it
refers to taking very precise recording of actions by actors and then using that information to animate
a digital character. This has developed and evolved and is now able to capture very precise and quite
subtle movements beyond just the body and may now include the recording of the face and limbs and as
a result, allows filmmakers to capture a whole performance. This is generally referred as performance
capture and involves capturing the movements of one or more actors are many times per second with the
aim of the movements of the actor. Camera movements can also be motion captured so that a virtual
camera in the scene will pan, tilt or dolly around the stage driven by a camera operator while the actor
is performing, allowing the computer-generated characters, images and sets to have the same
perspective as the video images from the camera.
But a character is not just about movements or actions and whilst it’s
important that a CG character can move like a human or animal, this is not
enough for films to evoke a reaction from the audience. To add personality,
audiences want to see how characters express their compassion, anger, fear,
joy, tension, disappointment and all other sets of emotions just like any actor
would. This is why performance capture is so important and why facial
capture is a vital tool in the post-production stage of creating a CG face. To
do this, both marker-based and marker-less facial capture can be done, using
as many 350 markers that are applied to the actor’s face and the marker
movement is tracked using high-resolution camera and then in post-
production, complex tools can be used using software that allows VFX artists
to create realistic and evocative faces to characters. The markerless technology tracks the minute
features of the face such as wrinkles, nostrils, pupil movement, eyelids etc frame by frame giving a very
precise and detailed set of information for VFX artists to recreate digitally in post-production.
TASK: Without reading back, write a short definition for each of the following terms:
VISUAL EFFECTS
CGI
GREEN SCREEN
COMPOSITING
ROTOSCOPE
MOTION CAPTURE
TASK 2: Rank the different 6 types of VFX above from most effective (which do you think looks best) to
least. Then, explain your ordering with reasons and examples.
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EDITING ASSESSMENT:
Answer the following question:
How is editing used in SCOTT PILGRIM VS THE WORLD and why?
Consider the following ideas when looking to analyse the editing in SCOTT PILGRIM VS THE WORLD
• What key emotions did we experience in the film? Where/when did these take place?
• In what way did the editing stand out?
• How does the editing control the pace at different periods in the film?
• What moments of editing stood out and why?
• Were there any particularly interesting, clever or unique transitions used? When? Why did they
stand out to you?
• To what extent is editing important in this film in creating a specific atmosphere or in instructing
the audience how to feel at various times?
• What examples of editing in any form created a specific mood or reaction?
• To what extent do we feel something because of the use of editing?
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