Disaccharides
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Sucrose, also known as cane sugar, is a sugar commonly used at home that is stored in plants like sugar cane. When hydrolyzed, sucrose forms a mixture of glucose and fructose. Maltose is commonly called malt sugar and is present in germinating grain, formed from two molecules of glucose. Lactose is commercially known as milk sugar and is the main carbohydrate found in milk, formed when glucose and galactose join together.
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Disaccharides and Polysaccharides
Maltose, lactose, and sucrose are three important disaccharides. Maltose is formed from two glucose molecules and is produced during starch breakdown. Lactose contains glucose and galactose and is the main sugar in milk. Sucrose is a combination of glucose and fructose and is commonly known as table sugar. These disaccharides are broken down into their monosaccharide components during digestion.
Disaccharides
Disaccharides are composed of two monosaccharides joined by an O-glycosidic linkage. The main disaccharides discussed are:
1) Sucrose (table sugar), which hydrolyzes into glucose and fructose. Inversion of sucrose produces invert sugar, which is sweeter.
2) Maltose, formed from two glucose molecules and is a reducing sugar. It is found in germinating seeds.
3) Lactose is the sugar in milk, formed from glucose and galactose. It is hydrolyzed by lactase in the small intestine.
monosaccharides and disaccharides
This document summarizes various monosaccharides and disaccharides. It describes the main sources and properties of glucose, fructose, galactose, mannose, and discusses disaccharides including maltose, sucrose, lactose, lactulose and trehalose. Key points covered include glucose being the main metabolic fuel, hereditary fructose intolerance, galactosemia being caused by a GALT enzyme deficiency, and lactose intolerance resulting from lactase deficiency.
Oligosaccharides
This document provides information about various carbohydrates including monosaccharides, oligosaccharides, and polysaccharides. It discusses the structures and properties of common disaccharides like maltose, lactose, and sucrose. Larger carbohydrates covered include maltodextrins, dextrans, inulin, chitin, cellulose, starch, and glycogen. For each carbohydrate, details are given about its source, structure, properties when tested, and digestive breakdown. The document aims to describe the chemistry of many important carbohydrates.
disaccharides
1. Disaccharides are formed when two monosaccharide units join covalently through an O-glycosidic linkage. The important disaccharides discussed are sucrose, maltose, lactose, and isomaltose.
2. Sucrose is composed of glucose and fructose with a beta-1,2 linkage and is non-reducing. Lactose contains glucose and galactose with a beta-1,4 linkage and is reducing. Maltose has two glucose units with an alpha-1,4 linkage. Isomaltose contains two glucose units in an alpha-1,6 linkage.
3. Lactose intolerance is caused by a
Disaccharides Invert sugar and other
This document discusses various disaccharides including maltose, sucrose, lactose, lactulose, and trehalose. It provides information on their composition, sources, properties, and uses. Disaccharides are composed of two monosaccharide units joined by an alpha-glycosidic bond. Each disaccharide is then described in more detail regarding its specific monosaccharide components, where it can be found, and any relevant enzymatic breakdown or physiological effects.
Disaccharides and their role in health and their structure
in disaccharides we study maltose lactose lactulose and sucrose, their stuctures and their nuitritional role in human health
DISACCHARIDES
A BRIEF PRESENTATION ON DISACCHARIDES.
NOTE- FONTS MAY APPEAR WEIRD BCOZ THE FONTS I USED DO NOT APPEAR IN THIS PPT.
Recommended
Disaccharides and Polysaccharides
Maltose, lactose, and sucrose are three important disaccharides. Maltose is formed from two glucose molecules and is produced during starch breakdown. Lactose contains glucose and galactose and is the main sugar in milk. Sucrose is a combination of glucose and fructose and is commonly known as table sugar. These disaccharides are broken down into their monosaccharide components during digestion.
Disaccharides
Disaccharides are composed of two monosaccharides joined by an O-glycosidic linkage. The main disaccharides discussed are:
1) Sucrose (table sugar), which hydrolyzes into glucose and fructose. Inversion of sucrose produces invert sugar, which is sweeter.
2) Maltose, formed from two glucose molecules and is a reducing sugar. It is found in germinating seeds.
3) Lactose is the sugar in milk, formed from glucose and galactose. It is hydrolyzed by lactase in the small intestine.
monosaccharides and disaccharides
This document summarizes various monosaccharides and disaccharides. It describes the main sources and properties of glucose, fructose, galactose, mannose, and discusses disaccharides including maltose, sucrose, lactose, lactulose and trehalose. Key points covered include glucose being the main metabolic fuel, hereditary fructose intolerance, galactosemia being caused by a GALT enzyme deficiency, and lactose intolerance resulting from lactase deficiency.
Oligosaccharides
This document provides information about various carbohydrates including monosaccharides, oligosaccharides, and polysaccharides. It discusses the structures and properties of common disaccharides like maltose, lactose, and sucrose. Larger carbohydrates covered include maltodextrins, dextrans, inulin, chitin, cellulose, starch, and glycogen. For each carbohydrate, details are given about its source, structure, properties when tested, and digestive breakdown. The document aims to describe the chemistry of many important carbohydrates.
disaccharides
1. Disaccharides are formed when two monosaccharide units join covalently through an O-glycosidic linkage. The important disaccharides discussed are sucrose, maltose, lactose, and isomaltose.
2. Sucrose is composed of glucose and fructose with a beta-1,2 linkage and is non-reducing. Lactose contains glucose and galactose with a beta-1,4 linkage and is reducing. Maltose has two glucose units with an alpha-1,4 linkage. Isomaltose contains two glucose units in an alpha-1,6 linkage.
3. Lactose intolerance is caused by a
Disaccharides Invert sugar and other
This document discusses various disaccharides including maltose, sucrose, lactose, lactulose, and trehalose. It provides information on their composition, sources, properties, and uses. Disaccharides are composed of two monosaccharide units joined by an alpha-glycosidic bond. Each disaccharide is then described in more detail regarding its specific monosaccharide components, where it can be found, and any relevant enzymatic breakdown or physiological effects.
Disaccharides and their role in health and their structure
in disaccharides we study maltose lactose lactulose and sucrose, their stuctures and their nuitritional role in human health
DISACCHARIDES
A BRIEF PRESENTATION ON DISACCHARIDES.
NOTE- FONTS MAY APPEAR WEIRD BCOZ THE FONTS I USED DO NOT APPEAR IN THIS PPT.
Disaccharides
Disaccharides are carbohydrates formed from two monosaccharides bonded together. The three most common disaccharides are maltose, lactose, and sucrose. Maltose contains two glucose molecules bonded with an alpha-1,4 linkage. Lactose contains glucose and galactose with a beta-1,4 linkage. Sucrose contains glucose and fructose with an alpha-1,2 linkage. These disaccharides differ in their monosaccharide components and bond linkages.
Chemistry of carbohydrates disaccharides
This document discusses various disaccharides. It describes the structures and properties of sucrose, lactose, maltose, and isomaltose. Sucrose is a non-reducing disaccharide of glucose and fructose linked by an alpha-1,2 glycosidic bond. Lactose is a reducing disaccharide found in milk consisting of glucose and galactose linked by a beta-1,4 bond. Maltose contains two glucose units linked by an alpha-1,4 bond, while isomaltose contains two glucose units linked by an alpha-1,6 bond. The document also provides details on the hydrolysis and properties of each disaccharide.
Polysaccharides
This document summarizes various types of polysaccharides:
1) Starch is a homopolymer of glucose that exists in plants as either amylose, a non-branched chain, or amylopectin, a branched chain linked by alpha linkages.
2) Glycogen is the branched polysaccharide that serves as the animal version of starch.
3) Inulin is a fructan polysaccharide found in plants that is readily soluble in water.
4) Cellulose is the main component of plant cell walls and is made of straight chains of beta-linked glucose monomers that are insoluble.
Oligosacchrides
Oligosaccharides are sugar molecules made of 2-10 monosaccharide units. They are less sweet and less soluble than monosaccharides. Oligosaccharides are classified based on the number of monosaccharide units and include disaccharides with 2 units, trisaccharides with 3 units, and tetrasaccharides and pentasaccharides with 4 and 5 units respectively. Oligosaccharides are not digested by humans but are consumed by intestinal bacteria, which is important as it helps the growth of microflora, reduces pathogens, prevents constipation, and provides other health benefits.
Carbohydrate oligosaccharides
Oligosaccharides are carbohydrates composed of 2 to 10 monosaccharides linked by glycosidic bonds. They are found in many plants and foods. Common oligosaccharides include disaccharides like maltose, lactose, and sucrose. Oligosaccharides serve various functions like promoting the growth of beneficial gut bacteria and increasing mineral absorption. They are also used as prebiotics to improve gastrointestinal health.
Polysaccharides in foods
Most of the carbohydrates in nature is present as polysaccharides.
These are high molecular weight substances containing large number of monosaccharide units.
Consist of primary chain, in some; branched chains may exist.
Diasaccharides
This document discusses disaccharides, which are formed through a condensation reaction between two monosaccharides that results in the removal of a water molecule. It classifies the main disaccharides - sucrose, lactose, and maltose. Sucrose is formed from glucose and fructose and is non-reducing. Lactose is formed from glucose and galactose and is reducing. Maltose is formed from two glucose molecules and is also reducing. The document provides the structures and functions of these three disaccharides.
Oligosaccharide by asjad rehman
Oligosaccharides are carbohydrate polymers made up of 2-9 monosaccharide units bonded together with glycosidic bonds. The most important oligosaccharides are disaccharides, which contain two monosaccharides. The three main physiological important disaccharides are sucrose from cane sugar and fruits, lactose from milk, and maltose from cereals and the breakdown of starch. Oligosaccharides are important as they provide energy, regulate blood sugar levels, maintain bowel functions, lower cholesterol, and protect the body from fatigue.
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Chemistry of carbohydrates polysaccharides part -3 homoglycans
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Disaccharides
Disaccharides are double sugars that yield two simple sugars called monosaccharides upon hydrolysis. The three main disaccharides are sucrose, maltose, and lactose. They differ in their solubility, with sucrose being very soluble, maltose fairly soluble, and lactose only slightly soluble. Disaccharides are formed through a dehydration synthesis reaction combining two monosaccharides. Their structures depend on the type of glycosidic linkage between the monosaccharides. This determines their properties such as whether they are reducing sugars or able to undergo fermentation.
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Individual sugars and their role in health and disease
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Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates are organic compounds made of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. They function as structural elements in plants and serve as energy storage. In plants, carbohydrates like starch are stored in roots, tubers and leaves. During times of metabolic need, starch polymers are broken down to provide fuel. Common carbohydrates discussed in the document include cellulose, pectin, agar, sodium alginate, acacia, tragacanth and sucrose derivatives.
Polysaccharides
Cellulose is composed of glucose units connected by β-1,4-glycosidic bonds. It is a polysaccharide that forms the structural component of plant cell walls and is insoluble in water.
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Chemistry of carbohydrates polysaccharides part 3 B heteroglycans. To teach Ist year medical students.
Chemistry of carbohydrates Part-1 Monosaccharides
Part-2 Disaccharides
Part -3A Homoglycans
Part-3B Heteroglycans
Glucose And Sucrose
1) Glucose is a simple sugar that cells use as an energy source. It is produced through photosynthesis and is needed for cellular respiration.
2) Sucrose is a disaccharide composed of glucose and fructose. It is commonly known as table sugar and functions to provide sweetness and energy.
3) The document discusses the molecular structures and functions of glucose and sucrose, including their roles in human nutrition and metabolism.
Reaction of polysaccharides by ritesh
This document discusses polysaccharides and provides details about starch. It defines polysaccharides as polymers made of 10 or more monosaccharide molecules. Homopolysaccharides are made of identical monosaccharide units, such as starch, glycogen, and cellulose which are made of glucose. Starch consists of amylose, a linear polymer of glucose, and amylopectin, a branched polymer of glucose. The document describes tests to identify starch and other polysaccharides, noting that iodine forms complexes with starch that are blue for amylose and purple for amylopectin.
Glycosidic bonding
n chemistry, a glycosidic bond is a type of covalent bond that joins a carbohydrate (sugar) molecule to another group, which may or may not be another carbohydrate.
Monosaccharides
Monosaccharides are simple sugars that cannot be further broken down. They are categorized by the number of carbons they contain and whether they have an aldehyde or ketone functional group. Monosaccharides can exist as different isomers depending on the spatial arrangement of their atoms. Some types of isomerism in monosaccharides include stereoisomers, enantiomers, epimers, anomers, and pyranose-furanose isomers.
Browning reaction
This document discusses different types of browning reactions that can occur in food, including enzymatic and non-enzymatic browning. It describes two main types of non-enzymatic browning reactions: caramelization which occurs when sugars are heated and Maillard browning which involves sugars and amino acids. Enzymatic browning is caused by polyphenol oxidase enzymes and phenolic compounds interacting with oxygen. Methods to prevent enzymatic browning discussed include maintaining an acid pH, using sulphur or antioxidants, reducing oxygen contact, and denaturing enzymes through blanching.
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Disaccharides
Disaccharides are carbohydrates formed from two monosaccharides bonded together. The three most common disaccharides are maltose, lactose, and sucrose. Maltose contains two glucose molecules bonded with an alpha-1,4 linkage. Lactose contains glucose and galactose with a beta-1,4 linkage. Sucrose contains glucose and fructose with an alpha-1,2 linkage. These disaccharides differ in their monosaccharide components and bond linkages.
Chemistry of carbohydrates disaccharides
This document discusses various disaccharides. It describes the structures and properties of sucrose, lactose, maltose, and isomaltose. Sucrose is a non-reducing disaccharide of glucose and fructose linked by an alpha-1,2 glycosidic bond. Lactose is a reducing disaccharide found in milk consisting of glucose and galactose linked by a beta-1,4 bond. Maltose contains two glucose units linked by an alpha-1,4 bond, while isomaltose contains two glucose units linked by an alpha-1,6 bond. The document also provides details on the hydrolysis and properties of each disaccharide.
Polysaccharides
This document summarizes various types of polysaccharides:
1) Starch is a homopolymer of glucose that exists in plants as either amylose, a non-branched chain, or amylopectin, a branched chain linked by alpha linkages.
2) Glycogen is the branched polysaccharide that serves as the animal version of starch.
3) Inulin is a fructan polysaccharide found in plants that is readily soluble in water.
4) Cellulose is the main component of plant cell walls and is made of straight chains of beta-linked glucose monomers that are insoluble.
Oligosacchrides
Oligosaccharides are sugar molecules made of 2-10 monosaccharide units. They are less sweet and less soluble than monosaccharides. Oligosaccharides are classified based on the number of monosaccharide units and include disaccharides with 2 units, trisaccharides with 3 units, and tetrasaccharides and pentasaccharides with 4 and 5 units respectively. Oligosaccharides are not digested by humans but are consumed by intestinal bacteria, which is important as it helps the growth of microflora, reduces pathogens, prevents constipation, and provides other health benefits.
Carbohydrate oligosaccharides
Oligosaccharides are carbohydrates composed of 2 to 10 monosaccharides linked by glycosidic bonds. They are found in many plants and foods. Common oligosaccharides include disaccharides like maltose, lactose, and sucrose. Oligosaccharides serve various functions like promoting the growth of beneficial gut bacteria and increasing mineral absorption. They are also used as prebiotics to improve gastrointestinal health.
Polysaccharides in foods
Most of the carbohydrates in nature is present as polysaccharides.
These are high molecular weight substances containing large number of monosaccharide units.
Consist of primary chain, in some; branched chains may exist.
Diasaccharides
This document discusses disaccharides, which are formed through a condensation reaction between two monosaccharides that results in the removal of a water molecule. It classifies the main disaccharides - sucrose, lactose, and maltose. Sucrose is formed from glucose and fructose and is non-reducing. Lactose is formed from glucose and galactose and is reducing. Maltose is formed from two glucose molecules and is also reducing. The document provides the structures and functions of these three disaccharides.
Oligosaccharide by asjad rehman
Oligosaccharides are carbohydrate polymers made up of 2-9 monosaccharide units bonded together with glycosidic bonds. The most important oligosaccharides are disaccharides, which contain two monosaccharides. The three main physiological important disaccharides are sucrose from cane sugar and fruits, lactose from milk, and maltose from cereals and the breakdown of starch. Oligosaccharides are important as they provide energy, regulate blood sugar levels, maintain bowel functions, lower cholesterol, and protect the body from fatigue.
Polysaccharides in foods- Nimisha Kaikkolante
This document discusses various polysaccharides found in foods. It describes polysaccharides as consisting of repeating units of monosaccharides linked together. There are two main types - homopolysaccharides and heteropolysaccharides. Many polysaccharides are derived from plant sources like seaweeds, lichens, plants and seeds. The document outlines the functional properties and uses of various polysaccharides like starch, glycogen, cellulose, pectin, gums, and others. It explains how polysaccharides are important in the food industry for emulsification, thickening, gelation, texture modification and improving mouthfeel.
Chemistry of carbohydrates polysaccharides part -3 homoglycans
This document discusses various types of polysaccharides called homoglycans that are composed of a single type of monosaccharide unit. It focuses on starch, glycogen, cellulose, inulin, dextrans, and chitin. Starch is the storage carbohydrate in plants and is made of amylose and amylopectin. Glycogen serves the same function in animals, storing glucose in the liver and muscle. Cellulose provides structure to plants and is made of straight glucose chains. Inulin and dextrans are also homopolymers with different linkages between glucose units. Chitin contains N-acetylglucosamine units.
Disaccharides
Disaccharides are double sugars that yield two simple sugars called monosaccharides upon hydrolysis. The three main disaccharides are sucrose, maltose, and lactose. They differ in their solubility, with sucrose being very soluble, maltose fairly soluble, and lactose only slightly soluble. Disaccharides are formed through a dehydration synthesis reaction combining two monosaccharides. Their structures depend on the type of glycosidic linkage between the monosaccharides. This determines their properties such as whether they are reducing sugars or able to undergo fermentation.
Polysaccharides azhar 2020-1
This document discusses polysaccharides and provides details about starch, amylose, amylopectin, and hetastarch. It defines polysaccharides as complex, high molecular weight monosaccharide polymers that are widely distributed in nature and have various functions such as storing energy or providing structural support. Starch is composed of amylose and amylopectin and is found primarily in plants. Hetastarch is a hydroxyethyl starch used as a plasma expander but can increase bleeding risk. The document also covers dextrans, cyclodextrins, and their uses.
Polysaccharides and their role in health and disease their structure and clas...
This document summarizes different types of polysaccharides including homopolysaccharides and heteropolysaccharides. It provides detailed information about starch, including its composition of amylose and amylopectin, sources, hydrolysis, and role in glycemic index. Other polysaccharides discussed include glycogen, cellulose, dextrans, inulin, and chitin.
Individual sugars and their role in health and disease
This document summarizes several monosaccharides (hexoses) and disaccharides that are important in human metabolism. It describes the sources and properties of glucose, fructose, galactose, and mannose. It then discusses the disaccharides maltose, sucrose, lactose, and lactulose, providing their compositions and sources. Key points about intolerance and deficiencies related to some of these sugars are also summarized.
Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates are organic compounds made of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. They function as structural elements in plants and serve as energy storage. In plants, carbohydrates like starch are stored in roots, tubers and leaves. During times of metabolic need, starch polymers are broken down to provide fuel. Common carbohydrates discussed in the document include cellulose, pectin, agar, sodium alginate, acacia, tragacanth and sucrose derivatives.
Polysaccharides
Cellulose is composed of glucose units connected by β-1,4-glycosidic bonds. It is a polysaccharide that forms the structural component of plant cell walls and is insoluble in water.
Chemistry of carbohydrates polysaccharides part 3 B heteroglycans
Chemistry of carbohydrates polysaccharides part 3 B heteroglycans. To teach Ist year medical students.
Chemistry of carbohydrates Part-1 Monosaccharides
Part-2 Disaccharides
Part -3A Homoglycans
Part-3B Heteroglycans
Glucose And Sucrose
1) Glucose is a simple sugar that cells use as an energy source. It is produced through photosynthesis and is needed for cellular respiration.
2) Sucrose is a disaccharide composed of glucose and fructose. It is commonly known as table sugar and functions to provide sweetness and energy.
3) The document discusses the molecular structures and functions of glucose and sucrose, including their roles in human nutrition and metabolism.
Reaction of polysaccharides by ritesh
This document discusses polysaccharides and provides details about starch. It defines polysaccharides as polymers made of 10 or more monosaccharide molecules. Homopolysaccharides are made of identical monosaccharide units, such as starch, glycogen, and cellulose which are made of glucose. Starch consists of amylose, a linear polymer of glucose, and amylopectin, a branched polymer of glucose. The document describes tests to identify starch and other polysaccharides, noting that iodine forms complexes with starch that are blue for amylose and purple for amylopectin.
Glycosidic bonding
n chemistry, a glycosidic bond is a type of covalent bond that joins a carbohydrate (sugar) molecule to another group, which may or may not be another carbohydrate.
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Chemistry of carbohydrates polysaccharides part -3 homoglycans
Chemistry of carbohydrates polysaccharides part -3 homoglycans
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Monosaccharides
Monosaccharides are simple sugars that cannot be further broken down. They are categorized by the number of carbons they contain and whether they have an aldehyde or ketone functional group. Monosaccharides can exist as different isomers depending on the spatial arrangement of their atoms. Some types of isomerism in monosaccharides include stereoisomers, enantiomers, epimers, anomers, and pyranose-furanose isomers.
Browning reaction
This document discusses different types of browning reactions that can occur in food, including enzymatic and non-enzymatic browning. It describes two main types of non-enzymatic browning reactions: caramelization which occurs when sugars are heated and Maillard browning which involves sugars and amino acids. Enzymatic browning is caused by polyphenol oxidase enzymes and phenolic compounds interacting with oxygen. Methods to prevent enzymatic browning discussed include maintaining an acid pH, using sulphur or antioxidants, reducing oxygen contact, and denaturing enzymes through blanching.
Non enzymic browning
This document discusses non-enzymatic browning in foods. It describes the main types of non-enzymatic browning reactions, including the Maillard reaction, caramelization, ascorbic acid browning, and metal-polyphenol browning. It also outlines factors that influence the Maillard reaction such as temperature, pH, water activity, and methods for preventing non-enzymatic browning including controlling environmental conditions and using preservatives like sulfur dioxide.
Chemical properties of monosaccharides
The document discusses various chemical properties and reactions of monosaccharides, including:
1) Reaction with hydrazines to form osazones and reduction to form sugar alcohols such as sorbitol and mannitol.
2) Oxidation to produce sugar acids such as gluconic acid, which is important physiologically for detoxification.
3) Reducing action in alkaline solutions and formation of esters, phosphates, acetates, and propionates.
4) Formation of important sugar derivatives like amino sugars and glycosides.
POLYSACCHARIDES
Polysaccharides are polymers of monosaccharides or their derivatives joined by glycosidic bonds. They are classified as homopolymers or heteropolymers. Starch is a major homopolysaccharide composed of amylose and amylopectin, while glycogen is the animal equivalent found mainly in liver and muscle. Cellulose is an insoluble polymer of glucose that provides structure to plant cell walls. Mucopolysaccharides are heteropolymers containing amino sugars and acidic sugars. Common types include hyaluronic acid, chondroitin sulfate, keratin sulfate, heparin, and heparan sulfate. Mucopolysaccharidoses are a group of genetic disorders caused by
Polysaccharides types and Structural Features
1. The document discusses types and structural features of polysaccharides. It describes homopolysaccharides like starch, dextrin, inulin, glycogen, and cellulose.
2. Starch is composed of amylose and amylopectin subunits linked by alpha-glucosidic bonds. Dextrin is formed from starch hydrolysis and has a similar structure to amylopectin.
3. Inulin is a polymer of fructose typically with a terminal glucose. Glycogen stores glucose in animals and has highly branched alpha-linked subunits. Cellulose, the main component of plant cell walls, is composed of beta-glucose units.
Godseesthetruthbutwaits
1) Ivan Dmitrich Aksionov is wrongly imprisoned for 26 years for a murder he did not commit.
2) While in prison, he learns the true murderer was a man named Makar Semyonich. However, when questioned, Aksionov refuses to reveal the truth.
3) On his deathbed, Aksionov tells Makar that God will forgive him, showing the themes of truth, forgiveness, and that ultimately God knows the truth.
09 monosaccharides and_oligosaccharides
The document discusses saccharides, which are polyhydroxyaldehydes, polyhydroxyketones, or substances that break down into these compounds. It classifies them as monosaccharides, oligosaccharides, or polysaccharides based on their structure. Monosaccharides are simple sugars that cannot be further broken down. They include aldoses and ketoses, which differ in having an aldehyde or ketone functional group. Monosaccharides commonly exist as cyclic hemiacetals or hemiketals and can take on alpha or beta anomer configurations.
Carbohydrates; gelatinisation and modified starch
This document discusses carbohydrates, including their functions as an energy source, how they are broken down, and types such as starch, fiber, and modified starch. It also provides instructions for a task to design a macaroni and cheese product for children that is high in calcium, has a garnish, increases fiber content, and uses a roux sauce method.
God sees the truth but waits 2
- Leo Tolstoy was a famous Russian author born in 1828 who wrote major novels like War and Peace in the 1860s and Anna Karenina in 1873. He was prolific throughout the late 1800s, with one of his most successful later works being The Death of Ivan Ilyich. Tolstoy died in 1910 in Russia.
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Monosaccharides
This document discusses carbohydrates and monosaccharides. It defines carbohydrates as compounds composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. Monosaccharides are the simplest form of carbohydrates and include trioses, tetroses, pentoses, and hexoses. The document discusses various properties of monosaccharides including isomerism, anomerism, mutarotation, and common chemical reactions like oxidation, reduction, and reactions with acids and bases. It also summarizes important derivatives of monosaccharides such as amino sugars, deoxy sugars, sugar acids, sugar alcohols, esters, and glycosides.
Polysaccharides
This document summarizes polysaccharides and glycans. It discusses homopolysaccharides including fructosan, galactosan, and glucosans such as starch and glycogen. Starch is made of amylose and amylopectin and forms helical structures with iodine. Cellulose is composed of beta-glucose units linked by beta-1,4 bonds, forming long straight chains strengthened by hydrogen bonds. Glycosaminoglycans discussed include hyaluronic acid, chondroitin sulfate, keratin sulfate, dermatan sulfate, and heparan sulfate. Proteoglycans are composed of core proteins with covalently linked glycosaminoglycan side chains. They
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Types of asexual reproduction include binary fission, spore formation, and tuber formation. Binary fission involves a parent cell dividing into two equal daughter cells that are genetically identical to the parent. Spore formation occurs when fungal hyphae grow vertically and produce spores that are released. Tuber formation takes place as underground stems of certain plants like potatoes swell into storage organs called tubers.
asexual and-sexual_reproduction
This document compares asexual and sexual reproduction. Asexual reproduction involves one parent producing offspring that are identical to itself. It occurs in plants, bacteria, protists and some invertebrates. The offspring have no variation and less chance of survival. Sexual reproduction involves two parents producing offspring that are a combination of both parents, making them unique. This provides variation and ability to adapt to environmental changes, but requires finding a mate and takes longer.
Nutrition
Autotrophic nutrition refers to organisms that can produce their own organic compounds from inorganic sources. There are two main types: photoautotrophs like plants use light as an energy source through photosynthesis, while chemoautotrophs like deep sea bacteria use chemical energy through chemosynthesis to produce food without relying on sunlight. Both photosynthesis and chemosynthesis allow autotrophs to make their own organic compounds from inorganic materials like carbon dioxide and water.
types of RNA
There are three main types of RNA: transfer RNA (tRNA) which transfers amino acids to ribosomes for protein assembly, ribosomal RNA (rRNA) which forms ribosomes along with proteins, and messenger RNA (mRNA) which carries genetic code from DNA in the nucleus to ribosomes in the cytoplasm where proteins are made. mRNA is single stranded and made of 1000 nucleotides.
Adrenaline
Adrenaline causes several effects on the body including increasing the pulse rate and blood glucose levels to provide more energy to muscles, as well as increasing breathing rate to deliver more oxygen and remove carbon dioxide. It also causes physical reactions like sweating, goosebumps, hair standing on end, dilated pupils, and pale skin as blood is redirected away from the skin.
The eyeshaveit
The document describes the main parts of the eye including the cornea, iris, pupil, aqueous humor, lens, vitreous humor, retina, and optic nerve. It explains that the cornea focuses light like a camera lens, the iris controls the pupil size to regulate light, and the lens bends light to enable vision. Rods and cones in the retina detect light and color. Protection features of the eye include eyebrows that prevent sweat from entering, eyelashes that collect particles, and tears that keep the eye clean and moist.
04 implantation (1)
The zygote undergoes rapid cell division over the first 30 hours after fertilization, dividing into 2, then 4, then 8 and 16 cells. The trophoblast layer develops into the chorion and amnion membranes, with the chorion growing finger-like villi to increase nutrient absorption and secreting HCG to sustain the corpus luteum, and the villi later forming part of the placenta. The amnion forms a sac around the fetus containing amniotic fluid to protect and provide room for movement of the fetus.
Menstruation
The menstrual cycle consists of four stages: the follicle stage where FSH stimulates follicle development; ovulation where the LH surge triggers egg release; the corpus luteum stage where the follicle forms the progesterone-producing corpus luteum; and menstruation where the corpus luteum breaks down in the absence of pregnancy, dropping estrogen and progesterone levels and causing shedding of the uterine lining.
gametogenesis
Spermatogenesis is the process by which sperm are produced in the seminiferous tubules of the testes over 65-70 days. It begins with spermatogonia that undergo mitosis and meiosis to form haploid spermatids from diploid spermatocytes. Sertoli cells secrete fluid to nourish spermatids and protect them, while interstitial cells secrete testosterone. Oogenesis similarly occurs in the ovaries, forming oocytes or eggs over a woman's lifetime from primary oocytes present at birth that undergo meiosis to become haploid secondary oocytes if fertilized.
Gametogenesis
- The document appears to be exam instructions and questions for a biology diploma exam. It provides exam rules and guidelines, as well as two sample exam questions.
- The first question is multiple choice, asking students to shade the correct answer for questions about respiratory and circulatory systems. It contains 14 questions.
- The second question asks students to analyze a graph showing lung pressure changes during breathing and calculate the difference between minimum inspiration and maximum expiration pressures. It is worth 14 marks.
- The document provides instructions for how students should answer multiple choice and graph analysis questions on the exam.
Female reproductive system
The female reproductive system functions to produce sex hormones, eggs, and support embryo development. The ovaries produce eggs and hormones like estrogen and progesterone. The fallopian tubes connect the ovaries to the uterus, catching eggs with cilia and transporting them. The uterus is a muscular organ that supports pregnancy, expanding significantly, with an inner lining that thickens each menstrual cycle to potentially allow embryo implantation.
Male reproductive system
The male reproductive system consists of both external and internal structures. Externally, it includes the testes which produce sperm and testosterone, the scrotum which holds the testes, and the penis. Internally, each testis contains seminiferous tubules that produce sperm and merge to form the epididymis and vas deferens, leading to the urethra which carries sperm and urine. Along the urethra are glands like the seminal vesicles and prostate that secrete fluids to nourish and protect sperm.
The stages-of-fertilisation-in-a-flowering-plant
The key structures in a flower include the stigma, anther, style, ovary, and ovule. The stages of pollination begin when a pollen grain lands on the stigma and stimulates the formation of a pollen tube. The pollen tube grows down the style and carries the pollen grain nucleus and two male gametes. It continues growing until it reaches the micropyle opening of the ovary, where the male gametes are released. One male gamete fuses with the female gamete to form a zygote, while the other fuses with the diploid nucleus to form triploid endosperm.
Inheritance terms to learn
Inheritance is the passing on of characteristics from one generation to the next. Chromosomes are structures in cells that contain genes, which are segments of DNA that code for particular traits. Alleles are variations of a gene that can cause differences in a characteristic. A dominant allele will be expressed over a recessive allele. An individual's genotype refers to their genetic makeup, while their phenotype describes their observable physical traits.
Glycolysis
The document discusses glycolysis, which is the first stage of respiration. Glycolysis takes place in the cytoplasm of cells and involves splitting a molecule of glucose into two molecules of pyruvate. It has two stages - phosphorylation and oxidation. In phosphorylation, glucose is phosphorylated using ATP to form glucose phosphate, which then splits to form two triose phosphates. In oxidation, the triose phosphates are oxidized to form two pyruvate molecules while collecting hydrogen ions to form NADH, and producing a net gain of two ATP molecules.
Need for energy
This document discusses several biological processes that require energy: movement through cilia, flagella, and muscle contraction; maintaining a constant body temperature in endotherms; anabolic processes that form complex molecules; active transport moving molecules against concentration gradients; bioluminescence converting chemical energy to light; and secretion involving packaging and transport of secretory products into vesicles.
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Disaccharides
- 1. Sucrose Is a sugar used at home Also known as the cane sugar When hydrolyzed, it forms a mixture of glucose and fructose. It is stored in plants such as sugar cane
- 2. Maltose Commonly known as malt sugar. Present in germinating grain Formed from two molecules of glucose
- 3. Lactose Commercially known as milk sugar. It is the main carbohydrate found in milk Formed when glucose and galactose join together