Ecology is the study of interactions between organisms and their environment. The biosphere is the global ecosystem, encompassing all living things found in air, land, and water on Earth. Ecologists study how both biotic factors (living things) and abiotic factors (non-living things) influence organisms and populations within various levels of organization, from individuals to ecosystems. Energy and matter flow through ecosystems via food chains and food webs, with only about 10% of available energy being transferred between trophic levels. Key biogeochemical cycles such as the water, carbon, nitrogen, and phosphorus cycles recycle critical elements and compounds.
This document summarizes key concepts in ecology. It defines ecology as the study of interactions between organisms and their environment. It describes producers as organisms that use sunlight or chemical energy to produce food, including plants, algae and photosynthetic bacteria. Consumers rely on producers and other organisms for food and include herbivores, carnivores and omnivores. Decomposers break down dead organic matter. Food chains and webs show how energy flows through ecosystems from producers to different trophic levels. Ecological pyramids illustrate the decrease in available energy and biomass at higher trophic levels. The document also discusses ecological interactions like competition, niches, predation, and symbiotic relationships between species.
The document discusses the history and structure of ecosystems. It defines an ecosystem as a complex unit of living and non-living things that interact and exchange materials. Ecosystems have biotic components like producers, consumers, and decomposers, as well as abiotic components like soil, water, and nutrients. Producers use photosynthesis to convert sunlight into chemical energy, which consumers then use as food and decomposers break down dead remains, recycling nutrients for producers. Energy and matter flow through the ecosystem via these interactions and components.
This document provides an overview of key concepts in ecology and environmental biology, including:
1) It defines ecology as the scientific study of interactions between organisms and their environment.
2) It describes producers, consumers, food chains, food webs, and trophic levels within ecosystems.
3) It explains ecological pyramids and how energy and biomass decrease at higher trophic levels.
4) It outlines ecological interactions like competition, predation, and the three types of symbiosis - mutualism, commensalism, and parasitism.
Climate change and biodiversity are closely linked: climate change has severe direct and indirect impacts on biodiversity and is predicted to be a dominant driver of future biodiversity loss; at the same time, the loss of biodiversity magnifies the adverse effects of climate change.
The document discusses various topics in ecology including ecosystems, ecological succession, food chains, food webs, and different types of ecosystems such as forests, grasslands, deserts, and aquatic ecosystems. It provides information on key concepts such as how ecosystems are defined, the process of ecological succession, how energy passes between producers and consumers in food chains and webs, and examples of different forest, grassland, desert and aquatic ecosystems. In the end, it emphasizes man's responsibility to conserve and protect ecosystems.
Natural ecosystems provide numerous ecosystem services that are essential to human well-being and economic activity. These services include provisioning services like food, fiber, fuel and medicines; regulating services like climate regulation, flood and drought mitigation, soil formation, and pest control; and cultural services like inspiration, recreation, and spiritual fulfillment. However, many of these services are being degraded or lost due to human activities like habitat destruction, overexploitation, pollution, and climate change. Properly valuing ecosystem services and incorporating their value into policy and economic decisions is crucial for ensuring their continued supply for future generations.
This document summarizes key concepts in ecology. It defines ecology as the study of interactions between organisms and their environment. It describes producers as organisms that use sunlight or chemical energy to produce food, including plants, algae and photosynthetic bacteria. Consumers rely on producers and other organisms for food and include herbivores, carnivores and omnivores. Decomposers break down dead organic matter. Food chains and webs show how energy flows through ecosystems from producers to different trophic levels. Ecological pyramids illustrate the decrease in available energy and biomass at higher trophic levels. The document also discusses ecological interactions like competition, niches, predation, and symbiotic relationships between species.
The document discusses the history and structure of ecosystems. It defines an ecosystem as a complex unit of living and non-living things that interact and exchange materials. Ecosystems have biotic components like producers, consumers, and decomposers, as well as abiotic components like soil, water, and nutrients. Producers use photosynthesis to convert sunlight into chemical energy, which consumers then use as food and decomposers break down dead remains, recycling nutrients for producers. Energy and matter flow through the ecosystem via these interactions and components.
This document provides an overview of key concepts in ecology and environmental biology, including:
1) It defines ecology as the scientific study of interactions between organisms and their environment.
2) It describes producers, consumers, food chains, food webs, and trophic levels within ecosystems.
3) It explains ecological pyramids and how energy and biomass decrease at higher trophic levels.
4) It outlines ecological interactions like competition, predation, and the three types of symbiosis - mutualism, commensalism, and parasitism.
Climate change and biodiversity are closely linked: climate change has severe direct and indirect impacts on biodiversity and is predicted to be a dominant driver of future biodiversity loss; at the same time, the loss of biodiversity magnifies the adverse effects of climate change.
The document discusses various topics in ecology including ecosystems, ecological succession, food chains, food webs, and different types of ecosystems such as forests, grasslands, deserts, and aquatic ecosystems. It provides information on key concepts such as how ecosystems are defined, the process of ecological succession, how energy passes between producers and consumers in food chains and webs, and examples of different forest, grassland, desert and aquatic ecosystems. In the end, it emphasizes man's responsibility to conserve and protect ecosystems.
Natural ecosystems provide numerous ecosystem services that are essential to human well-being and economic activity. These services include provisioning services like food, fiber, fuel and medicines; regulating services like climate regulation, flood and drought mitigation, soil formation, and pest control; and cultural services like inspiration, recreation, and spiritual fulfillment. However, many of these services are being degraded or lost due to human activities like habitat destruction, overexploitation, pollution, and climate change. Properly valuing ecosystem services and incorporating their value into policy and economic decisions is crucial for ensuring their continued supply for future generations.
ENVIRONMENTAL DEGRADATION – CONCEPT, CLASSES AND LINKAGESProf Ashis Sarkar
Environmental degradation (ED) is the condition whereby the quality, usefulness and stability of the environment is reduced or destroyed by human activities. This leads to the destruction of plants and animals on our planet earth. It limits human ability to meet the basic needs as well. It reduces soil fertility, and makes the water dirty and the air unhealthy.
Fundamentally, ED is a manifest of the dynamic inter play of physical (flood, cyclone, cloud burst, sub-aerial erosion, earthquake, volcanism, tsunami, etc), economic (market, level and pattern of economic development, transport, etc), social (population, poverty, urbanization, etc), institutional and technological activities. Normally, environmental changes are driven by a large number of factors including economic growth, population growth, urbanization, intensification of agriculture, rising energy use and transportation.
Land degradation, deforestation, wetland degradation, pollution of air, water and soil, and wild life destruction are the broad types of ED. Each one of these is a direct function of population and poverty. Poverty bears a deep linkage with ED both in the rural and urban settings, and it still remains a problem at the root of almost all kinds of the global environmental issues. The current presentation makes herewith an attempt to explore the salient features of ED in the contemporary world in a thematic way.
1) Energy from the sun is captured by producers like plants through photosynthesis and converted into chemical energy stored in organic molecules. 2) Primary consumers, like herbivores, obtain this energy by consuming producers. Secondary consumers eat primary consumers. 3) Energy is lost at each trophic level, with only about 10% transferred between levels. This limits the length of food chains and the number of organisms an ecosystem can support.
The document discusses energy flow through ecosystems. It begins by explaining that the sun is the primary energy source for ecosystems and that plants convert the sun's radiant energy into chemical energy through photosynthesis. This chemical energy then passes through food chains, with approximately 10% of the energy being transferred to each higher trophic level. Various models and laws are described that illustrate principles like the one-way flow of energy and the inefficiencies of transfers between trophic levels. Overall, the summary emphasizes that sunlight powers ecosystems by being converted to chemical energy by plants and then traveling through food webs in a step-wise, 10%-losing manner.
This document discusses key concepts in population ecology, including population size, density, distribution, growth patterns, biotic potential, carrying capacity, r-selected and K-selected species, environmental resistance, and predator-prey cycles. It provides examples and explanations of exponential and logistic growth curves, and compares characteristics of r-selected and K-selected species.
This document provides an introduction and overview of an environmental studies course syllabus. The syllabus covers 5 units: (1) the multidisciplinary nature of environmental science and ecosystems, (2) natural resources, (3) biodiversity and conservation, (4) environmental pollution, and (5) social issues and environmental management. Key topics addressed include different types of ecosystems, natural resources like forests and water, biodiversity threats and conservation, various forms of pollution and their impacts, and approaches to addressing social and environmental issues. The course aims to educate students on interactions between the environment and human activities from diverse perspectives.
Concepts of trophic structure, food chain and food web. energy flow in ecosys...SenjutiSaha1
Trophic structure refers to the pattern of energy and matter transfer between trophic levels in an ecosystem. A trophic level is a position in a food chain that an organism occupies based on its source of food. Primary producers, such as plants, occupy the first trophic level. Herbivores that eat plants are secondary consumers at the second trophic level. Carnivores that eat herbivores are tertiary consumers at the third trophic level. Decomposers that break down dead organisms are at the fourth trophic level. Energy and biomass decrease at each higher trophic level due to inefficiencies in energy transfer between levels. Food chains and food webs illustrate the trophic structure and allow energy to
This document provides an overview of ecology and ecosystems. It defines ecology as the study of the relationships between living organisms and their environment. The key components of ecosystems discussed include producers, consumers, decomposers, trophic levels, food chains, food webs, and biogeochemical cycles. Specific cycles explained in detail are the water, carbon, oxygen, and nitrogen cycles which describe how these essential elements move between living and nonliving parts of the environment.
Ecology is the scientific study of interactions between organisms and their environment. The components of ecology include abiotic (non-living) factors like temperature and biotic (living) factors like other organisms. A niche describes an organism's role and interactions within its ecosystem, including how it meets its needs. Relationships between organisms in an ecosystem can be symbiotic like mutualism, or involve one organism benefiting more than the other like parasitism or commensalism. Natural selection leads to evolution as organisms with traits better suited to their environment are more likely to survive and pass on those traits, changing the gene frequency in a population over time. Speciation occurs when reproductive isolation splits one species into two distinct species.
An ecosystem consists of biotic and abiotic components that interact through nutrient cycling, energy flow, and structure. The key biotic components are producers, consumers, and decomposers, which interact through food chains and webs. Energy and nutrients transfer between trophic levels, with biomass decreasing at higher levels. Ecosystems are influenced by various environmental factors like temperature, water, soil properties, and biotic interactions, with different species having specific tolerances. Ecosystems strive for balance, but human activities can disrupt natural nutrient cycles and environmental conditions.
An ecosystem consists of both living (biotic) and non-living (abiotic) components that interact within a defined space. Autotrophs, such as plants, are organisms that produce their own food through photosynthesis or chemosynthesis. Heterotrophs, such as animals and fungi, obtain food by consuming other organisms. Energy and matter flow through ecosystems via food chains and webs as organisms consume each other across trophic levels. Decomposition returns nutrients to the abiotic environment, sustaining ecosystem function.
The document summarizes key findings from the IPCC's Fifth Assessment Report regarding mitigation of climate change. It finds that:
1) Human influence on the climate system is clear and GHG emissions growth between 2000-2010 was larger than in previous decades.
2) Energy production, especially from fossil fuels, is the primary driver of GHG emissions.
3) Substantial and sustained reductions in GHG emissions are needed to limit global temperature increase to 2°C and avoid severe climate impacts. Measures exist to achieve the required emissions reductions through energy efficiency, low-carbon energy, carbon sinks, and lifestyle changes.
Ecological restoration is the process of assisting the recovery of an ecosystem that has been degraded, damaged, or destroyed. It aims to re-establish the structure, functions, and species diversity of the original ecosystem. The director of the Gurukula Botanical Center demonstrates how 40 years of conservation techniques, gardening, and restoration practices have helped restore habitats and species in the degraded Western Ghats region of India. She advocates an approach of diagnostic healing and restoration rather than simply conserving what remains or "greening" areas, in order to recreate a healthy alliance between people and their environment.
The document discusses wildfires and fire ecology. It begins with an agenda for a class on wildfire science that will cover definitions of wildfire, the fire triangle and fire behavior triangle, and how fires spread. It then discusses whether fire is good or bad and that this perception depends on perspective and resource objectives. The rest of the document covers definitions of wildfire, factors that influence wildfire occurrence and spread like weather, topography, and fuel, statistics on leading causes of fires in Oregon, the history of fire suppression policy in the US, and the ecological role and benefits of fire in forest ecosystems.
The document discusses ecology, ecosystems, and environmental concepts. It defines ecology as the study of organisms and their environment. There are different types of ecology like autecology and synecology. An ecosystem is comprised of biotic and abiotic components that interact and exchange energy and matter. The biotic components include producers, consumers, and decomposers. The abiotic components include climatic, physical, chemical, and medium factors. Various ecosystems are described like forests, grasslands, deserts, aquatic, marine, and freshwater ecosystems. Their biotic and abiotic components and examples of organisms are provided. Environmental issues like waste management, pollution, and their impacts are also summarized.
This document introduces the key concepts of ecology, including:
1) Ecology is the study of how organisms interact with their environment and each other.
2) Organisms are organized into levels ranging from cells to the biosphere.
3) The environment consists of biotic and abiotic factors that surround organisms.
4) All organisms are interdependent and interact through competition, predation, and nutrient recycling.
The document discusses key concepts in ecology and ecosystems. It defines ecology as the scientific study of interactions between organisms and their environment. An ecosystem is composed of organisms interacting with each other and their non-living environment. Ecologists study ecosystems at different levels from organisms to populations to communities and landscapes. Key ecosystem processes include nutrient cycling, energy flow, and food webs between organisms.
The document discusses key concepts in ecology, including that ecology is the study of interactions between organisms and their environment. It defines ecology, the biosphere, ecosystems, ecological succession, energy flow through ecosystems via food chains and webs, and population regulation factors. Key relationships between species like symbiosis, parasitism, mutualism, and commensalism are also summarized.
Ecology is the scientific study of the interactions between organisms and their environment. It was coined in 1866 by Ernst Haeckel from the Greek words "oikos" meaning house or environment, and "logos" meaning study. Ecology studies the distribution and abundance of organisms and the interactions between organisms and their physical and biological environment. It examines these relationships at different levels of organization from organisms to ecosystems. Ecology is important for understanding how to maintain a healthy biosphere and sustainable use of natural resources through principles of conservation.
This document defines an ecosystem as the integration of all living and non-living factors in an environment. It describes the key characteristics of ecosystems, including that their structure relates to species diversity and function relates to energy flow and material cycling. Ecosystems are classified as either natural or artificial/man-made, and include terrestrial, aquatic, marine, and other types. The components of ecosystems include biotic factors like producers, consumers, parasites and decomposers, and abiotic factors like inorganic substances, organic substances, and climate. Food chains and trophic levels are also summarized, where energy transfers from producers to various consumer levels, and food chains interconnect to form food webs.
This seminar presentation discusses the impact of climate change on biodiversity. It begins with an overview of how to manage Earth's temperature through solar energy and greenhouse gases. It then examines worldwide carbon emissions over time and explains the greenhouse effect. The values of biodiversity are outlined, and the presentation shows the impact of climate change on forests visible from space. A case study examines the effect of climate change on mountain pine beetles. The main impacts of climate change discussed are species extinction, effects on forests, water, polar regions and wildlife. The presentation concludes that temperatures will continue to rise and growing seasons will lengthen.
The document discusses ecology and ecological problems. It defines ecology as the study of interactions between living organisms and their environment. It notes that ecology involves studying both biotic (living) and abiotic (non-living) components across different levels of organization, from biosphere to organism. The document then focuses on discussing biodiversity, threats to biodiversity like habitat destruction and pollution, and provides examples of endangered endemic species in the Philippines like certain birds, mammals, amphibians, reptiles, fish, invertebrates and plants. It also discusses climate change and factors that can influence climate, highlighting that increasing greenhouse gases trap more heat and are influencing current global warming.
Urbanization is the growth of urban areas due to global population changes. The UN projects that half the world's population will live in urban areas by 2008. Urbanization is closely linked to modernization, industrialization, and sociological changes. It describes both the proportion of people living in urban areas and the rate of increase of urban populations over time. As more people move from rural to urban areas in search of jobs and opportunities, global urban growth is rapid, especially in developing countries and Asia/Africa. This urbanization leads to environmental effects like urban heat islands and increased pollution in cities.
ENVIRONMENTAL DEGRADATION – CONCEPT, CLASSES AND LINKAGESProf Ashis Sarkar
Environmental degradation (ED) is the condition whereby the quality, usefulness and stability of the environment is reduced or destroyed by human activities. This leads to the destruction of plants and animals on our planet earth. It limits human ability to meet the basic needs as well. It reduces soil fertility, and makes the water dirty and the air unhealthy.
Fundamentally, ED is a manifest of the dynamic inter play of physical (flood, cyclone, cloud burst, sub-aerial erosion, earthquake, volcanism, tsunami, etc), economic (market, level and pattern of economic development, transport, etc), social (population, poverty, urbanization, etc), institutional and technological activities. Normally, environmental changes are driven by a large number of factors including economic growth, population growth, urbanization, intensification of agriculture, rising energy use and transportation.
Land degradation, deforestation, wetland degradation, pollution of air, water and soil, and wild life destruction are the broad types of ED. Each one of these is a direct function of population and poverty. Poverty bears a deep linkage with ED both in the rural and urban settings, and it still remains a problem at the root of almost all kinds of the global environmental issues. The current presentation makes herewith an attempt to explore the salient features of ED in the contemporary world in a thematic way.
1) Energy from the sun is captured by producers like plants through photosynthesis and converted into chemical energy stored in organic molecules. 2) Primary consumers, like herbivores, obtain this energy by consuming producers. Secondary consumers eat primary consumers. 3) Energy is lost at each trophic level, with only about 10% transferred between levels. This limits the length of food chains and the number of organisms an ecosystem can support.
The document discusses energy flow through ecosystems. It begins by explaining that the sun is the primary energy source for ecosystems and that plants convert the sun's radiant energy into chemical energy through photosynthesis. This chemical energy then passes through food chains, with approximately 10% of the energy being transferred to each higher trophic level. Various models and laws are described that illustrate principles like the one-way flow of energy and the inefficiencies of transfers between trophic levels. Overall, the summary emphasizes that sunlight powers ecosystems by being converted to chemical energy by plants and then traveling through food webs in a step-wise, 10%-losing manner.
This document discusses key concepts in population ecology, including population size, density, distribution, growth patterns, biotic potential, carrying capacity, r-selected and K-selected species, environmental resistance, and predator-prey cycles. It provides examples and explanations of exponential and logistic growth curves, and compares characteristics of r-selected and K-selected species.
This document provides an introduction and overview of an environmental studies course syllabus. The syllabus covers 5 units: (1) the multidisciplinary nature of environmental science and ecosystems, (2) natural resources, (3) biodiversity and conservation, (4) environmental pollution, and (5) social issues and environmental management. Key topics addressed include different types of ecosystems, natural resources like forests and water, biodiversity threats and conservation, various forms of pollution and their impacts, and approaches to addressing social and environmental issues. The course aims to educate students on interactions between the environment and human activities from diverse perspectives.
Concepts of trophic structure, food chain and food web. energy flow in ecosys...SenjutiSaha1
Trophic structure refers to the pattern of energy and matter transfer between trophic levels in an ecosystem. A trophic level is a position in a food chain that an organism occupies based on its source of food. Primary producers, such as plants, occupy the first trophic level. Herbivores that eat plants are secondary consumers at the second trophic level. Carnivores that eat herbivores are tertiary consumers at the third trophic level. Decomposers that break down dead organisms are at the fourth trophic level. Energy and biomass decrease at each higher trophic level due to inefficiencies in energy transfer between levels. Food chains and food webs illustrate the trophic structure and allow energy to
This document provides an overview of ecology and ecosystems. It defines ecology as the study of the relationships between living organisms and their environment. The key components of ecosystems discussed include producers, consumers, decomposers, trophic levels, food chains, food webs, and biogeochemical cycles. Specific cycles explained in detail are the water, carbon, oxygen, and nitrogen cycles which describe how these essential elements move between living and nonliving parts of the environment.
Ecology is the scientific study of interactions between organisms and their environment. The components of ecology include abiotic (non-living) factors like temperature and biotic (living) factors like other organisms. A niche describes an organism's role and interactions within its ecosystem, including how it meets its needs. Relationships between organisms in an ecosystem can be symbiotic like mutualism, or involve one organism benefiting more than the other like parasitism or commensalism. Natural selection leads to evolution as organisms with traits better suited to their environment are more likely to survive and pass on those traits, changing the gene frequency in a population over time. Speciation occurs when reproductive isolation splits one species into two distinct species.
An ecosystem consists of biotic and abiotic components that interact through nutrient cycling, energy flow, and structure. The key biotic components are producers, consumers, and decomposers, which interact through food chains and webs. Energy and nutrients transfer between trophic levels, with biomass decreasing at higher levels. Ecosystems are influenced by various environmental factors like temperature, water, soil properties, and biotic interactions, with different species having specific tolerances. Ecosystems strive for balance, but human activities can disrupt natural nutrient cycles and environmental conditions.
An ecosystem consists of both living (biotic) and non-living (abiotic) components that interact within a defined space. Autotrophs, such as plants, are organisms that produce their own food through photosynthesis or chemosynthesis. Heterotrophs, such as animals and fungi, obtain food by consuming other organisms. Energy and matter flow through ecosystems via food chains and webs as organisms consume each other across trophic levels. Decomposition returns nutrients to the abiotic environment, sustaining ecosystem function.
The document summarizes key findings from the IPCC's Fifth Assessment Report regarding mitigation of climate change. It finds that:
1) Human influence on the climate system is clear and GHG emissions growth between 2000-2010 was larger than in previous decades.
2) Energy production, especially from fossil fuels, is the primary driver of GHG emissions.
3) Substantial and sustained reductions in GHG emissions are needed to limit global temperature increase to 2°C and avoid severe climate impacts. Measures exist to achieve the required emissions reductions through energy efficiency, low-carbon energy, carbon sinks, and lifestyle changes.
Ecological restoration is the process of assisting the recovery of an ecosystem that has been degraded, damaged, or destroyed. It aims to re-establish the structure, functions, and species diversity of the original ecosystem. The director of the Gurukula Botanical Center demonstrates how 40 years of conservation techniques, gardening, and restoration practices have helped restore habitats and species in the degraded Western Ghats region of India. She advocates an approach of diagnostic healing and restoration rather than simply conserving what remains or "greening" areas, in order to recreate a healthy alliance between people and their environment.
The document discusses wildfires and fire ecology. It begins with an agenda for a class on wildfire science that will cover definitions of wildfire, the fire triangle and fire behavior triangle, and how fires spread. It then discusses whether fire is good or bad and that this perception depends on perspective and resource objectives. The rest of the document covers definitions of wildfire, factors that influence wildfire occurrence and spread like weather, topography, and fuel, statistics on leading causes of fires in Oregon, the history of fire suppression policy in the US, and the ecological role and benefits of fire in forest ecosystems.
The document discusses ecology, ecosystems, and environmental concepts. It defines ecology as the study of organisms and their environment. There are different types of ecology like autecology and synecology. An ecosystem is comprised of biotic and abiotic components that interact and exchange energy and matter. The biotic components include producers, consumers, and decomposers. The abiotic components include climatic, physical, chemical, and medium factors. Various ecosystems are described like forests, grasslands, deserts, aquatic, marine, and freshwater ecosystems. Their biotic and abiotic components and examples of organisms are provided. Environmental issues like waste management, pollution, and their impacts are also summarized.
This document introduces the key concepts of ecology, including:
1) Ecology is the study of how organisms interact with their environment and each other.
2) Organisms are organized into levels ranging from cells to the biosphere.
3) The environment consists of biotic and abiotic factors that surround organisms.
4) All organisms are interdependent and interact through competition, predation, and nutrient recycling.
The document discusses key concepts in ecology and ecosystems. It defines ecology as the scientific study of interactions between organisms and their environment. An ecosystem is composed of organisms interacting with each other and their non-living environment. Ecologists study ecosystems at different levels from organisms to populations to communities and landscapes. Key ecosystem processes include nutrient cycling, energy flow, and food webs between organisms.
The document discusses key concepts in ecology, including that ecology is the study of interactions between organisms and their environment. It defines ecology, the biosphere, ecosystems, ecological succession, energy flow through ecosystems via food chains and webs, and population regulation factors. Key relationships between species like symbiosis, parasitism, mutualism, and commensalism are also summarized.
Ecology is the scientific study of the interactions between organisms and their environment. It was coined in 1866 by Ernst Haeckel from the Greek words "oikos" meaning house or environment, and "logos" meaning study. Ecology studies the distribution and abundance of organisms and the interactions between organisms and their physical and biological environment. It examines these relationships at different levels of organization from organisms to ecosystems. Ecology is important for understanding how to maintain a healthy biosphere and sustainable use of natural resources through principles of conservation.
This document defines an ecosystem as the integration of all living and non-living factors in an environment. It describes the key characteristics of ecosystems, including that their structure relates to species diversity and function relates to energy flow and material cycling. Ecosystems are classified as either natural or artificial/man-made, and include terrestrial, aquatic, marine, and other types. The components of ecosystems include biotic factors like producers, consumers, parasites and decomposers, and abiotic factors like inorganic substances, organic substances, and climate. Food chains and trophic levels are also summarized, where energy transfers from producers to various consumer levels, and food chains interconnect to form food webs.
This seminar presentation discusses the impact of climate change on biodiversity. It begins with an overview of how to manage Earth's temperature through solar energy and greenhouse gases. It then examines worldwide carbon emissions over time and explains the greenhouse effect. The values of biodiversity are outlined, and the presentation shows the impact of climate change on forests visible from space. A case study examines the effect of climate change on mountain pine beetles. The main impacts of climate change discussed are species extinction, effects on forests, water, polar regions and wildlife. The presentation concludes that temperatures will continue to rise and growing seasons will lengthen.
The document discusses ecology and ecological problems. It defines ecology as the study of interactions between living organisms and their environment. It notes that ecology involves studying both biotic (living) and abiotic (non-living) components across different levels of organization, from biosphere to organism. The document then focuses on discussing biodiversity, threats to biodiversity like habitat destruction and pollution, and provides examples of endangered endemic species in the Philippines like certain birds, mammals, amphibians, reptiles, fish, invertebrates and plants. It also discusses climate change and factors that can influence climate, highlighting that increasing greenhouse gases trap more heat and are influencing current global warming.
Urbanization is the growth of urban areas due to global population changes. The UN projects that half the world's population will live in urban areas by 2008. Urbanization is closely linked to modernization, industrialization, and sociological changes. It describes both the proportion of people living in urban areas and the rate of increase of urban populations over time. As more people move from rural to urban areas in search of jobs and opportunities, global urban growth is rapid, especially in developing countries and Asia/Africa. This urbanization leads to environmental effects like urban heat islands and increased pollution in cities.
This document provides an introduction to the key concepts of ecology, including:
- Ecology is defined as the study of the interactions between organisms and their environment. It was coined by German biologist Ernst Haeckel in 1869 from Greek roots meaning "house" and "study."
- Ecology examines the interrelationships between living things and non-living components at different organizational levels from individual species to entire biomes. Key areas of study include autecology, synecology, aquatic ecology, terrestrial ecology, and classifications based on the environment.
- Ecosystems are the functional units of ecology, containing all the living and non-living components that interact within a defined space. Major ecosystem types include
The document discusses several biogeochemical cycles that occur on Earth, including the water, carbon, nitrogen, and phosphorus cycles. These cycles describe how key elements move between the biotic (living) and abiotic (non-living) parts of the environment. Water cycles through evaporation, transpiration, condensation, and precipitation between reservoirs like the atmosphere, oceans, soil, plants and animals. Carbon cycles through photosynthesis, cellular respiration, and the influence of human activities like burning fossil fuels. Nitrogen cycles through nitrogen fixation by bacteria, ammonification, nitrification, plant uptake, and denitrification. Phosphorus cycles from soil to producers to consumers and is slowly replenished through weathering of rocks.
This document outlines ecological problems and proposes a plan to introduce and address global environmental issues. It identifies the main ecological problems as air pollution from vehicles and industry, water pollution from dumping waste, radiation issues like Chernobyl, threats from earthquakes, deforestation, and loss of biodiversity. The document's aims are to determine key problems, provide advice on environmental protection, and suggest solutions. Tasks include showing different ways of addressing ecological challenges.
this presentation discusses ecological situation in Asia. it was used by my student during reporting i edit some parts of it. content is adapted from turning points 2011
For thousands of years, humans lived in harmony with the environment, but as civilization developed, human interference increased and caused major ecological problems. Large cities and industries pollute the air, water, and land on a massive scale. Vast forests are cut down, disrupting oxygen levels and causing many species to become extinct. The Chernobyl disaster in Ukraine in 1986 was one of the worst ecological disasters, damaging agriculture, forests, and human health over a wide region for many years to come. While some international progress has been made to address these issues, more coordinated global efforts are still needed to protect the environment and ensure sustainable life on Earth for future generations.
The document outlines the aims and topics of an IT student project on environmental protection. It discusses how industrialization has increased human interference with nature and led to problems like pollution, deforestation, and climate change. It notes that while countries and public organizations work together on environmental issues, individuals can help by reducing litter and using natural resources sustainably.
Large cities and industrial enterprises have polluted the air, water, and land across the world. Each year, industry pollutes the atmosphere with 1000 million tons of dust and harmful substances, causing smog in many cities. Vast forests are cut down and burned, upsetting the oxygen balance and causing some animal and plant species to disappear forever. The Chernobyl tragedy of 1986 caused major ecological damage to Ukraine, Belarus, and their people's health and agriculture. Protecting the environment is a global concern, and countries have started taking measures like establishing environmental protection agencies and organizations like Greenpeace, but more work remains to be done to preserve nature for current and future generations.
John Howkins presentation at 2nd WIPO International Conference on Intellectual Property and Creative Industries. 2-3 December 2008. Bali - Indonesia http://www.baliwipo2008.org . The conference is co organized by Indonesian Ministry of Culture and Tourism The Republic of Indonesia. John Howkins is the writter of a famous book "The Creative Econom- How People Make Money from Ideas".
1) Ecology is the scientific study of interactions among organisms and between organisms and their environment. The biosphere encompasses all life on Earth, including land, water, and air up to 8 km above and 11 km below the surface.
2) Ecology studies different levels of organization, from species to populations to communities to ecosystems and biomes. Energy flows through ecosystems from producers like plants to consumers at different trophic levels in food chains and webs.
3) Key biogeochemical cycles include the water, carbon, nitrogen, and phosphorus cycles which are essential to life and maintain conditions on Earth. Climate and latitude also influence global patterns of biomes and ecosystems.
Biodiversity offsets must consider the rarity and quality of the impacted species and habitats. Officials can stratify regulatory responses, like-for-like criteria, trading rules, and risk factors based on a site's biodiversity importance, which is a function of its rarity and quality. The criteria for what counts as "like-for-like" becomes more flexible depending on the biodiversity importance of the impacted site, ranging from requiring the same vegetation type in the same bioregion for very high importance sites, to allowing different but comparable types in the same or adjacent bioregions for medium importance sites.
The document contains a review of multiple choice and fill-in-the-blank questions about ecology and ecosystems. It covers topics like producers, consumers, decomposers, biotic and abiotic factors, food chains, food webs, niches, populations, communities, ecosystems, energy pyramids, limiting factors, and carrying capacity. The questions test understanding of key ecological concepts and relationships between living and non-living components of ecosystems.
This presentation opens with global warnings, gives you a survey of earth's main biodiversity hotspots and offers some solutions to the ecological multitask challenge - Download as PDF to use the links in the table of contents, share if you like or just enjoy
VCE Environmental Science: Unit 3: Biodiversity. Introduction that explains the definitions and reasons to conserve biodiversity on a genetic, species and ecosystem level.
The document discusses the variety of resources found on Earth, including air, water, soil, living organisms, minerals, and fossil fuels. It describes these resources and their importance. Elements are the simplest forms of matter and can be metals or non-metals. Compounds are formed by a chemical combination of two or more elements and have different properties than their constituent elements. Mixtures are formed by a physical combination of substances that retain their original properties and can be separated by physical means. The document emphasizes the importance of preserving and conserving Earth's resources through recycling, pollution control, reuse, and efficient use.
The document discusses arguments for protecting biodiversity from both an intrinsic and anthropocentric perspective. The intrinsic view is that biodiversity has value regardless of its benefits to humans, as all species are part of the evolutionary process. The anthropocentric view is that biodiversity provides economic, aesthetic, recreational, and insurance benefits to humans through ecosystem services like climate regulation and soil formation. Both perspectives aim to protect biodiversity, though they stem from different philosophies around nature's value. The document examines these arguments but leaves the conclusions open to the reader's interpretation.
The document discusses biodiversity and species classification. It explains that biologists classify organisms into species based on their ability to breed and produce fertile offspring. All species have a scientific name with the genus and species components. There are estimated to be between 5-30 million living species on Earth. The document also provides examples of phylogenetic classification of organisms from the kingdom down to the species level, such as felines being classified under the kingdom Animalia, phylum Chordata, class Mammalia, etc. It discusses reasons for maintaining biodiversity, including uses in agriculture, medicine, materials, and recreation. However, many species are at risk of extinction due to habitat loss, introduced species, and overfishing/hunting.
The document discusses key concepts in ecology including ecosystems, biodiversity, populations, and niches. It defines ecology as the scientific study of the distributions, abundance, and relations of organisms and their interactions. An ecosystem is described as the unique network of animal and plant species that depend on each other to sustain life through their interactions. Biodiversity encompasses all varieties of life from genes to ecosystems at different biological levels.
This document provides an overview of biodiversity. It defines biodiversity as the variety of life on Earth, including genetic diversity within species, species diversity within biological communities, and ecosystem diversity within and across landscapes. It discusses how biodiversity has evolved over 3.5 billion years and increased rapidly during the Cambrian explosion. While species diversity in the oceans has increased logistically, diversity on land has grown exponentially. The document also outlines different types of biodiversity like taxonomic diversity, ecological diversity, and genetic diversity. It notes that most terrestrial diversity is found in tropical forests and that an estimated 8.7 million species exist on Earth. The document concludes by discussing threats to biodiversity like habitat destruction and climate change, as well as conservation
1. The document discusses different types of ecosystems including forest, grassland, desert, and aquatic ecosystems.
2. It provides details on the key components and functions of ecosystems, including producers, consumers, decomposers, energy flow, food chains, and food webs.
3. The document also defines important ecological terms and concepts such as ecology, habitat, community, population, evolution, and human ecology.
This chapter discusses ecological concepts such as habitat, niche, limiting factors, and levels of ecological organization. It then covers natural selection and evolution, including genes, populations, speciation, extinction, and coevolution. Finally, it discusses various organism interactions like competition, predation, and symbiosis. It also addresses community and ecosystem interactions, energy flow through ecosystems, and nutrient cycling.
The document discusses key concepts in ecology including biosphere, ecosystem, community, population, individual species, abiotic and biotic factors, energy flow, nutrient cycles, and organism interactions. It explains that for an ecosystem to be stable, there must be a constant supply of energy, recycling of materials, and biodiversity. Energy and nutrients are transferred between producers, consumers, and decomposers through food chains, food webs, and nutrient cycles like carbon, water, and nitrogen. Organisms interact through relationships like competition, commensalism, mutualism, parasitism, and niche occupation.
This document provides information about ecology and the environment. It defines key ecological terms like environment, habitat, producers and consumers. It explains how organisms are adapted to their environments and how energy flows through ecosystems. Food chains and webs are described as the transfer of energy from producers, like plants, to primary, secondary and tertiary consumers. The document outlines different types of consumers - herbivores, carnivores, omnivores and detritivores. It also discusses trophic levels and explains that only about 10% of usable energy is transferred between each level.
- An ecosystem is comprised of biotic and abiotic components that interact with each other within a specific environment. Biotic components include producers, consumers, decomposers and transformers. Producers harness energy from the sun via photosynthesis. Consumers feed on producers or other consumers. Decomposers and transformers break down dead organic matter.
- Key abiotic components are climate/physical factors, inorganic substances and organic substances. Sunlight, water, oxygen, temperature and soil are particularly important abiotic factors for organisms. Biotic and abiotic components interact through nutrient and water cycles, providing resources and affecting one another.
- Energy and matter flow through food chains and webs. Producers are the
This document defines key concepts in ecology including ecology, ecosystem, and food chains/webs. It begins by explaining that ecology is the study of interactions between organisms and their environment. An ecosystem consists of both biotic (living) and abiotic (non-living) components that interact. Food chains represent the transfer of energy as organisms eat each other, while food webs illustrate the interconnected food chains in an ecosystem. Together, food chains and webs allow energy to flow and matter to cycle through the ecosystem.
The document discusses different types of ecosystems including biotic and abiotic components. It provides definitions of ecosystem and describes the key components. It discusses the structure of ecosystems including biological communities, biomass, and abiotic factors. It describes different types of ecosystems such as aquatic (marine and freshwater), terrestrial, and forest ecosystems. It also discusses interactions within ecosystems such as different types of relationships between species, energy flow, and the roles of producers, consumers, and decomposers.
Ecology is the scientific study of interactions between organisms and their environment. The biosphere consists of all life on Earth and the areas where life exists. Ecology studies different levels of organization from populations and communities to ecosystems and biomes. Energy flows through ecosystems in food chains from primary producers like plants through various consumer levels. Nutrients are recycled through decomposition and enter the ecosystem again.
Ecology is the study of interactions between organisms and their environment. There are several layers of ecological organization, including the biosphere, ecosystems, communities, populations, and habitats. An ecosystem consists of all the living and non-living things interacting in a defined area. Energy flows through an ecosystem via primary producers, consumers, and decomposers. Organisms within an ecosystem engage in various interactions such as competition, predation, and symbiosis.
ecosystem of environment.
An ecosystem can be visualised as a functional unit of
nature, where living organisms interact among themselves
and also with the surrounding physical environment.
Ecosystem varies greatly in size from a small pond to a
large forest or a sea. Many ecologists regard the entire
biosphere as a global ecosystem, as a composite of all
local ecosystems on Earth. Since this system is too much
big and complex to be studied at one time, it is convenient
to divide it into two basic categories, namely the
terrestrial and the aquatic. Forest, grassland and desert
are some examples of terrestrial ecosystems; pond, lake,
wetland, river and estuary are some examples of aquatic
ecosystems. Crop fields and an aquarium may also be
considered as man-made ecosystems.An ecosystem can be visualised as a functional unit of
nature, where living organisms interact among themselves
and also with the surrounding physical environment.
Ecosystem varies greatly in size from a small pond to a
large forest or a sea. Many ecologists regard the entire
biosphere as a global ecosystem, as a composite of all
local ecosystems on Earth. Since this system is too much
big and complex to be studied at one time, it is convenient
to divide it into two basic categories, namely the
terrestrial and the aquatic. Forest, grassland and desert
are some examples of terrestrial ecosystems; pond, lake,
wetland, river and estuary are some examples of aquatic
ecosystems. Crop fields and an aquarium may also be
considered as man-made ecosystems.An ecosystem can be visualised as a functional unit of
nature, where living organisms interact among themselves
and also with the surrounding physical environment.
Ecosystem varies greatly in size from a small pond to a
large forest or a sea. Many ecologists regard the entire
biosphere as a global ecosystem, as a composite of all
local ecosystems on Earth. Since this system is too much
big and complex to be studied at one time, it is convenient
to divide it into two basic categories, namely the
terrestrial and the aquatic. Forest, grassland and desert
are some examples of terrestrial ecosystems; pond, lake,
wetland, river and estuary are some examples of aquatic
ecosystems. Crop fields and an aquarium may also be
considered as man-made ecosystems.An ecosystem can be visualised as a functional unit of
nature, where living organisms interact among themselves
and also with the surrounding physical environment.
Ecosystem varies greatly in size from a small pond to a
large forest or a sea. Many ecologists regard the entire
biosphere as a global ecosystem, as a composite of all
local ecosystems on Earth. Since this system is too much
big and complex to be studied at one time, it is convenient
to divide it into two basic categories, namely the
terrestrial and the aquatic. Forest, grassland and desert
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The document describes the structure of an equatorial rainforest ecosystem. It consists of four main layers - the forest floor/shrub layer, understory layer, canopy layer, and emergent layer. Each layer contains different plant and animal species adapted to the specific light and moisture conditions in that stratum, with the densest vegetation and most biodiversity found in the canopy layer that supports most wildlife. Together these interacting layers form a rich and complex rainforest ecosystem.
An ecosystem is a system made up of the living and non-living parts of an environment that interact as a unit. It contains individuals of a species, populations of multiple individuals of the same species, and communities of multiple interacting populations. Energy flows through ecosystems via food chains, with producers like plants obtaining energy from the sun, consumers eating producers or other consumers, and decomposers breaking down waste. Food webs illustrate how different food chains interconnect within an ecosystem.
Ecology is the study of the relationships between living organisms and their environment. It examines questions such as why certain organisms live in specific places and how ecosystems differ in their abiotic and biotic factors. An ecosystem includes all the living organisms in a specific area, as well as the physical components with which they interact. Energy and nutrients flow through ecosystems via food chains and food webs, which categorize organisms into trophic levels based on their position as producers, consumers, or decomposers. Biotic and abiotic factors influence population dynamics and species distributions within ecosystems.
This document discusses ecology and ecosystems. It defines ecology as the study of interactions between organisms and their environment. An ecosystem is defined as a group of interacting organisms and their environment. Key components of an ecosystem include biotic factors like plants, animals and microbes, and abiotic factors like sunlight, water and nutrients. Energy flows through ecosystems via food chains and webs with plants as producers, herbivores as primary consumers, and carnivores and decomposers at higher trophic levels. Ecosystems recycle nutrients and allow continual exchange of matter and energy flow.
The document discusses key concepts in ecology. It defines ecology as the scientific study of interactions between organisms and their environment. It notes that ecology is an interdisciplinary field that includes biology and earth science. It also describes several core ecological concepts - ecosystems are composed of interacting living and non-living parts; species have various relationships including competition and cooperation; nutrients cycle through biotic and abiotic components.
This document describes the different types of organisms in an ecosystem and their roles. It explains that producers, such as plants and algae, use energy from sunlight or chemicals to produce food. Consumers, such as animals and fungi, eat the producers or other organisms. Decomposers, like bacteria and fungi, break down dead organisms and waste and release nutrients back into the environment for producers to use again. Together these groups transfer energy through food chains and webs in ecosystems.
The document discusses key concepts in ecology, including producers, consumers, trophic levels, and ecological interactions. It defines ecology as the scientific study of interactions between organisms and their environment. Producers, like plants, capture energy from the sun through photosynthesis. Consumers rely on producers or other consumers for food and include herbivores, carnivores, omnivores, and decomposers. Food chains and webs show the transfer of energy between trophic levels in an ecosystem. Ecological pyramids illustrate the decrease in biomass and energy at higher trophic levels due to only 10% of energy being transferred between levels. Ecological niches describe an organism's role and interactions within its habitat
Viruses are composed of nucleic acids enclosed in a protein coat and are smaller than bacteria. They cannot replicate without a host cell and are considered non-living. A virus infects a host cell by attaching to receptors on its surface, and then either injects its nucleic acid inside or fuses with the host cell's membrane. Once inside, the virus takes over the cell's machinery to replicate itself through one of two cycles - lytic kills the host cell, while lysogenic integrates viral DNA into the host genome without immediately killing the cell. Retroviruses like HIV are unique as they use reverse transcriptase to transcribe their RNA into DNA before integrating into the host cell's chromosome.
Protists are a diverse group of eukaryotic organisms that include protozoa, algae, and fungus-like protists. They can be unicellular or multicellular, microscopic or large, and obtain energy through photosynthesis or consuming other organisms or organic matter. Major groups of protists include protozoa such as amoebas, flagellates, ciliates, and sporozoans; algae which perform photosynthesis; and fungus-like protists such as slime molds, water molds, and downy mildews. Protists play important roles in ecosystems as producers, decomposers, and causes of diseases.
This document discusses taxonomy and the classification of organisms. It explains that taxonomy is the branch of biology that groups and names organisms based on their characteristics. Taxonomists classify organisms into a hierarchy of taxa ranging from broad to specific, with species being the smallest taxon. Characteristics used to classify organisms include anatomy, genetics, biochemistry, and development. The document provides examples of how different organisms like lynxes, bobcats, and mountain lions are classified based on similarities and differences in their anatomy.
The central dogma of biology describes the process by which DNA is transcribed into RNA and then translated into protein. There are three main types of RNA - messenger RNA carries instructions from DNA to the ribosome, ribosomal RNA binds to mRNA and assembles amino acids into proteins, and transfer RNA delivers amino acids to be assembled into proteins. Transcription is the process by which mRNA is copied from DNA, and translation is the process by which the mRNA code is used to assemble amino acids into proteins at the ribosome.
This document provides information about DNA, RNA, and how proteins are made through transcription and translation. It discusses that DNA contains genes that code for proteins. There are three types of RNA: mRNA, rRNA, and tRNA. mRNA brings instructions from the nucleus to the cytoplasm. rRNA and tRNA assist in protein production. The process starts with transcription of DNA to mRNA which is then processed. Translation occurs as tRNA brings amino acids to the ribosome according to mRNA codons to produce a protein.
DNA is the molecule that holds genetic information. It is composed of nucleotides that contain nitrogenous bases, sugars, and phosphates. The nucleotides join together in two strands that twist into a double helix shape. The strands are held together by hydrogen bonds between complementary nucleotide base pairs. The sequence of these bases determines an organism's traits and distinguishes one organism from another. DNA replicates through a process where it unzips and uses free nucleotides to make identical copies of each strand.
This document summarizes the process of meiosis. It begins by explaining that meiosis produces haploid gametes from diploid body cells to allow for sexual reproduction. It then describes the key phases and events of meiosis I and meiosis II, including homologous chromosome pairing, crossing over, and independent assortment. This genetic recombination during meiosis provides variation in offspring. The document concludes by discussing how nondisjunction can occasionally occur, resulting in gametes with an extra or missing chromosome and leading to conditions like Down syndrome.
Gregor Mendel conducted experiments with pea plants to study inheritance of traits. He found that traits are controlled by factors (now known as genes) that are transmitted from parents to offspring. Through his experiments with monohybrid and dihybrid crosses, Mendel discovered his laws of inheritance - the law of segregation, the law of independent assortment, and the law of dominance. His findings formed the basis of classical genetics.
Cellular respiration involves three main stages - glycolysis, the citric acid cycle, and the electron transport chain. Glycolysis breaks down glucose into pyruvic acid in the cytoplasm, producing a small amount of ATP. Pyruvic acid then enters the citric acid cycle in the mitochondria, producing more ATP and electron carriers. These electron carriers transport electrons through the electron transport chain, where oxygen is the final electron acceptor and large amounts of ATP are produced through oxidative phosphorylation.
Energy is stored in ATP molecules and is essential for cellular processes. ATP is formed through photosynthesis, which uses light energy from the sun to produce sugars from carbon dioxide and water. Photosynthesis has two phases: the light-dependent reactions in the chloroplast thylakoid membrane use sunlight to produce ATP and NADPH, and the light-independent Calvin cycle uses these products to incorporate carbon dioxide into sugars like glucose.
Three key factors - concentration, temperature, and pressure - affect the rate of diffusion. Osmosis is the diffusion of water across a selectively permeable membrane and regulates water flow to maintain homeostasis. Cells in hypotonic solutions swell while hypertonic solutions cause cells to shrink or lose water. Transport across the cell membrane includes passive transport using channel/carrier proteins and active transport requiring energy. The cell cycle includes interphase of growth and DNA replication followed by mitosis and cytokinesis to form two daughter cells. Cancer results from changes in genes controlling the cell cycle leading to uncontrolled cell division.
Microscopes enabled the discovery of cells. Robert Hooke first observed plant and animal cells using a microscope in 1665. The Cell Theory, developed in the 19th century, stated that all organisms are composed of cells, cells are the basic unit of structure and organization, and new cells are produced from existing cells. Electron microscopes allowed observation of intracellular structures. Eukaryotic cells contain membrane-bound organelles that perform specialized functions, including the nucleus, which houses DNA, mitochondria and chloroplasts, which generate energy, and the endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi apparatus, which assemble and transport proteins.
The document discusses the importance of water and its properties. Water is a polar molecule with unequal charge distribution, allowing it to dissolve many ionic and polar compounds. Water molecules are also attracted to each other through hydrogen bonding. This property allows water to absorb large amounts of heat, maintaining stable conditions for organisms. The document also summarizes the key biomolecules that make up living things: carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids. It describes the basic monomers, polymers, and functions of each biomolecule.
Biomes are large groups of ecosystems that share similar climax communities. There are terrestrial and aquatic biomes. Aquatic biomes include marine and freshwater biomes. Marine biomes can be divided into photic and aphotic zones. Estuaries are where freshwater and saltwater mix, containing salt marshes that provide nursery habitats. Freshwater biomes include lakes and ponds with different zones based on depth and sunlight availability.
Protists are a diverse group of eukaryotic organisms that include protozoa, algae, and fungus-like protists. They can be unicellular or multicellular, microscopic or large, and obtain energy through photosynthesis or consuming other organisms or organic matter. Some protists are important causes of disease, while others produce oxygen and are foundations of aquatic food webs.
This document discusses the importance of water and its properties. Water is a polar molecule that can dissolve many other polar molecules and ionic compounds due to water's attraction to ions and other polar molecules. Water molecules also attract each other through hydrogen bonding. This allows water to have high heat capacity and help maintain steady environments. The document then summarizes the key biomolecules found in living things, including carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids.
- Elements are substances that cannot be broken down further. Atoms are the basic building blocks of elements and matter. Carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen make up 96% of the human body.
- Atoms contain protons and neutrons in the nucleus, and electrons surrounding the nucleus. Electrons bond atoms together through covalent or ionic bonds to form compounds like water and salt.
- Chemical reactions within organisms drive metabolism to break down and build molecules. Acids and bases are important for chemical reactions in living systems, but strong acids and bases can be dangerous.
Populations grow through births but their growth is limited by environmental factors like resources and space. Populations can experience exponential growth initially but eventually reach carrying capacity, where growth stabilizes. Human populations have grown rapidly due to improved living conditions and medicine, doubling approximately every 40-50 years, but resource limits may slow growth in the future.
Biomes are large groups of ecosystems that share similar climax communities. There are terrestrial and aquatic biomes. Terrestrial biomes include grasslands, tundra, forests, and deserts. Aquatic biomes include marine ecosystems in oceans and freshwater ecosystems in lakes and rivers. Biomes are defined by their abiotic factors like climate and biotic factors like the types of organisms present.
Viruses are non-living particles composed of nucleic acids surrounded by a protein coat. They can only replicate by infecting a living host cell. A virus attaches to and enters a host cell, then uses the cell's machinery to produce copies of itself. It has two replication cycles - lytic causes the cell to burst and release new viruses, lysogenic integrates viral DNA into the host without immediately taking it over. Integrated viral DNA can cause later reoccurrence of diseases like cold sores or shingles.
1. What is Ecology?
• The branch of biology that developed from
natural history is called ecology.
• Ecology is the study of interactions that take
place between organisms and their
environment.
• Ecologists may ask what a coyote eats, how day
length influences plants or migrating birds, or
why tiny shrimp help rid ocean fishes of
parasites.
2. The Biosphere
• On earth, living things are found in the air, on
land, and in both fresh and salt water.
• The biosphere is the portion of Earth that
supports living things.
• Range of the biosphere is from high in the
atmosphere to the bottom of the oceans.
• The biosphere supports a diverse group of
organisms in a wide range of climates.
3. • The climate, soils, plants, and animals in one
part of the world can be very different from
those same factors in other parts of the world.
• Living things are affected by both the physical
or nonliving environment and by other living
things.
• Factors that affect organism are both abiotic
and biotic.
4. Abiotic Factors
• Examples of abiotic factors include air
currents, temperature, moisture.
• Ecology includes the study of features of the
environment that are not living because these
features are part of an organism’s life.
• Abiotic factors have obvious effects on living
things and often determine which species
survive in a particular environment.
5. Biotic Factors
• Living things affect other living things.
• All organisms depend on others directly or
indirectly for food, shelter, reproduction, or
protection.
• Examples plants, animals, bacteria, any thing
that is living.
6. Levels of Organization
• To help ecologists understand the interactions
of biotic and abiotic parts of the world, they
have organized the living world into levels.
• 1. Organism- an individual living thing that is
made of cells, uses energy, reproduces,
responds, grows and develops.
• 2. Population- A group of organisms, all of one
species, which interbreed and live in the same
place at the same time.
7. • 3. Biological community- all the populations of
different species that live in the same place at
the same time.
• 4. Ecosystem- populations of plants and
animals that interact with each other in a
given area and with the abiotic components of
that area.
• 5. Biosphere- the portion of earth that
supports life.
8. Interactions within populations
• Organisms in a population share the resources
of their environment may determine how far
apart the organisms live and how large the
populations become.
• Compete with each other for food, water,
mates, or other resources.
• Competition increases when resources are in
short supply.
9. Interactions within communities
• A change in one population in a community
may cause changes in the other populations.
• Changes can be minor like an increase in
predators cause a decrease in prey.
• Changes can be major like a population may
use up the resources and in turn affecting
another population.
10. Biotic and abiotic factors form
ecosystems
• Biotic factors like insects, grass, trees, squirrels
and abiotic factors like water, temperature
make an ecosystem.
• Two major kinds of ecosystems-terrestrial
ecosystems (forest, meadows, etc.)and
aquatic ecosystem (salt water and fresh water)
11. Organisms in ecosystems
• The place where an organism lives out it’s life
is a habitat.
• Ecosystems covers a large area of the earth.
Habitat covers a small area of an ecosystem.
• Habitat size varies from organism to organism.
• Habitats are also shared with different species
of organism.
12. Survival Relationships
• A predator is a type of consumer like a lion or
an insect-eating bird.
• The animals predators eat are called prey.
• Predator-prey relationships such as the one
between cats and mice involve a fight for
survival.
• But not organisms living in the same
environment are in a continuous battle for
survival.
13. • Studies have shown that most species survive
because of the relationships they have with
other species.
• The relationship in which there is a close and
permanent association between organisms of
different species is called symbiosis.
• Symbiosis means living together.
14. The three kinds of symbiotic
relationships
• 1. Mutualism
• Two species of organisms benefit from living
in close association.
• Ex. Ants and acacia trees living in the
subtropical regions of world. The ants protect
the acacia tree by attacking any animal that
tries to feed on the tree. The tree provides
nectar and a home for ants.
15. • 2. Commensalism
• One species benefits and the other species is
neither harmed nor benefited.
• Ex. Spanish moss on the branches of trees.
The moss benefits because it uses the tree for
support. It holds on to the tree. The tree does
not benefit but is not getting harmed either.
16. • 3. Parasitism
• One organism benefits while harming another.
• Ex. Ticks or fleas on animals. The ticks or fleas
gets nutrients from animal.
• Parasites have evolved in such a way that they
harm, but usually do not kill the host species.
• If host dies then parasite dies also if they don’t
find another host.
• Other examples of parasites: certain bacteria,
tapeworms, roundworms, mistletoe.
17. Nutrition and Energy Flow
Ecologists trace the flow of energy through
communities to discover nutritional
relationships between organisms.
The producers: Autotrophs
The ultimate source of the energy for life is
the sun. Plants use the sun’s energy to
manufacture food in a process called
photosynthesis.
18. Grass and trees are autotrophs. Some unicellular
organisms such as green algae, also make their
own nutrients.
Other organisms in the biosphere depend on
autotrophs for nutrients and energy. These
dependent organisms are called consumers.
19. The consumers: Heterotrophs
A bison eats grass, a deer nibbles the leaves of a
clover plant and owl swallows a mouse.
The bison, deer and owl are consumers,
incapable of producing their own food. They
obtain nutrients by eating other organisms.
Heterotrophs include organisms that feed on
only autotrophs, feed on only other
heterotrophs, or feed on both autotrophs and
heterotrophs.
20. Types of heterotrophs
1. Herbivore – a heterotroph that feeds only on
plants. Ex. Rabbits, grasshoppers, squirrels,
bees.
2. Heterotrophs that eat other heterotrophs.
1.Carnivores- animals that kill and eat only
other animals. Ex. Lions,
2. Scavenger- do not kill for food but eat
animals that have already died. Ex. Black
vultures.
21. 3. Omnivores- consume both autotrophs and
heterotrophs (plants and meat). Ex. Raccons,
opossums and bears.
Decomposers – organisms that break down
dead and decaying plants and animals into
simpler molecules that can be more easily
absorbed. Ex. protazoans, many bacteria, and
most fungi.
22. Flow of matter and energy in
ecosystems
When you eat food, such as an apple you
consume matter.
Matter, in the form of carbon, nitrogen, and
other elements, flow through the levels of an
ecosystem from producers to consumers.
The apple also contains energy from sunlight
that was trapped in the plant during the process
of photosynthesis .
23. As you cycle the matter of the apple, some
trapped energy is transferred from one level to
the next. At each level, a certain amount of
energy is also transferred to the environment as
heat.
Question
How do matter and energy flow through
ecosystems?
24. Food chains: Pathways for matter and
energy
A food chain is a simple model that scientist use
to show how matter and energy move through
an ecosystem.
In a food chain, nutrients and energy move from
autotrophs to heterotrophs and, eventually, to
decomposers.
25. A food chain is drawn using arrows to indicate
the direction in which energy is transferred from
one organism to the next.
Ex. Berries mice black bear
Most food chains consist of two, three, four
transfers. The amount of energy remaining in
the final transfer is only a portion of what was
available at the first transfer. A portion of the
energy is given off as heat at each transfer.
26. Trophic levels represent links
in the chain
Each organism in a food chain represents a
feeding step, or trophic level, in the passage of
energy and materials.
A first order heterotroph is an organism that
feeds on plants, such as a grasshopper.
A second order heterotroph is an organism that
feeds on the first order heterotroph. Ex. Bird
that feeds on a grasshopper.
27. A food chain represents only one possible route
for the transfer of matter and energy through
and ecosystem.
Many other routes may exist. Many different
kinds of organisms eat a variety of foods, so a
single species may feed at several trophic levels
28. The Food Web
Ecologists interested in energy flow in an
ecosystem may set up experiments with as
many organisms in the community as they can.
Food web shows all the possible feeding
relationships at each trophic level in a
community.
Food web represents a network of
interconnected food chains formed by
herbivores and carnivores.
29.
30. Energy and trophic levels: Ecological
Pyramids
• An ecological pyramid can show how energy
flows through an ecosystem.
• The base of the ecological pyramid represents
the autotrophs, or first trophic level.
• Higher trophic levels are layered on top of one
another
31.
32. The pyramid of energy illustrates that the
amount of available energy decreases at each
succeeding trophic level.
The total energy transfer from one trophic level
to the next is only about ten percent because
organisms fail to capture and eat all the food
energy available at eh trophic level below them.
33.
34. Cycles In Nature
Since energy is also transferred to the
environment as heat generated by the body
processes of organisms.
Sunlight is the primary source of all this energy,
and is always being replenished by the sun.
Matter, in the form of nutrients, also moves
through, or is part of, all organisms at each
trophic level. But matter is cycled and is not
replenished like the energy from sunlight.
35. • There is a finite amount of matter.
The atoms of carbon, nitrogen, and other
elements that make up the bodies of organisms
alive today are the same atoms that have been
on Earth since life began.
Matter is constantly recycled. It is never lost.
36. The water cycle
Life on earth depends on water.
1. Evaporation- water evaporates from lakes and
oceans and becomes water vapor in the air.
2. Transpiration- the loss of water through the
leaves of plants.
Where do the drops of water that form on a cold
can of soda come from?
37. The water vapor in the air condenses on the
surface of the can because the can is colder than
the surrounding air.
3. Condensation- water vapor condenses. Forms
clouds.
4. Precipitation- rain, ice, or snow
Animals breathe out water vapor when they
breath. When they perspire or urinate, water
also is returned to the environment.
38.
39. The carbon cycle
All life on Earth is based on carbon molecules.
Atoms of carbon form the framework for
proteins, carbohydrates, fats, and other
important molecules.
Carbon is the molecule of life.
40. During photosynthesis, energy from the sun is
used by autotrophic organisms to convert
carbon dioxide gas into energy-rich carbon
molecules that many organisms use for food and
a source of energy.
Plants take in carbon in the form of carbon
dioxide for growth and energy.
41. Heterotrophs, which feed either directly or
indirectly on the autotrophs, use these carbon
molecules for growth and energy.
Carbon is taken out of the atmosphere by
photosynthesis.
Carbon is put back in the atmosphere by
respiration, fuel combustion, and open burning
42.
43. The nitrogen cycle
When you add nitrogen fertilizer to a lawn,
houseplants, or garden, you may see that they
become greener, bushier, and taller.
Even though the air is 78% nitrogen, plants seem
to do better when they receive nitrogen
fertilizer.
44. This is because most plants cannot use the
nitrogen in the air. They use nitrogen in the soil
that has been converted into more usable
forms.
Certain bacteria convert the nitrogen from air
into these more usable forms. Chemical
fertilizers also give plants nitrogen in a form they
can use.
45. The cycle:
1. Nitrogen fixing bacteria convert nitrogen in a
form that plants can use.
2.Plants use nitrogen to make molecules such
protein.
3. Herbivores eat plants and convert plant’s
protein into an animal protein.
4. Then carnivores eat herbivores and convert
the protein in a form that they require.
46. 5. Urine, contains nitrogen compounds so
animal put nitrogen back to the water or soil.
6. Organism die and decay, nitrogen returns to
the soil and eventually to the atmosphere or
plants can reuse the nitrogen.
7. Soil bacteria also act on these molecules and
put nitrogen back into the air.
47.
48. The Phosphorus Cycle
All organisms require phosphorus for growth
and development. Phosphorus cycles in two
ways.
Short term cycle.
1. Plants obtain Phosphorus from the soil.
2. Animals obtain phosphorus by eating plants.
3. When animals die, they decompose and the
phosphorus is returned to the soil to be used
again.
49. Long term cycle
Phosphates washed into water become
incorporated into rock as insoluble compounds.
Millions of years later, as the environment
changes, the rock containing phosphorus is
exposed. As the rock erodes, the phosphorus
again becomes part of the local ecological
system.