The document discusses various relationships between pixels in a digital image, including:
- The 4-neighbors and 8-neighbors of a pixel, which are pixels that are horizontally, vertically, or diagonally adjacent.
- Types of adjacency between pixels, including 4-adjacency, 8-adjacency, and mixed (m)-adjacency.
- Connectivity and how connected components in a subset of pixels are defined by paths between pixels using the specified adjacency.
- Distances measures between pixels like Euclidean, city-block (D4), chessboard (D8), and mixed (Dm) distance, which considers pixel values along the path.
An illumination model, also called a lighting model and sometimes referred to as a shading model, is used to calculate the intensity of light that we should see at a given point on the surface of an object.
An illumination model, also called a lighting model and sometimes referred to as a shading model, is used to calculate the intensity of light that we should see at a given point on the surface of an object.
An illumination model, also called a lighting model and sometimes referred to as a shading model, is used to calculate the intensity of light that we should see at a given point on the surface of an object.
Surface rendering means a procedure for applying a lighting model to obtain pixel intensities for all the projected surface positions in a scene.
A surface-rendering algorithm uses the intensity calculations from an illumination model to determine the light intensity for all projected pixel positions for the various surfaces in a scene.
Surface rendering can be performed by applying the illumination model to every visible surface point.
a spline is a flexible strip used to produce a smooth curve through a designated set of points.
Polynomial sections are fitted so that the curve passes through each control point, Resulting curve is said to interpolate the set of control points.
Definition of Viewing & Clipping?
Viewing pipeline
Viewing the transformation system
Several types of clipping
Cohen-Sutherland Line Clipping
Application of Clipping
Conclusion
It gives the detailed information about Three Dimensional Display Methods, Three dimensional Graphics Package, Interactive Input Methods and Graphical User Interface, Input of Graphical Data, Graphical Data: Input Functions, Interactive Picture-Construction
An illumination model, also called a lighting model and sometimes referred to as a shading model, is used to calculate the intensity of light that we should see at a given point on the surface of an object.
Surface rendering means a procedure for applying a lighting model to obtain pixel intensities for all the projected surface positions in a scene.
A surface-rendering algorithm uses the intensity calculations from an illumination model to determine the light intensity for all projected pixel positions for the various surfaces in a scene.
Surface rendering can be performed by applying the illumination model to every visible surface point.
a spline is a flexible strip used to produce a smooth curve through a designated set of points.
Polynomial sections are fitted so that the curve passes through each control point, Resulting curve is said to interpolate the set of control points.
Definition of Viewing & Clipping?
Viewing pipeline
Viewing the transformation system
Several types of clipping
Cohen-Sutherland Line Clipping
Application of Clipping
Conclusion
It gives the detailed information about Three Dimensional Display Methods, Three dimensional Graphics Package, Interactive Input Methods and Graphical User Interface, Input of Graphical Data, Graphical Data: Input Functions, Interactive Picture-Construction
Image Acquisition and Representation
A Simple Image Formation Model
Image Sampling and Quantization
Image Interpolation
Image quantization
Nearest Neighbor Interpolation
Final project report on grocery store management system..pdfKamal Acharya
In today’s fast-changing business environment, it’s extremely important to be able to respond to client needs in the most effective and timely manner. If your customers wish to see your business online and have instant access to your products or services.
Online Grocery Store is an e-commerce website, which retails various grocery products. This project allows viewing various products available enables registered users to purchase desired products instantly using Paytm, UPI payment processor (Instant Pay) and also can place order by using Cash on Delivery (Pay Later) option. This project provides an easy access to Administrators and Managers to view orders placed using Pay Later and Instant Pay options.
In order to develop an e-commerce website, a number of Technologies must be studied and understood. These include multi-tiered architecture, server and client-side scripting techniques, implementation technologies, programming language (such as PHP, HTML, CSS, JavaScript) and MySQL relational databases. This is a project with the objective to develop a basic website where a consumer is provided with a shopping cart website and also to know about the technologies used to develop such a website.
This document will discuss each of the underlying technologies to create and implement an e- commerce website.
About
Indigenized remote control interface card suitable for MAFI system CCR equipment. Compatible for IDM8000 CCR. Backplane mounted serial and TCP/Ethernet communication module for CCR remote access. IDM 8000 CCR remote control on serial and TCP protocol.
• Remote control: Parallel or serial interface.
• Compatible with MAFI CCR system.
• Compatible with IDM8000 CCR.
• Compatible with Backplane mount serial communication.
• Compatible with commercial and Defence aviation CCR system.
• Remote control system for accessing CCR and allied system over serial or TCP.
• Indigenized local Support/presence in India.
• Easy in configuration using DIP switches.
Technical Specifications
Indigenized remote control interface card suitable for MAFI system CCR equipment. Compatible for IDM8000 CCR. Backplane mounted serial and TCP/Ethernet communication module for CCR remote access. IDM 8000 CCR remote control on serial and TCP protocol.
Key Features
Indigenized remote control interface card suitable for MAFI system CCR equipment. Compatible for IDM8000 CCR. Backplane mounted serial and TCP/Ethernet communication module for CCR remote access. IDM 8000 CCR remote control on serial and TCP protocol.
• Remote control: Parallel or serial interface
• Compatible with MAFI CCR system
• Copatiable with IDM8000 CCR
• Compatible with Backplane mount serial communication.
• Compatible with commercial and Defence aviation CCR system.
• Remote control system for accessing CCR and allied system over serial or TCP.
• Indigenized local Support/presence in India.
Application
• Remote control: Parallel or serial interface.
• Compatible with MAFI CCR system.
• Compatible with IDM8000 CCR.
• Compatible with Backplane mount serial communication.
• Compatible with commercial and Defence aviation CCR system.
• Remote control system for accessing CCR and allied system over serial or TCP.
• Indigenized local Support/presence in India.
• Easy in configuration using DIP switches.
Saudi Arabia stands as a titan in the global energy landscape, renowned for its abundant oil and gas resources. It's the largest exporter of petroleum and holds some of the world's most significant reserves. Let's delve into the top 10 oil and gas projects shaping Saudi Arabia's energy future in 2024.
CFD Simulation of By-pass Flow in a HRSG module by R&R Consult.pptxR&R Consult
CFD analysis is incredibly effective at solving mysteries and improving the performance of complex systems!
Here's a great example: At a large natural gas-fired power plant, where they use waste heat to generate steam and energy, they were puzzled that their boiler wasn't producing as much steam as expected.
R&R and Tetra Engineering Group Inc. were asked to solve the issue with reduced steam production.
An inspection had shown that a significant amount of hot flue gas was bypassing the boiler tubes, where the heat was supposed to be transferred.
R&R Consult conducted a CFD analysis, which revealed that 6.3% of the flue gas was bypassing the boiler tubes without transferring heat. The analysis also showed that the flue gas was instead being directed along the sides of the boiler and between the modules that were supposed to capture the heat. This was the cause of the reduced performance.
Based on our results, Tetra Engineering installed covering plates to reduce the bypass flow. This improved the boiler's performance and increased electricity production.
It is always satisfying when we can help solve complex challenges like this. Do your systems also need a check-up or optimization? Give us a call!
Work done in cooperation with James Malloy and David Moelling from Tetra Engineering.
More examples of our work https://www.r-r-consult.dk/en/cases-en/
Explore the innovative world of trenchless pipe repair with our comprehensive guide, "The Benefits and Techniques of Trenchless Pipe Repair." This document delves into the modern methods of repairing underground pipes without the need for extensive excavation, highlighting the numerous advantages and the latest techniques used in the industry.
Learn about the cost savings, reduced environmental impact, and minimal disruption associated with trenchless technology. Discover detailed explanations of popular techniques such as pipe bursting, cured-in-place pipe (CIPP) lining, and directional drilling. Understand how these methods can be applied to various types of infrastructure, from residential plumbing to large-scale municipal systems.
Ideal for homeowners, contractors, engineers, and anyone interested in modern plumbing solutions, this guide provides valuable insights into why trenchless pipe repair is becoming the preferred choice for pipe rehabilitation. Stay informed about the latest advancements and best practices in the field.
Welcome to WIPAC Monthly the magazine brought to you by the LinkedIn Group Water Industry Process Automation & Control.
In this month's edition, along with this month's industry news to celebrate the 13 years since the group was created we have articles including
A case study of the used of Advanced Process Control at the Wastewater Treatment works at Lleida in Spain
A look back on an article on smart wastewater networks in order to see how the industry has measured up in the interim around the adoption of Digital Transformation in the Water Industry.
2. • In this lecture, we consider several
important relationships between pixels in a
digital image.
3. Neighbors of a Pixel
• A pixel p at coordinates (x,y) has four horizontal and vertical
neighbors whose coordinates are given by:
(x+1,y), (x-1, y), (x, y+1), (x,y-1)
This set of pixels, called the 4-neighbors or p, is denoted by N4(p).
Each pixel is one unit distance from (x,y) and some of the neighbors
of p lie outside the digital image if (x,y) is on the border of the image.
(x, y-1)
(x-1, y) P (x,y) (x+1, y)
(x, y+1)
4. Neighbors of a Pixel
• The four diagonal neighbors of p have coordinates:
(x+1, y+1), (x+1, y-1), (x-1, y+1), (x-1, y-1)
and are denoted by ND (p).
These points, together with the 4-neighbors, are called the 8-neighbors of p,
denoted by N8 (p).
As before, some of the points in ND (p) and N8 (p) fall outside the image if (x,y)
is on the border of the image.
(x-1, y+1) (x+1, y-1)
P (x,y)
(x-1, y-1) (x+1, y+1)
(x-1, y+1) (x, y-1) (x+1, y-1)
(x-1, y) P (x,y) (x+1, y)
(x-1, y-1) (x, y+1) (x+1, y+1)
5. Adjacency and Connectivity
• Let V: a set of intensity values used to define
adjacency and connectivity.
• In a binary image, V = {1}, if we are referring
to adjacency of pixels with value 1.
• In a gray-scale image, the idea is the same,
but V typically contains more elements, for
example, V = {180, 181, 182, …, 200}
• If the possible intensity values 0 – 255, V set
can be any subset of these 256 values.
6. Types of Adjacency
1. 4-adjacency: Two pixels p and q with
values from V are 4-adjacent if q is in the
set N4(p).
2. 8-adjacency: Two pixels p and q with
values from V are 8-adjacent if q is in the
set N8(p).
3. m-adjacency =(mixed)
7. Types of Adjacency
• m-adjacency:
Two pixels p and q with values from V are
m-adjacent if :
• q is in N4(p) or
• q is in ND(p) and the set N4(p) ∩ N4(q) has no
pixel whose values are from V (no intersection)
• Important Note: the type of adjacency
used must be specified
8. Types of Adjacency
• Mixed adjacency is a modification of 8-
adjacency. It is introduced to eliminate the
ambiguities that often arise when 8-
adjacency is used.
• For example:
9. Types of Adjacency
• In this example, we can note that to connect between
two pixels (finding a path between two pixels):
– In 8-adjacency way, you can find multiple paths
between two pixels
– While, in m-adjacency, you can find only one path
between two pixels
• So, m-adjacency has eliminated the multiple path
connection that has been generated by the 8-
adjacency.
• Two subsets S1 and S2 are adjacent, if some pixel in
S1 is adjacent to some pixel in S2. Adjacent means,
either 4-, 8- or m-adjacency.
10. A Digital Path
• A digital path (or curve) from pixel p with
coordinate (x,y) to pixel q with coordinate (s,t)
is a sequence of distinct pixels with
coordinates (x0,y0), (x1,y1), …, (xn, yn) where
(x0,y0) = (x,y) and (xn, yn) = (s,t) and pixels (xi,
yi) and (xi-1, yi-1) are adjacent for 1 ≤ i ≤ n
• n is the length of the path
• If (x0,y0) = (xn, yn), the path is closed.
• We can specify 4-, 8- or m-paths depending
on the type of adjacency specified.
11. A Digital Path
• Return to the previous example:
In figure (b) the paths between the top right and
bottom right pixels are 8-paths. And the path
between the same 2 pixels in figure (c) is m-path
12. Connectivity
• Let S represent a subset of pixels in an
image, two pixels p and q are said to be
connected in S if there exists a path
between them consisting entirely of pixels
in S.
• For any pixel p in S, the set of pixels that
are connected to it in S is called a
connected component of S. If it only has
one connected component, then set S is
called a connected set.
13. Region and Boundary
• Region
Let R be a subset of pixels in an image, we
call R a region of the image if R is a
connected set.
• Boundary
The boundary (also called border or
contour) of a region R is the set of pixels in
the region that have one or more
neighbors that are not in R.
14. Region and Boundary
If R happens to be an entire image, then its boundary
is defined as the set of pixels in the first and last rows
and columns in the image.
This extra definition is required because an image has
no neighbors beyond its borders
Normally, when we refer to a region, we are referring
to subset of an image, and any pixels in the boundary
of the region that happen to coincide with the border of
the image are included implicitly as part of the region
boundary.
15. Distance Measures
• For pixels p, q and z, with coordinates
(x,y), (s,t) and (v,w), respectively, D is a
distance function if:
(a) D (p,q) ≥ 0 (D (p,q) = 0 iff p = q),
(b) D (p,q) = D (q, p), and
(c) D (p,z) ≤ D (p,q) + D (q,z).
16. Distance Measures
• The Euclidean Distance between p and q
is defined as:
De (p,q) = [(x – s)2 + (y - t)2]1/2
Pixels having a distance less than or equal
to some value r from (x,y) are the points
contained in a disk of
radius r centered at (x,y)
p (x,y)
q (s,t)
17. Distance Measures
• The D4 distance (also called city-block
distance) between p and q is defined as:
D4 (p,q) = | x – s | + | y – t |
Pixels having a D4 distance from
(x,y), less than or equal to some
value r form a Diamond
centered at (x,y)
p (x,y)
q (s,t)
D4
18. Distance Measures
Example:
The pixels with distance D4 ≤ 2 from (x,y)
form the following contours of constant
distance.
The pixels with D4 = 1 are
the 4-neighbors of (x,y)
19. Distance Measures
• The D8 distance (also called chessboard
distance) between p and q is defined as:
D8 (p,q) = max(| x – s |,| y – t |)
Pixels having a D8 distance from
(x,y), less than or equal to some
value r form a square
Centered at (x,y)
p (x,y)
q (s,t)
D8(b)
D8(a)
D8 = max(D8(a) , D8(b))
21. Distance Measures
• Dm distance:
is defined as the shortest m-path between
the points.
In this case, the distance between two
pixels will depend on the values of the
pixels along the path, as well as the values
of their neighbors.
22. Distance Measures
• Example:
Consider the following arrangement of
pixels and assume that p, p2, and p4 have
value 1 and that p1 and p3 can have can
have a value of 0 or 1
Suppose that we consider
the adjacency of pixels
values 1 (i.e. V = {1})
23. Distance Measures
• Cont. Example:
Now, to compute the Dm between points p
and p4
Here we have 4 cases:
Case1: If p1 =0 and p3 = 0
The length of the shortest m-path
(the Dm distance) is 2 (p, p2, p4)
24. Distance Measures
• Cont. Example:
Case2: If p1 =1 and p3 = 0
now, p1 and p will no longer be adjacent
(see m-adjacency definition)
then, the length of the shortest
path will be 3 (p, p1, p2, p4)
25. Distance Measures
• Cont. Example:
Case3: If p1 =0 and p3 = 1
The same applies here, and the shortest –
m-path will be 3 (p, p2, p3, p4)
26. Distance Measures
• Cont. Example:
Case4: If p1 =1 and p3 = 1
The length of the shortest m-path will be 4
(p, p1 , p2, p3, p4)