The document discusses disorders of memory from a biological and clinical perspective. It describes the biology of memory including neural plasticity and long-term potentiation. It examines different types of memory and various memory disorders like amnesia. Case studies of patients with memory disorders are presented to illustrate the role of medial temporal structures in memory. Assessment techniques for memory in clinical settings are also outlined.
Emotion, Classification of emotion, Normal emotional reactions, Abnormal emotional reactions, Abnormal reaction of emotion, Morbid expression of emotion, Communication of mood, Categories of emotion, Pathological changes in mood, Feeling of loss, Anhedonia, Feeling of impending disaster, Ecstasy, Feelings attached with the perception of objects, Feelings directed towards people, Free floating emotion, Experience and expression of emotion, Vital feelings, Religious feelings, Manic Depressive mood, Suicidal thoughts, Depersonalization, Internal restlessness, Cyclothymia and related conditions, Depression and loss, Grief, Helplessness and hopelessness, Mania, Manic thoughts
Emotion, Classification of emotion, Normal emotional reactions, Abnormal emotional reactions, Abnormal reaction of emotion, Morbid expression of emotion, Communication of mood, Categories of emotion, Pathological changes in mood, Feeling of loss, Anhedonia, Feeling of impending disaster, Ecstasy, Feelings attached with the perception of objects, Feelings directed towards people, Free floating emotion, Experience and expression of emotion, Vital feelings, Religious feelings, Manic Depressive mood, Suicidal thoughts, Depersonalization, Internal restlessness, Cyclothymia and related conditions, Depression and loss, Grief, Helplessness and hopelessness, Mania, Manic thoughts
The association of neuropsychiatric disorders with cerebrovascular disease has been recognized by clinicians for over 100 years. Disease of the vascular system contribute greatly to the sum total of psychiatric disability, chiefly in the elderly population, mainly as a result of stroke, cerebrovascular accidents & subarachnoid haemorrhage.
What is consciousness
Characteristics of consciousness
Dimension of consciousness
Disturbance of consciousness
Active and passive consciousness
Distractibility
Dream like change of Consciousness
Unconsciousness
Subjective motor Disorders
Objective motor Disorders
Disorders of adaptive movements
Disorders of reactive movements
Disorders of goal directed movements
Disorders of non adaptive movements
Sterotype
Parakinesia
Involuntary movements
Tremors, chorea, athetosis, spasmodic torticollis
Abnormal induced movements
Motor speech disturbances
Disorders of posture
Abnormal complex patterns of behaviour
Movement Disorders associated with antipsychotic medication
DISORDER CONTENTOF THOUGHT -DELUSION
BY DR.WASIM
UNDER GUIDANCE OF
DR.SANJAY.JAIN
Definition of delusion:
Delusions are categorized into four different groups
THERE ARE 2 TYPES OF DISORDERS OF THOUGHT CONTENT
1.DELUSION
2.OVERVALUED IDEAS
DISTINGUISED
DELUSION
OTHER MEMBERS OF THE CULTURE DONOT SHARE THE BELIEF.
NEED NOT BE ASSOCIATED WITH AFFECT.
FIRMLY SUSTAINED BELIEF.
CONVINCED THAT DELUSION IS REAL.
RECOGNIZED AS ABSURED.
CANNOT BE ACCEPTED.
OCCUR IN MENTALLY ILL PATIENTS.
OVERVALUED IDEAS
OTHER MEMBERS OF THE CULTURE SHARE THE BELIEF.
ASSOCIATED WITH VERY STRONG AFFECT.
NOT HELD FIRMLY.
ATLEAST SOME LEVEL OF DOUBT AS TO ITS TRUTHFULNESS.
NOT RECOGNIZED AS ABSURED.
ACCEPTABLE.
CAN OCCUR IN BOTH HEALTHY AND MENTALLY ILL PATIENTS.
KENDLER’S VECTORS FOR DELUSION:
five stages in the development of delusion(FISH & CONRAD)
FACTORS CONCERNED WITH GENERATION OF DELUSIONS
PATHPOPHYSIOLOGY OF DELUSIONS
PRIMARY DELUSIONS
SECONDARY DELUSIONS
SYSTEMATIZATION
DELUSIONS ON THE BASIS OF CONTENT OF DELUSIONS
THANK YOU
Classification in Psychiatry
The concept, reliability, validity, advantages and disadvantages of different classification systems, controversies in psychiatry classification
screening models for Nootropics and models for Alzheimer's diseaseAswin Palanisamy
Preclinical and screening model for Nootropics, and models for Alzheimer's disease, in the detailed view, in vivo and in vitro models with neat pictures for easy understanding. for m.pharm students.
The association of neuropsychiatric disorders with cerebrovascular disease has been recognized by clinicians for over 100 years. Disease of the vascular system contribute greatly to the sum total of psychiatric disability, chiefly in the elderly population, mainly as a result of stroke, cerebrovascular accidents & subarachnoid haemorrhage.
What is consciousness
Characteristics of consciousness
Dimension of consciousness
Disturbance of consciousness
Active and passive consciousness
Distractibility
Dream like change of Consciousness
Unconsciousness
Subjective motor Disorders
Objective motor Disorders
Disorders of adaptive movements
Disorders of reactive movements
Disorders of goal directed movements
Disorders of non adaptive movements
Sterotype
Parakinesia
Involuntary movements
Tremors, chorea, athetosis, spasmodic torticollis
Abnormal induced movements
Motor speech disturbances
Disorders of posture
Abnormal complex patterns of behaviour
Movement Disorders associated with antipsychotic medication
DISORDER CONTENTOF THOUGHT -DELUSION
BY DR.WASIM
UNDER GUIDANCE OF
DR.SANJAY.JAIN
Definition of delusion:
Delusions are categorized into four different groups
THERE ARE 2 TYPES OF DISORDERS OF THOUGHT CONTENT
1.DELUSION
2.OVERVALUED IDEAS
DISTINGUISED
DELUSION
OTHER MEMBERS OF THE CULTURE DONOT SHARE THE BELIEF.
NEED NOT BE ASSOCIATED WITH AFFECT.
FIRMLY SUSTAINED BELIEF.
CONVINCED THAT DELUSION IS REAL.
RECOGNIZED AS ABSURED.
CANNOT BE ACCEPTED.
OCCUR IN MENTALLY ILL PATIENTS.
OVERVALUED IDEAS
OTHER MEMBERS OF THE CULTURE SHARE THE BELIEF.
ASSOCIATED WITH VERY STRONG AFFECT.
NOT HELD FIRMLY.
ATLEAST SOME LEVEL OF DOUBT AS TO ITS TRUTHFULNESS.
NOT RECOGNIZED AS ABSURED.
ACCEPTABLE.
CAN OCCUR IN BOTH HEALTHY AND MENTALLY ILL PATIENTS.
KENDLER’S VECTORS FOR DELUSION:
five stages in the development of delusion(FISH & CONRAD)
FACTORS CONCERNED WITH GENERATION OF DELUSIONS
PATHPOPHYSIOLOGY OF DELUSIONS
PRIMARY DELUSIONS
SECONDARY DELUSIONS
SYSTEMATIZATION
DELUSIONS ON THE BASIS OF CONTENT OF DELUSIONS
THANK YOU
Classification in Psychiatry
The concept, reliability, validity, advantages and disadvantages of different classification systems, controversies in psychiatry classification
screening models for Nootropics and models for Alzheimer's diseaseAswin Palanisamy
Preclinical and screening model for Nootropics, and models for Alzheimer's disease, in the detailed view, in vivo and in vitro models with neat pictures for easy understanding. for m.pharm students.
Alzheimer's is an irremediable progressive brain disorder. A neurological disease that destroys brain cells leading to atrophy. The most common type of dementia. Mostly affect people in the old age group usually above 62-65 years old. Under-recognized disease becoming a major public health problem. symptoms include the inability to carry out the day-to-day tasks. Destruction of memory and thinking skills- also referred to as Mild Cognitive Impairment
Language problems. Unpredictable behavior (mood swings). Vision/spatial issues.
Impaired reasoning and judgment. With time as the disease progresses, some people become worried, angry, or violent. There are various factors responsible for this disease-
Accumulation of certain proteins such as tau and amyloid (form tangles inside neurons)
People with smoking habits, obesity, diabetes, and high blood pressure are at higher risk of developing this disease.
Age, family history, and people who have had severe head injuries develop this disease more compared to others.
A person with untreated depression. In a person suffering from Alzheimer's Brain cells start to deteriorate. Brain inflammation and may lack the glucose needed to power its activity.
The vascular system fails to deliver sufficient blood and nutrients to the brain.
Neurons lose their ability to communicate.The entorhinal cortex and hippocampus (parts of the brain involved in memory) are damagedIn later stages, it affects the areas in the cerebral cortex.
Flu Vaccine Alert in Bangalore Karnatakaaddon Scans
As flu season approaches, health officials in Bangalore, Karnataka, are urging residents to get their flu vaccinations. The seasonal flu, while common, can lead to severe health complications, particularly for vulnerable populations such as young children, the elderly, and those with underlying health conditions.
Dr. Vidisha Kumari, a leading epidemiologist in Bangalore, emphasizes the importance of getting vaccinated. "The flu vaccine is our best defense against the influenza virus. It not only protects individuals but also helps prevent the spread of the virus in our communities," he says.
This year, the flu season is expected to coincide with a potential increase in other respiratory illnesses. The Karnataka Health Department has launched an awareness campaign highlighting the significance of flu vaccinations. They have set up multiple vaccination centers across Bangalore, making it convenient for residents to receive their shots.
To encourage widespread vaccination, the government is also collaborating with local schools, workplaces, and community centers to facilitate vaccination drives. Special attention is being given to ensuring that the vaccine is accessible to all, including marginalized communities who may have limited access to healthcare.
Residents are reminded that the flu vaccine is safe and effective. Common side effects are mild and may include soreness at the injection site, mild fever, or muscle aches. These side effects are generally short-lived and far less severe than the flu itself.
Healthcare providers are also stressing the importance of continuing COVID-19 precautions. Wearing masks, practicing good hand hygiene, and maintaining social distancing are still crucial, especially in crowded places.
Protect yourself and your loved ones by getting vaccinated. Together, we can help keep Bangalore healthy and safe this flu season. For more information on vaccination centers and schedules, residents can visit the Karnataka Health Department’s official website or follow their social media pages.
Stay informed, stay safe, and get your flu shot today!
The prostate is an exocrine gland of the male mammalian reproductive system
It is a walnut-sized gland that forms part of the male reproductive system and is located in front of the rectum and just below the urinary bladder
Function is to store and secrete a clear, slightly alkaline fluid that constitutes 10-30% of the volume of the seminal fluid that along with the spermatozoa, constitutes semen
A healthy human prostate measures (4cm-vertical, by 3cm-horizontal, 2cm ant-post ).
It surrounds the urethra just below the urinary bladder. It has anterior, median, posterior and two lateral lobes
It’s work is regulated by androgens which are responsible for male sex characteristics
Generalised disease of the prostate due to hormonal derangement which leads to non malignant enlargement of the gland (increase in the number of epithelial cells and stromal tissue)to cause compression of the urethra leading to symptoms (LUTS
Prix Galien International 2024 Forum ProgramLevi Shapiro
June 20, 2024, Prix Galien International and Jerusalem Ethics Forum in ROME. Detailed agenda including panels:
- ADVANCES IN CARDIOLOGY: A NEW PARADIGM IS COMING
- WOMEN’S HEALTH: FERTILITY PRESERVATION
- WHAT’S NEW IN THE TREATMENT OF INFECTIOUS,
ONCOLOGICAL AND INFLAMMATORY SKIN DISEASES?
- ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE AND ETHICS
- GENE THERAPY
- BEYOND BORDERS: GLOBAL INITIATIVES FOR DEMOCRATIZING LIFE SCIENCE TECHNOLOGIES AND PROMOTING ACCESS TO HEALTHCARE
- ETHICAL CHALLENGES IN LIFE SCIENCES
- Prix Galien International Awards Ceremony
Report Back from SGO 2024: What’s the Latest in Cervical Cancer?bkling
Are you curious about what’s new in cervical cancer research or unsure what the findings mean? Join Dr. Emily Ko, a gynecologic oncologist at Penn Medicine, to learn about the latest updates from the Society of Gynecologic Oncology (SGO) 2024 Annual Meeting on Women’s Cancer. Dr. Ko will discuss what the research presented at the conference means for you and answer your questions about the new developments.
- Video recording of this lecture in English language: https://youtu.be/lK81BzxMqdo
- Video recording of this lecture in Arabic language: https://youtu.be/Ve4P0COk9OI
- Link to download the book free: https://nephrotube.blogspot.com/p/nephrotube-nephrology-books.html
- Link to NephroTube website: www.NephroTube.com
- Link to NephroTube social media accounts: https://nephrotube.blogspot.com/p/join-nephrotube-on-social-media.html
These simplified slides by Dr. Sidra Arshad present an overview of the non-respiratory functions of the respiratory tract.
Learning objectives:
1. Enlist the non-respiratory functions of the respiratory tract
2. Briefly explain how these functions are carried out
3. Discuss the significance of dead space
4. Differentiate between minute ventilation and alveolar ventilation
5. Describe the cough and sneeze reflexes
Study Resources:
1. Chapter 39, Guyton and Hall Textbook of Medical Physiology, 14th edition
2. Chapter 34, Ganong’s Review of Medical Physiology, 26th edition
3. Chapter 17, Human Physiology by Lauralee Sherwood, 9th edition
4. Non-respiratory functions of the lungs https://academic.oup.com/bjaed/article/13/3/98/278874
TEST BANK for Operations Management, 14th Edition by William J. Stevenson, Ve...kevinkariuki227
TEST BANK for Operations Management, 14th Edition by William J. Stevenson, Verified Chapters 1 - 19, Complete Newest Version.pdf
TEST BANK for Operations Management, 14th Edition by William J. Stevenson, Verified Chapters 1 - 19, Complete Newest Version.pdf
Acute scrotum is a general term referring to an emergency condition affecting the contents or the wall of the scrotum.
There are a number of conditions that present acutely, predominantly with pain and/or swelling
A careful and detailed history and examination, and in some cases, investigations allow differentiation between these diagnoses. A prompt diagnosis is essential as the patient may require urgent surgical intervention
Testicular torsion refers to twisting of the spermatic cord, causing ischaemia of the testicle.
Testicular torsion results from inadequate fixation of the testis to the tunica vaginalis producing ischemia from reduced arterial inflow and venous outflow obstruction.
The prevalence of testicular torsion in adult patients hospitalized with acute scrotal pain is approximately 25 to 50 percent
Title: Sense of Taste
Presenter: Dr. Faiza, Assistant Professor of Physiology
Qualifications:
MBBS (Best Graduate, AIMC Lahore)
FCPS Physiology
ICMT, CHPE, DHPE (STMU)
MPH (GC University, Faisalabad)
MBA (Virtual University of Pakistan)
Learning Objectives:
Describe the structure and function of taste buds.
Describe the relationship between the taste threshold and taste index of common substances.
Explain the chemical basis and signal transduction of taste perception for each type of primary taste sensation.
Recognize different abnormalities of taste perception and their causes.
Key Topics:
Significance of Taste Sensation:
Differentiation between pleasant and harmful food
Influence on behavior
Selection of food based on metabolic needs
Receptors of Taste:
Taste buds on the tongue
Influence of sense of smell, texture of food, and pain stimulation (e.g., by pepper)
Primary and Secondary Taste Sensations:
Primary taste sensations: Sweet, Sour, Salty, Bitter, Umami
Chemical basis and signal transduction mechanisms for each taste
Taste Threshold and Index:
Taste threshold values for Sweet (sucrose), Salty (NaCl), Sour (HCl), and Bitter (Quinine)
Taste index relationship: Inversely proportional to taste threshold
Taste Blindness:
Inability to taste certain substances, particularly thiourea compounds
Example: Phenylthiocarbamide
Structure and Function of Taste Buds:
Composition: Epithelial cells, Sustentacular/Supporting cells, Taste cells, Basal cells
Features: Taste pores, Taste hairs/microvilli, and Taste nerve fibers
Location of Taste Buds:
Found in papillae of the tongue (Fungiform, Circumvallate, Foliate)
Also present on the palate, tonsillar pillars, epiglottis, and proximal esophagus
Mechanism of Taste Stimulation:
Interaction of taste substances with receptors on microvilli
Signal transduction pathways for Umami, Sweet, Bitter, Sour, and Salty tastes
Taste Sensitivity and Adaptation:
Decrease in sensitivity with age
Rapid adaptation of taste sensation
Role of Saliva in Taste:
Dissolution of tastants to reach receptors
Washing away the stimulus
Taste Preferences and Aversions:
Mechanisms behind taste preference and aversion
Influence of receptors and neural pathways
Impact of Sensory Nerve Damage:
Degeneration of taste buds if the sensory nerve fiber is cut
Abnormalities of Taste Detection:
Conditions: Ageusia, Hypogeusia, Dysgeusia (parageusia)
Causes: Nerve damage, neurological disorders, infections, poor oral hygiene, adverse drug effects, deficiencies, aging, tobacco use, altered neurotransmitter levels
Neurotransmitters and Taste Threshold:
Effects of serotonin (5-HT) and norepinephrine (NE) on taste sensitivity
Supertasters:
25% of the population with heightened sensitivity to taste, especially bitterness
Increased number of fungiform papillae
Recomendações da OMS sobre cuidados maternos e neonatais para uma experiência pós-natal positiva.
Em consonância com os ODS – Objetivos do Desenvolvimento Sustentável e a Estratégia Global para a Saúde das Mulheres, Crianças e Adolescentes, e aplicando uma abordagem baseada nos direitos humanos, os esforços de cuidados pós-natais devem expandir-se para além da cobertura e da simples sobrevivência, de modo a incluir cuidados de qualidade.
Estas diretrizes visam melhorar a qualidade dos cuidados pós-natais essenciais e de rotina prestados às mulheres e aos recém-nascidos, com o objetivo final de melhorar a saúde e o bem-estar materno e neonatal.
Uma “experiência pós-natal positiva” é um resultado importante para todas as mulheres que dão à luz e para os seus recém-nascidos, estabelecendo as bases para a melhoria da saúde e do bem-estar a curto e longo prazo. Uma experiência pós-natal positiva é definida como aquela em que as mulheres, pessoas que gestam, os recém-nascidos, os casais, os pais, os cuidadores e as famílias recebem informação consistente, garantia e apoio de profissionais de saúde motivados; e onde um sistema de saúde flexível e com recursos reconheça as necessidades das mulheres e dos bebês e respeite o seu contexto cultural.
Estas diretrizes consolidadas apresentam algumas recomendações novas e já bem fundamentadas sobre cuidados pós-natais de rotina para mulheres e neonatos que recebem cuidados no pós-parto em unidades de saúde ou na comunidade, independentemente dos recursos disponíveis.
É fornecido um conjunto abrangente de recomendações para cuidados durante o período puerperal, com ênfase nos cuidados essenciais que todas as mulheres e recém-nascidos devem receber, e com a devida atenção à qualidade dos cuidados; isto é, a entrega e a experiência do cuidado recebido. Estas diretrizes atualizam e ampliam as recomendações da OMS de 2014 sobre cuidados pós-natais da mãe e do recém-nascido e complementam as atuais diretrizes da OMS sobre a gestão de complicações pós-natais.
O estabelecimento da amamentação e o manejo das principais intercorrências é contemplada.
Recomendamos muito.
Vamos discutir essas recomendações no nosso curso de pós-graduação em Aleitamento no Instituto Ciclos.
Esta publicação só está disponível em inglês até o momento.
Prof. Marcus Renato de Carvalho
www.agostodourado.com
Title: Sense of Smell
Presenter: Dr. Faiza, Assistant Professor of Physiology
Qualifications:
MBBS (Best Graduate, AIMC Lahore)
FCPS Physiology
ICMT, CHPE, DHPE (STMU)
MPH (GC University, Faisalabad)
MBA (Virtual University of Pakistan)
Learning Objectives:
Describe the primary categories of smells and the concept of odor blindness.
Explain the structure and location of the olfactory membrane and mucosa, including the types and roles of cells involved in olfaction.
Describe the pathway and mechanisms of olfactory signal transmission from the olfactory receptors to the brain.
Illustrate the biochemical cascade triggered by odorant binding to olfactory receptors, including the role of G-proteins and second messengers in generating an action potential.
Identify different types of olfactory disorders such as anosmia, hyposmia, hyperosmia, and dysosmia, including their potential causes.
Key Topics:
Olfactory Genes:
3% of the human genome accounts for olfactory genes.
400 genes for odorant receptors.
Olfactory Membrane:
Located in the superior part of the nasal cavity.
Medially: Folds downward along the superior septum.
Laterally: Folds over the superior turbinate and upper surface of the middle turbinate.
Total surface area: 5-10 square centimeters.
Olfactory Mucosa:
Olfactory Cells: Bipolar nerve cells derived from the CNS (100 million), with 4-25 olfactory cilia per cell.
Sustentacular Cells: Produce mucus and maintain ionic and molecular environment.
Basal Cells: Replace worn-out olfactory cells with an average lifespan of 1-2 months.
Bowman’s Gland: Secretes mucus.
Stimulation of Olfactory Cells:
Odorant dissolves in mucus and attaches to receptors on olfactory cilia.
Involves a cascade effect through G-proteins and second messengers, leading to depolarization and action potential generation in the olfactory nerve.
Quality of a Good Odorant:
Small (3-20 Carbon atoms), volatile, water-soluble, and lipid-soluble.
Facilitated by odorant-binding proteins in mucus.
Membrane Potential and Action Potential:
Resting membrane potential: -55mV.
Action potential frequency in the olfactory nerve increases with odorant strength.
Adaptation Towards the Sense of Smell:
Rapid adaptation within the first second, with further slow adaptation.
Psychological adaptation greater than receptor adaptation, involving feedback inhibition from the central nervous system.
Primary Sensations of Smell:
Camphoraceous, Musky, Floral, Pepperminty, Ethereal, Pungent, Putrid.
Odor Detection Threshold:
Examples: Hydrogen sulfide (0.0005 ppm), Methyl-mercaptan (0.002 ppm).
Some toxic substances are odorless at lethal concentrations.
Characteristics of Smell:
Odor blindness for single substances due to lack of appropriate receptor protein.
Behavioral and emotional influences of smell.
Transmission of Olfactory Signals:
From olfactory cells to glomeruli in the olfactory bulb, involving lateral inhibition.
Primitive, less old, and new olfactory systems with different path
2. Biology of memory
• Memory is the glue that binds mental life, the scaffolding for personal
history.
• Memory is a special case of the general biological phenomenon of
neural plasticity. Neurons can show history-dependent activity by
responding differently as a function of prior input, and this plasticity of
nerve cells and synapses is the basis of memory.
3. • A major source of information about memory has come from extended
study of the marine mollusk Aplysia californica.
• Aplysia is capable of associative learning (including classic
conditioning and operant conditioning) and nonassociative learning
(habituation and sensitization).
4. • In vertebrates, memory cannot be studied quite as directly as in the
simple nervous system of Aplysia.
• Long-term memory in vertebrates is thought to be based on
morphological growth and change, including increases in synaptic
strength along particular pathways.
5. Long-Term Potentiation
• The phenomenon of LTP candidate mechanism for mammalian
longterm memory.
LTP
observed when a postsynaptic neuron is persistently depolarized
after a high-frequency burst of presynaptic neural firing.
LTP
has number of properties that make it suitable as a physiological
substrate of memory.
6. • It is established quickly and then lasts for a long time.
• It is associative, in that it depends on the co-occurrence of presynaptic
activity and postsynaptic depolarization.
• It occurs only at potentiated synapses, not all synapses terminating on
the postsynaptic cell.
• LTP occurs prominently in the hippocampus, a structure important for
memory.
10. Method for elucidating molecular mechanisms of memory
introducing specific mutations into the genome
By deleting a single gene, mice can be produced with specific
receptors or cell signaling molecules inactivated or altered.
• Genetic manipulations introduced reversibly in the adult are
particularly advantageous in that specific molecular changes can be
induced in developmentally normal animals.
11. Associative Learning
• The study of classical conditioning has provided insight into the
biology of memory.
• Classical conditioning has been especially well studied in rabbits using
a tone as the conditioned stimulus and an air puff to the eye (which
automatically elicits a blink response) as the unconditioned stimulus.
• Repeated pairings of the tone and the air puff lead to a conditioned
response, in that the tone alone elicits an eye blink.
12. • Reversible lesions of the deep nuclei of the cerebellum eliminate the
conditioned response without affecting the unconditioned response.
• These lesions also prevent initial learning from occurring, and, when
the lesion is reversed,rabbits learn normally. Thus, the cerebellum
contains essential circuitry for the learned association.
• The relevant plasticity appears to be distributed between the
cerebellar cortex and the deep nuclei.
14. CORTICAL ORGANIZATION OF MEMORY
• Karl Lashley, after a number of trials in rats to know the locus of
memory ,after removing different areas of brain found that the
deficit was proportional to the amount of cortex removed.
• The deficit did not seem to depend on the particular location of
cortical damage.
• Lashley concluded that the memory resulting from maze
learning was not localized in any one part of the brain but
instead was distributed equivalently over the entire cortex.
• Maze learning in rats depends on different types of information,
including visual,tactile, spatial, and olfactory information.
15. Reference-Wideman, N. (1999). Constructing scientific psychology: Karl Lashley’s Mind-Brain Debates. Cambridge
University Press.
16. Immediate memory and Working memory
• Specific visual processing areas in the dorsal and ventral streams,together
with areas in prefrontal cortex, register the immediate experience of
perceptual processing.
• The results of perceptual processing are first available as immediate
memory.
• Immediate memory the amount of information that can be held in mind
(like a telephone number) so that it is available for immediate use.
• Immediate memory can be extended in time by rehearsing or otherwise
manipulating the information, in which case what is stored is now said to be
in working memory.
17.
18. MEMORY AND AMNESIA
• The hallmark of amnesia is a loss of new learning ability that extends
across all sensory modalities and stimulus domains
Anterograde amnesia
• Can be explained by understanding the role of brain structures critical
for acquiring information about facts and events.
• Typically,anterograde amnesia occurs together with retrograde
amnesia, a loss of knowledge that was acquired before the onset of
amnesia.
• Retrograde deficits often have a temporal gradient, following a
principle known as Ribot law; deficits are most severe for information
that was most recently learned.
20. • A patient with a presentation of amnesia exhibits severe memory
deficits in the context of preservation of other cognitive
functions,including language comprehension and production,
reasoning, attention,immediate memory, personality, and social skills.
• The selectivity of the memory deficit in these cases implies that
intellectual and perceptual functions of the brain are separated from
the capacity to maintain in memory the records that ordinarily result
from engaging in intellectual and perceptual work.
21. Case findings
HM became amnesic in 1953, at 27 years of age, when he sustained a bilateral resection of the
medial temporal lobe to relieve severe epilepsy. The removal included approximately one-half
of the hippocampus, the amygdala, and most of the neighboring entorhinal and perirhinal
cortices. After the surgery, HM’s seizure condition was much improved, but he
experienced profound forgetfulness. His intellectual functions were generally preserved. For
example, HM exhibited normal immediate memory, and he could maintain his attention
during conversations. After an interruption, however, HM could not remember what had
recently occurred. HM’s dense amnesia was permanent and debilitating. In HM’s words, he felt
as if he were just waking from a dream, because he had no recollection of what had just taken
place.
22.
23. • Cumulative study of the resulting memory impairment eventually
identified the medial temporal structures and connections that are
crucial for memory.
• These include the hippocampus—which includes the dentate gyrus,
hippocampal fields CA1,CA2, and CA3, and the subiculum—and also
the adjacent cortical regions including the entorhinal, perirhinal, and
parahippocampal cortices.
24. Case findings
• EP was diagnosed with herpes simplex encephalitis at 72 years of age.
Damage to the medial temporal lobe region produced a persistent and
profound amnesia. During testing sessions, EP is cordial and talks freely
about his life experiences, but he relies exclusively on stories from his
childhood and early adulthood. He will repeat the same story many times.
Strikingly his performance on tests of recognition memory is no better than
would result from guessing. Tests involving facts about his life and
autobiographical experiences revealed poor memory for the time leading up
to his illness but normal memory for his childhood .EP also has good spatial
knowledge about the town in which he lived as a child, but he has been
unable to learn the layout of the neighborhood where he lived only after he
became amnesic .
32. • False reconnaissance is defined as false recognition or
misidentification and it can occur in organic psychoses and in acute
and chronic schizophrenia.
• It may be positive when the patient recognises strangers as their
friends and relatives.
• In confusional states and acute schizophrenia, at most, a few people
are positively misidentified.
• In negative misidentification ,the patient insists that friends and
relatives are not whom they say they are and that they are strangers in
disguise.
33. Ganser State
• Vorbeigehen (‘to pass by’) or approximate answers.
• Clouding of consciousness with disorientation.
• ‘Hysterical’ stigmata.
• Recent history of head injury, typhus or severe emotional stress.
• ‘Hallucinations’, auditory and visual
34. • According to Enoch and Trethowan,there are four features in Ganser’s
syndrome:
A. approximate answers
B. clouding of consciousness
C. somatic conversion features
D. pseudohallucinations (not always present).
36. Recovered Memory and False Memory
Syndrome
• The recovery of additional memories after apparent psychogenic
amnesia for a long time.
• Recovered memory has been particularly associated with the return
of memory for childhood sexual abuse.
• False Memory syndrome patients are typically females and are
subjected to sexual abuse by their parents during their childhood.
37. Perseveration
• Defined as a response that was appropriate to a first stimulus being
given inappropriately to a second, different stimulus.
• Usually occurs in association with disturbance of memory
• Sign of organic brain disease, perhaps the only pathognomonic sign in
psychiatry.
• It occurs with clouding of consciousness and is particularly useful in
distinguishing this from dissociative abnormalities.
• This may be demonstrated verbally or in motor activity.
38. MEMORY DISTURBANCE AND
ELECTROCONVULSIVE THERAPY
• Memory disturbance associated with impaired learning ability,
defective retrieval and apparent loss of memory stores.
• Retrograde amnesia is more common than anterograde amnesia.
• According to Weeks et. al,ECT does not produce lasting impairment
when used in everyday clinical circumstances.
• According to Fraser, the memory loss that follows ECT is minimal and
can be detected for only a few hours after treatment.
39. MEMORY IMPAIRMENT IN SCHIZOPHRENIA
• Deficits in long-term memory.
• Impaired retrieval in both recall and recognition.
• Impaired short-term memory.
• Impaired working memory and semantic memory, but procedural or
implicit memory is intact.
40. Temporal lobe disorder
• Disorder of memory in TLD includes the hippocampal defects of
diminished storage and accelerated forgetting;
• Déjà vu and Jamais vu also occur.
• There may be altered states of consciousness such as a fugue, with
impaired registration.
41. Clinical assessment of Memory
• Ask the patient to listen carefully while you tell him a name and address, then ask for
its immediate reproduction.
• Record his answer verbatim, and repeat if necessary when the first response is
unsatisfactory.
• Test retrieval 3–5 minutes later after interposing other cognitive tests, and again
record the answer verbatim.
• Test ability to repeat a sentence immediately after a single hearing.
• The sentence should be appropriate to the patient’s intellectual level as in the
following examples from the Stanford–Binet series.
42. • For a 13 yr old: ‘The aeroplane made a careful landing in the space
which had been prepared for it’.
• Average adult: ‘The red-headed woodpeckers made a terrible fuss as
they tried to drive the young away from the nest.’
• Superior adult: ‘At the end of the week the newspaper published a
complete account of the experiences of the great explorer.’
• With patients having limited ability or who are hard to be sure of
cooperation a technique which is similar to that of Irving et al. can be
used.
• Addenbrooke’s Cognitive examination-III can be used to assess
memory in dementia patients
45. • Valid assesment of patient’s recent memory requires that any question
asked by the examiner should be verified from another source other
than the patient.
• ORIENTATION-
Orientation to Time and Place is an example of recent memory
• Disorientation recent memory deficit.
• Immediate recall(Short-term memory)Digit span test
• Recent Incidental Memoryability to recall events occurred during
the hours or days before the evaluation.
46. • New Learning-ability to actively learn new material,a process that
requires establishing new memories.
• Four Unrelated Words-Brown,honesty,tulip,eyedropper.
• Verbal story for immediate or delayed recall
• Visual Memory(Hidden objects)
• Remote Memory-ability to recall personal and social events from
remote past.
47. Take home Message…….
• Memory is of clinical interest because disorders of memory and complaints
about memory are common in neurological and psychiatric illness.
• Personalities are shaped by nondeclarative memories in the form of
numerous habits and conditioned responses.
• Memory impairments can occur in schizophrenia and major depression
alongwith organic disorders.
• Memory is distributed and localized in the cerebral cortex.
• The hallmark of amnesia is a loss of new learning ability that extends across
all sensory modalities and stimulus domains.
• ECT does not cause more than a temporary disturbance in memory.
48. References-
• Kaplan and Saddock’s Comprehensive Textbook of Psychiatry-10th edition.
• Lishman’s Organic Psychiatry-Textbook of Neuropsychiatry-4th edition
• Fishs Clinical Psychopathology-3rd edition
• Sims’ Symptoms in the Mind-Textbook of Descriptive Psychopathology-5th
edition.
• Sturb and black-Mental Status Examination -1st edition.
• Ganong’s Physiology-23rd edition.
• Journal of Neurophysiology