Abstract The process of food digestion is one of the most important physiologic processes in human body. In this review, we are seeking the views of Avicenna, the most distinguished Persian medical scholar about digestion and indigestion. Avicenna’s view was based on the humoral theory. Avicenna has focused scrutiny on the process of digestion. He divided this process into four phases including gastric, hepatic, intravascular and intra-organ digestion. A defect in any of these phases can lead to disturbance in other stages. Avicenna approached the problem of indigestion through factors of diet, lifestyle and inherent structural characteristics of digestive organs. Modern medicine confirms Avicenna's opinion about the start of digestion from the mouth, the role of the stomach in digestion and the role of the liver in the metabolism of foods. Overeating or eating certain foods, snacking between meals, eating variety of different foods together, intense physical activity, sexual activity after a meal, stress and sleep insufficiency are among factors that may be linked to indigestion in modern medicine viewpoints and also have been mentioned in Avicenna's teachings. It seems rational to consider the medical approaches recommended by Avicenna for future studies in the field of digestive disorders.
This document provides an overview of the Unani system of medicine. It discusses that Unani medicine originated from the teachings of Hippocrates and was further developed by Arabic physicians. The system is based on the theory that the human body contains four humors (blood, phlegm, yellow bile, black bile) and health involves a balance among these. Diagnosis considers the pulse, urine, stool and case history. Treatment principles aim to correct humoral imbalances using diet, medications, lifestyle therapies or surgery tailored to each patient's condition.
The document provides an overview of the Unani system of medicine, including its origins in Greece, introduction to India in the 11th century, and current practice. It describes the key concepts and principles of Unani medicine, such as the four elements (earth, air, water, fire) and four humors (blood, phlegm, yellow bile, black bile) that make up the human body. Diagnosis involves examining the pulse, urine, and stool to assess diseases. Unani medicine has strengths in treating skin, digestive, mental, sexual, gynecological, and neurological disorders.
Functional food for the management of diseaseApuMarma
This presentation discusses functional foods and their role in disease management. It begins with background on the historical relationship between diet, health, and disease. It then introduces functional foods as foods that provide additional physiological benefits. Examples of functional foods from cereals, legumes, vegetables, and fruits are given. Cereals can help prevent cardiovascular diseases, cancer, and reduce risk factors. The conclusion emphasizes the importance of diet in health and managing disease.
Ayurveda is an ancient Indian system of medicine that is over 5,000 years old. It flourished during the periods of Charaka and Susruta but then declined when Muslim and European invaders brought their own medical systems to India. In the 19th century, the British East India Company closed Ayurvedic schools and established Western medical colleges instead. Various committees and institutions were established in the 20th century to revive Ayurveda, including the Central Council of Indian Medicine in 1970 and the National Institute of Ayurveda in 1976. Ayurveda remains an important part of India's medical traditions today.
Unani medicine has spread globally from its origins in Greece. It is now recognized in India and taught in both government and private institutes. Courses range from 2-3 year diplomas to 5.5 year degree programs. Unani is also practiced in parts of the Middle East, South Asia, East Africa, Europe, Australia, and North America in both mainstream and complementary medicine settings. Major centers of learning and research include institutions in India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, Iran, Syria, South Africa, the UK, and Australia.
The document provides an overview of the evolution of health services in India. It discusses the conceptual framework of public health and outlines the stages of evolution in India and worldwide. In India, it notes the concepts of health and sanitation in ancient times, developments under British colonial rule including establishment of medical colleges and departments, and post-independence expansion based on expert committee recommendations. It summarizes several important committees that shaped health policy like the Bhore, Mudaliar, Chadha, Mukherjee, Jain, Kartar Singh and Shrivatsava committees. It also outlines national health policies formulated in 1983 and 2000.
Siddha medicine is an ancient South Indian system that developed around 6000-7000 years ago. It views the human body as made up of five elements and three humors, and sees balance between these as necessary for health. Diagnosis involves examination of pulses, voice, tongue, body, waste products, and eyes to determine imbalance. Treatment is individualized based on diagnosis and seeks to restore balance through herbs, minerals, and formulations like oils and pills. Diet and lifestyle are also important aspects of treatment prescribed by Siddha physicians.
This document provides an overview of the Unani system of medicine. It discusses that Unani medicine originated from the teachings of Hippocrates and was further developed by Arabic physicians. The system is based on the theory that the human body contains four humors (blood, phlegm, yellow bile, black bile) and health involves a balance among these. Diagnosis considers the pulse, urine, stool and case history. Treatment principles aim to correct humoral imbalances using diet, medications, lifestyle therapies or surgery tailored to each patient's condition.
The document provides an overview of the Unani system of medicine, including its origins in Greece, introduction to India in the 11th century, and current practice. It describes the key concepts and principles of Unani medicine, such as the four elements (earth, air, water, fire) and four humors (blood, phlegm, yellow bile, black bile) that make up the human body. Diagnosis involves examining the pulse, urine, and stool to assess diseases. Unani medicine has strengths in treating skin, digestive, mental, sexual, gynecological, and neurological disorders.
Functional food for the management of diseaseApuMarma
This presentation discusses functional foods and their role in disease management. It begins with background on the historical relationship between diet, health, and disease. It then introduces functional foods as foods that provide additional physiological benefits. Examples of functional foods from cereals, legumes, vegetables, and fruits are given. Cereals can help prevent cardiovascular diseases, cancer, and reduce risk factors. The conclusion emphasizes the importance of diet in health and managing disease.
Ayurveda is an ancient Indian system of medicine that is over 5,000 years old. It flourished during the periods of Charaka and Susruta but then declined when Muslim and European invaders brought their own medical systems to India. In the 19th century, the British East India Company closed Ayurvedic schools and established Western medical colleges instead. Various committees and institutions were established in the 20th century to revive Ayurveda, including the Central Council of Indian Medicine in 1970 and the National Institute of Ayurveda in 1976. Ayurveda remains an important part of India's medical traditions today.
Unani medicine has spread globally from its origins in Greece. It is now recognized in India and taught in both government and private institutes. Courses range from 2-3 year diplomas to 5.5 year degree programs. Unani is also practiced in parts of the Middle East, South Asia, East Africa, Europe, Australia, and North America in both mainstream and complementary medicine settings. Major centers of learning and research include institutions in India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, Iran, Syria, South Africa, the UK, and Australia.
The document provides an overview of the evolution of health services in India. It discusses the conceptual framework of public health and outlines the stages of evolution in India and worldwide. In India, it notes the concepts of health and sanitation in ancient times, developments under British colonial rule including establishment of medical colleges and departments, and post-independence expansion based on expert committee recommendations. It summarizes several important committees that shaped health policy like the Bhore, Mudaliar, Chadha, Mukherjee, Jain, Kartar Singh and Shrivatsava committees. It also outlines national health policies formulated in 1983 and 2000.
Siddha medicine is an ancient South Indian system that developed around 6000-7000 years ago. It views the human body as made up of five elements and three humors, and sees balance between these as necessary for health. Diagnosis involves examination of pulses, voice, tongue, body, waste products, and eyes to determine imbalance. Treatment is individualized based on diagnosis and seeks to restore balance through herbs, minerals, and formulations like oils and pills. Diet and lifestyle are also important aspects of treatment prescribed by Siddha physicians.
The Department of Nutritional Sciences at UW-Madison has a long history of researching nutrition to improve human and animal health. It was established in 1968 to focus specifically on the study of human nutrition and is now housed in the former Children's Hospital building. The department aims to understand nutrition through research, educate students, and share its findings through outreach. Its work affects communities worldwide by advancing knowledge on topics like preventing chronic diseases and alleviating malnutrition.
The document summarizes the historical evolution of clinical trial guidelines from ancient times to the present. Some key events include the first recorded clinical trial by King Nebuchadnezzar in 562 BC, James Lind's 1757 controlled trial of treatments for scurvy, the introduction of the placebo concept in the 1800s, the first double-blind randomized controlled trial in 1943 investigating treatment for the common cold, and major milestones in the development of ethical guidelines and regulations for clinical trials over the 20th century including the Nuremberg Code, Declaration of Helsinki, and establishment of regulatory bodies like the ICMR in India.
Ayurveda is an ancient Indian system of medicine that originated around 900 BC, making it one of the oldest written systems of medicine. It focuses on using herbal medicines derived from plants to treat illnesses. Ayurveda principles emphasize using natural remedies and maintaining balance and harmony between the mind, body, and spirit for good health.
The document describes a 5-stage rejuvenation cleanse program aimed at detoxification, weight normalization, and overall wellness. The stages include a parasite cleanse, liver/gallbladder flush, intestinal flush, master cleanse, and probiotic replenishment. The goal is to optimize healing, restore energy, improve health markers, and eliminate food addictions through cleansing and detoxification of the body. Consultation with a doctor is recommended before starting due to potential health risks.
Siddha medicine is a traditional Tamil system of medicine originating in ancient Tamilakam in India. It considers nature and humans as essentially one, with the human body made up of combinations of five primordial elements - earth, water, fire, air and space. Diagnosis evaluates factors like pulse, voice, tongue, body, excrement and urine. Treatment aims to restore balance to the three doshas (humors) - vatham, pitham, and kapham - using formulations made from herbal and mineral substances. Siddha medicine emphasizes prevention, and treats diseases through internal medicine, external applications and procedures, while considering factors like diet and lifestyle.
Nutrition is a basic human need. Dietary supplements and herbal remedies are popular complementary products people take. It is a well-known fact that traditional medicines supplement modern medicine in meeting the global healthcare needs. Traditional Indian Medicine or Ayurveda is among the well known global traditional systems of medicine and it is becoming increasingly popular. Ayurvedic drugs are used as food supplements in US, Europe, and Japan. This paper provides an overview of Ayurveda, the traditional Indian medicine. Matthew N. O. Sadiku | Tolulope J. Ashaolu | S. R. Nelatury | Sarhan M. Musa "Traditional Indian Medicine" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-3 | Issue-2 , February 2019, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd21358.pdf
Paper URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/engineering/food-engineering/21358/traditional-indian-medicine/matthew-n-o-sadiku
The Ministry of AYUSH is formed in 9th November 2014. The Department of Indian Medicine and Homeopathy (ISM&H) was created in March 1995 and renamed as Department of Ayurveda, Yoga and Naturopathy, Unani, Siddha and Homoeopathy (AYUSH) in November 2003, with a view to providing focused attention to development of Education and Research in Ayurveda, Yoga and Naturopathy, Unani, Siddha and Homoeopathy systems.
Objectives:
To upgrade the educational standards in Indian Systems of Medicines and Homoeopathy colleges in the country.
• To strengthen existing research institutions and ensure a time-bound research programme on identified diseases for which these systems have an effective treatment.
• To draw up schemes for promotions, cultivations and regeneration of medicinal plants used in these systems.
• To evolve Pharmacopoeial standards for Indian Systems of Medicine and Homoeopathy drugs.
Merits of traditional system of medicineDonaldTandia
This document discusses the merits and importance of traditional medicine systems. Some key points made include:
- Traditional medicine is very cost effective compared to modern medicine and uses natural products that have few side effects.
- It serves as an important basis for drug discovery and development, as many modern drugs are derived from plants used in traditional systems.
- Traditional medicine can be very effective for chronic conditions and is easily accessible in many parts of the world.
- Diseases like malaria continue to be treated using herbal medicines identified through traditional knowledge.
"Sowa-Rigpa" commonly known as Tibetan system of medicine is one of the oldest, Living and well documented medical tradition of the world It has been originated from Tibet and popularly practice in India, Nepal, Bhutan, Mongolia and Russia The majority of theory and practice of Sowa-Rigpa is similar to "Ayurveda" Pravin Jawanjal "SOWA-RIGPA Tibetan System of Medicine" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-2 | Issue-6 , October 2018, URL: http://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd18439.pdf
This document reviews approaches for colon-specific drug delivery (CDDS). It compares earlier approaches like prodrugs, pH-dependent systems, and microbial-triggered systems, which had limitations, to newer approaches like pressure-controlled colonic delivery capsules, CODESTM, and osmotic controlled drug delivery (ORDS-CT) systems. These novel approaches are unique in achieving in vivo site specificity and feasibility of manufacturing. Factors that must be considered in colon targeted drug delivery system design include anatomy and physiology of the colon, pH levels in different colon regions, colonic microflora and enzymes, transit of materials through the colon, and drug absorption in the colon.
The document discusses Ayurvedic concepts of doshas (regulatory principles) and relates them to modern scientific frameworks. It proposes:
1) The three doshas (vata, pitta, kapha) and their five subdoshas regulate key processes in living systems, mapping to systems theory concepts.
2) The doshas can be viewed as regulatory triplets governing whole organisms and major subsystems throughout evolution.
3) Dosha functions in single cells correlate well to their roles in human physiology, suggesting an underlying continuity in biological control processes.
Black's Medical Dictionary is a comprehensive medical reference work now in its 41st edition. It provides concise definitions and explanations of medical terms in a format that is accessible to both medical professionals and laypeople. The dictionary aims to concisely summarize important medical information and concepts in a way that is clear and understandable. It contains entries for thousands of medical terms organized alphabetically as well as appendices covering topics like basic first aid, medical tests and procedures, vitamins, and health organizations.
Persian Traditional Medicine An Introductionijtsrd
Persian traditional medicine may be regarded as the sum total of all the knowledge and practices of medicine used in Persia from ancient times till today. The medicine gives more attention and importance to the prevention of disease rather than its cure. Many patients in developing and developed countries have turned to traditional therapies for treating their illnesses. This is due to tradition and cost modern medicines are prohibitively expensive in those nations. This paper provides an introduction to Persian traditional medicine in Iran. Matthew N. O. Sadiku | Uwakwe C. Chukwu | Abayomi Ajayi-Majebi | Sarhan M. Musa "Persian Traditional Medicine: An Introduction" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-6 | Issue-1 , December 2021, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd47967.pdf Paper URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/medicine/other/47967/persian-traditional-medicine-an-introduction/matthew-n-o-sadiku
This document provides an overview of the stomach, including its description, functions, shape, histology, structural and functional anatomy, gross anatomy, size, emptying process, and role in mechanical and chemical digestion. It also discusses gastrectomy procedures including total and subtotal gastrectomies and their common aftereffects. Comparisons are made between stomach anatomy in different animal species. References include anatomy textbooks, peer-reviewed articles, and websites.
Application of herbal rectal suppositories beyond intestinal disorders in Per...LucyPi1
Abstract Background: Herbal rectal suppositories (RSs) were prescribed not only as a drug delivery system but also as a storing method in Persian medicine. According to the record of ancient references, RSs were clinically administered for diarrhea, constipation, colitis, ascites, dysentery and intestinal parasites, sciatic, lower back pain and joint aches, fever, kidney disease and as an aphrodisiac. Objectives: The aim of this study is to categorize and review different types of RSs, their main herbal components and to find evidence to elucidate their clinical administration. Results: In this study, 7 manuscripts were studied to extract and categorize 11 types of herbal rectal suppositorie (RS) formulations, their ingredients and therapeutic indications. Furthermore, the Persian and scientific names of 43 herbs and their temperaments were mentioned in this study. Hence, ancient therapeutic indications of herbs used in RS formulations as well as their proven effects have been studied, which makes it possible to compare ancient and proven indications of medicinal plants used as ingredients of RSs. Conclusions: In modern medicine, RSs are mostly used for anorectic disorders. However in traditional Persian medicine, they were commonly used not only for anorectic and intestinal diseases, but also as an aphrodisiac, an agent for healing joint, sciatic pain and lumbago, an anti-fever, and an anti-ascites. Other implications of this study could be producing new insights of utilizing herbal RSs in diseases and disorders beyond anorectic and intestinal disorders.
Learn the Ins and Outs of the Digestive SystemSmart Biotics
The digestive system breaks down food into smaller molecules that can be absorbed and used by the body. It consists of the alimentary canal and several accessory organs. Food is ingested, broken down physically and chemically, absorbed, and waste is eliminated. The major organs include the mouth, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, liver, gallbladder and pancreas. Digestion involves both physical and chemical breakdown of food via mechanical and enzymatic processes to produce molecules that can be absorbed and utilized by cells.
This document provides an overview of hyperacidity (excess acid in the stomach) including its epidemiology, anatomy and physiology of stomach acid secretion, causes, classification, and treatment approaches in Ayurveda. It discusses the involvement of the pitta dosha and various digestive factors. Treatment includes lifestyle and dietary modifications, herbal formulations, panchakarma procedures like vamana and virechana, and medicated ghee or tablets.
This document discusses the human digestive system. It describes the main parts of the digestive system including the mouth, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, and large intestine. It explains the functions of each part and how they work together to digest food. The document also mentions the pancreas, liver, and gallbladder as organs that secrete enzymes and bile to aid in digestion. It provides details on how the digestive system works through the mechanical and chemical breakdown of food and absorption of nutrients. Finally, it lists some common digestive system diseases and tips for maintaining a healthy digestive system.
Colon Targeting by Novel Drug Delivery Drug System: Microsphere a Review ReportBRNSSPublicationHubI
This document discusses microspheres as a drug delivery system for targeted colon delivery. It begins with an introduction to colon targeted drug delivery and reasons for targeting the colon. It then discusses microspheres in more detail, including definitions and types such as bioadhesive, magnetic, floating, and polymeric microspheres. Methods for preparing microspheres and their advantages are summarized. The document concludes with some limitations of microsphere drug delivery systems.
concept of role of diet of naturopathy and yoga. article credits to rajiv rastogi and sanjeev rastogi CCRYN.
PS: i dont have any claim over the work and is just posted here for the benefit of community
Principles and Practice of Complementary Therapies Andreea Radu
Ayurvedic medicine is an ancient system of natural healing that originated in India over 5,000 years ago. It is based on balancing the three doshas (bioenergies) in the body - vata, pitta, and kapha. Ayurvedic therapies include herbal medicines, massage, meditation, yoga, and panchakarma cleansing techniques. Reiki is a form of energy healing developed in Japan in the early 20th century. It involves channeling universal life force energy through a practitioner's hands to the recipient to support the body's natural ability to heal. Both Ayurveda and Reiki aim to restore physical, mental, and spiritual balance and well-being. Practitioners must follow
The Department of Nutritional Sciences at UW-Madison has a long history of researching nutrition to improve human and animal health. It was established in 1968 to focus specifically on the study of human nutrition and is now housed in the former Children's Hospital building. The department aims to understand nutrition through research, educate students, and share its findings through outreach. Its work affects communities worldwide by advancing knowledge on topics like preventing chronic diseases and alleviating malnutrition.
The document summarizes the historical evolution of clinical trial guidelines from ancient times to the present. Some key events include the first recorded clinical trial by King Nebuchadnezzar in 562 BC, James Lind's 1757 controlled trial of treatments for scurvy, the introduction of the placebo concept in the 1800s, the first double-blind randomized controlled trial in 1943 investigating treatment for the common cold, and major milestones in the development of ethical guidelines and regulations for clinical trials over the 20th century including the Nuremberg Code, Declaration of Helsinki, and establishment of regulatory bodies like the ICMR in India.
Ayurveda is an ancient Indian system of medicine that originated around 900 BC, making it one of the oldest written systems of medicine. It focuses on using herbal medicines derived from plants to treat illnesses. Ayurveda principles emphasize using natural remedies and maintaining balance and harmony between the mind, body, and spirit for good health.
The document describes a 5-stage rejuvenation cleanse program aimed at detoxification, weight normalization, and overall wellness. The stages include a parasite cleanse, liver/gallbladder flush, intestinal flush, master cleanse, and probiotic replenishment. The goal is to optimize healing, restore energy, improve health markers, and eliminate food addictions through cleansing and detoxification of the body. Consultation with a doctor is recommended before starting due to potential health risks.
Siddha medicine is a traditional Tamil system of medicine originating in ancient Tamilakam in India. It considers nature and humans as essentially one, with the human body made up of combinations of five primordial elements - earth, water, fire, air and space. Diagnosis evaluates factors like pulse, voice, tongue, body, excrement and urine. Treatment aims to restore balance to the three doshas (humors) - vatham, pitham, and kapham - using formulations made from herbal and mineral substances. Siddha medicine emphasizes prevention, and treats diseases through internal medicine, external applications and procedures, while considering factors like diet and lifestyle.
Nutrition is a basic human need. Dietary supplements and herbal remedies are popular complementary products people take. It is a well-known fact that traditional medicines supplement modern medicine in meeting the global healthcare needs. Traditional Indian Medicine or Ayurveda is among the well known global traditional systems of medicine and it is becoming increasingly popular. Ayurvedic drugs are used as food supplements in US, Europe, and Japan. This paper provides an overview of Ayurveda, the traditional Indian medicine. Matthew N. O. Sadiku | Tolulope J. Ashaolu | S. R. Nelatury | Sarhan M. Musa "Traditional Indian Medicine" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-3 | Issue-2 , February 2019, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd21358.pdf
Paper URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/engineering/food-engineering/21358/traditional-indian-medicine/matthew-n-o-sadiku
The Ministry of AYUSH is formed in 9th November 2014. The Department of Indian Medicine and Homeopathy (ISM&H) was created in March 1995 and renamed as Department of Ayurveda, Yoga and Naturopathy, Unani, Siddha and Homoeopathy (AYUSH) in November 2003, with a view to providing focused attention to development of Education and Research in Ayurveda, Yoga and Naturopathy, Unani, Siddha and Homoeopathy systems.
Objectives:
To upgrade the educational standards in Indian Systems of Medicines and Homoeopathy colleges in the country.
• To strengthen existing research institutions and ensure a time-bound research programme on identified diseases for which these systems have an effective treatment.
• To draw up schemes for promotions, cultivations and regeneration of medicinal plants used in these systems.
• To evolve Pharmacopoeial standards for Indian Systems of Medicine and Homoeopathy drugs.
Merits of traditional system of medicineDonaldTandia
This document discusses the merits and importance of traditional medicine systems. Some key points made include:
- Traditional medicine is very cost effective compared to modern medicine and uses natural products that have few side effects.
- It serves as an important basis for drug discovery and development, as many modern drugs are derived from plants used in traditional systems.
- Traditional medicine can be very effective for chronic conditions and is easily accessible in many parts of the world.
- Diseases like malaria continue to be treated using herbal medicines identified through traditional knowledge.
"Sowa-Rigpa" commonly known as Tibetan system of medicine is one of the oldest, Living and well documented medical tradition of the world It has been originated from Tibet and popularly practice in India, Nepal, Bhutan, Mongolia and Russia The majority of theory and practice of Sowa-Rigpa is similar to "Ayurveda" Pravin Jawanjal "SOWA-RIGPA Tibetan System of Medicine" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-2 | Issue-6 , October 2018, URL: http://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd18439.pdf
This document reviews approaches for colon-specific drug delivery (CDDS). It compares earlier approaches like prodrugs, pH-dependent systems, and microbial-triggered systems, which had limitations, to newer approaches like pressure-controlled colonic delivery capsules, CODESTM, and osmotic controlled drug delivery (ORDS-CT) systems. These novel approaches are unique in achieving in vivo site specificity and feasibility of manufacturing. Factors that must be considered in colon targeted drug delivery system design include anatomy and physiology of the colon, pH levels in different colon regions, colonic microflora and enzymes, transit of materials through the colon, and drug absorption in the colon.
The document discusses Ayurvedic concepts of doshas (regulatory principles) and relates them to modern scientific frameworks. It proposes:
1) The three doshas (vata, pitta, kapha) and their five subdoshas regulate key processes in living systems, mapping to systems theory concepts.
2) The doshas can be viewed as regulatory triplets governing whole organisms and major subsystems throughout evolution.
3) Dosha functions in single cells correlate well to their roles in human physiology, suggesting an underlying continuity in biological control processes.
Black's Medical Dictionary is a comprehensive medical reference work now in its 41st edition. It provides concise definitions and explanations of medical terms in a format that is accessible to both medical professionals and laypeople. The dictionary aims to concisely summarize important medical information and concepts in a way that is clear and understandable. It contains entries for thousands of medical terms organized alphabetically as well as appendices covering topics like basic first aid, medical tests and procedures, vitamins, and health organizations.
Persian Traditional Medicine An Introductionijtsrd
Persian traditional medicine may be regarded as the sum total of all the knowledge and practices of medicine used in Persia from ancient times till today. The medicine gives more attention and importance to the prevention of disease rather than its cure. Many patients in developing and developed countries have turned to traditional therapies for treating their illnesses. This is due to tradition and cost modern medicines are prohibitively expensive in those nations. This paper provides an introduction to Persian traditional medicine in Iran. Matthew N. O. Sadiku | Uwakwe C. Chukwu | Abayomi Ajayi-Majebi | Sarhan M. Musa "Persian Traditional Medicine: An Introduction" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-6 | Issue-1 , December 2021, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd47967.pdf Paper URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/medicine/other/47967/persian-traditional-medicine-an-introduction/matthew-n-o-sadiku
This document provides an overview of the stomach, including its description, functions, shape, histology, structural and functional anatomy, gross anatomy, size, emptying process, and role in mechanical and chemical digestion. It also discusses gastrectomy procedures including total and subtotal gastrectomies and their common aftereffects. Comparisons are made between stomach anatomy in different animal species. References include anatomy textbooks, peer-reviewed articles, and websites.
Application of herbal rectal suppositories beyond intestinal disorders in Per...LucyPi1
Abstract Background: Herbal rectal suppositories (RSs) were prescribed not only as a drug delivery system but also as a storing method in Persian medicine. According to the record of ancient references, RSs were clinically administered for diarrhea, constipation, colitis, ascites, dysentery and intestinal parasites, sciatic, lower back pain and joint aches, fever, kidney disease and as an aphrodisiac. Objectives: The aim of this study is to categorize and review different types of RSs, their main herbal components and to find evidence to elucidate their clinical administration. Results: In this study, 7 manuscripts were studied to extract and categorize 11 types of herbal rectal suppositorie (RS) formulations, their ingredients and therapeutic indications. Furthermore, the Persian and scientific names of 43 herbs and their temperaments were mentioned in this study. Hence, ancient therapeutic indications of herbs used in RS formulations as well as their proven effects have been studied, which makes it possible to compare ancient and proven indications of medicinal plants used as ingredients of RSs. Conclusions: In modern medicine, RSs are mostly used for anorectic disorders. However in traditional Persian medicine, they were commonly used not only for anorectic and intestinal diseases, but also as an aphrodisiac, an agent for healing joint, sciatic pain and lumbago, an anti-fever, and an anti-ascites. Other implications of this study could be producing new insights of utilizing herbal RSs in diseases and disorders beyond anorectic and intestinal disorders.
Learn the Ins and Outs of the Digestive SystemSmart Biotics
The digestive system breaks down food into smaller molecules that can be absorbed and used by the body. It consists of the alimentary canal and several accessory organs. Food is ingested, broken down physically and chemically, absorbed, and waste is eliminated. The major organs include the mouth, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, liver, gallbladder and pancreas. Digestion involves both physical and chemical breakdown of food via mechanical and enzymatic processes to produce molecules that can be absorbed and utilized by cells.
This document provides an overview of hyperacidity (excess acid in the stomach) including its epidemiology, anatomy and physiology of stomach acid secretion, causes, classification, and treatment approaches in Ayurveda. It discusses the involvement of the pitta dosha and various digestive factors. Treatment includes lifestyle and dietary modifications, herbal formulations, panchakarma procedures like vamana and virechana, and medicated ghee or tablets.
This document discusses the human digestive system. It describes the main parts of the digestive system including the mouth, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, and large intestine. It explains the functions of each part and how they work together to digest food. The document also mentions the pancreas, liver, and gallbladder as organs that secrete enzymes and bile to aid in digestion. It provides details on how the digestive system works through the mechanical and chemical breakdown of food and absorption of nutrients. Finally, it lists some common digestive system diseases and tips for maintaining a healthy digestive system.
Colon Targeting by Novel Drug Delivery Drug System: Microsphere a Review ReportBRNSSPublicationHubI
This document discusses microspheres as a drug delivery system for targeted colon delivery. It begins with an introduction to colon targeted drug delivery and reasons for targeting the colon. It then discusses microspheres in more detail, including definitions and types such as bioadhesive, magnetic, floating, and polymeric microspheres. Methods for preparing microspheres and their advantages are summarized. The document concludes with some limitations of microsphere drug delivery systems.
concept of role of diet of naturopathy and yoga. article credits to rajiv rastogi and sanjeev rastogi CCRYN.
PS: i dont have any claim over the work and is just posted here for the benefit of community
Principles and Practice of Complementary Therapies Andreea Radu
Ayurvedic medicine is an ancient system of natural healing that originated in India over 5,000 years ago. It is based on balancing the three doshas (bioenergies) in the body - vata, pitta, and kapha. Ayurvedic therapies include herbal medicines, massage, meditation, yoga, and panchakarma cleansing techniques. Reiki is a form of energy healing developed in Japan in the early 20th century. It involves channeling universal life force energy through a practitioner's hands to the recipient to support the body's natural ability to heal. Both Ayurveda and Reiki aim to restore physical, mental, and spiritual balance and well-being. Practitioners must follow
Effects of herbal medicine in gastroesophageal reflux disease symptoms: a sys...LucyPi1
Abstract Background: Pyrosis and regurgitation are the cardinal symptoms of gastroesophageal reflux disease. Several herbs have been used for treating gastrointestinal disorders worldwide. This systematic review was conducted to investigate the effects of medicinal herbs on gastroesophageal reflux disease and adverse events. Methods: MEDLINE (via PubMed; The United States National Library of Medicine, USA), Scopus, ScienceDirect, Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials, Web of Science, Magiran, and Scientific Information Database were systematically searched for human studies, without a time frame, using medical subject heading terms such as “gastroesophageal reflux disease”, “reflux”, “esophagitis” and “herbs”. Manual searches completed the electronic searches. Results: Thirteen randomized controlled trials were identified, including 1,164 participants from 1,509 publications. In comparing herbal medicine to placebo, there were no significant differences in terms of heartburn (P = 0.23 and 0.48), epigastric or abdominal pain (P = 0.35), reflux syndrome (P = 0.12), and effective rate (P = 0.60), but there was a significant difference in terms of acid regurgitation (P = 0.01). In comparing herbal medicine to drugs, there was a significant difference in terms of effective rate (P = 0.001), and there was one trial that reported a significant difference in terms of epigastric pain (P = 0.00001). Also, in comparing herbal medicine to drugs, there were no significant differences in terms of acid regurgitation (P = 0.39). Conclusion: This meta-analysis showed that herbal medicines are effective in treating gastroesophageal reflux disease. Further standardized researches with a large-scale, multicenter, and rigorous design are needed.
The document discusses Ayurvedic concepts of food and nutrition. It states that optimal nutrition, as described in Ayurveda, can promote individual and community resilience. It explains that Ayurveda categorizes foods based on qualities like taste, texture and processing methods. Food is seen as fundamental to health according to Ayurveda, and balance of doshas (biohumors) is important. Factors like digestion, constitution, and season must be considered for a balanced diet. Food is also seen as influencing the mind, with sattvic foods promoting well-being.
Ayurveda Dietary Management of Certain Malnourishment Diseasesijtsrd
Diet in Ayurveda has also been described as one of the important factor for therapeutic measure for a number of diseases in the form of pathya. In Ayurveda the description of different malnutrition disease is under varied headings. A few of the condition which can be grouped under these headings are krishta leaness , phakka roga rundown condition of body , balasosha PEM , parigarbhika. So the principles of treatment and dietary modifications vary according to the disease. Malnourishment disorders in modern science are described on the basis of deficiency of any particular nutrient and the symptoms that arise due to the deficiency. The clinical presentation of malnutrition depends on the type of nutrient involved in the pathology of disease and management is done by providing the same nutrient to the child. The principles of dietary management in Ayurveda are based on individual status of dosha, agni and vaya, hence are more adaptive and rewarding. Verma Reetesh Kumar | Jain Jinesh Kumar | Dwivedi OP | Vishwakarma Pawan Kumar | Sharma Rashmi "Ayurveda Dietary Management of Certain Malnourishment Diseases" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-5 | Issue-6 , October 2021, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd46361.pdf Paper URL : https://www.ijtsrd.com/medicine/ayurvedic/46361/ayurveda-dietary-management-of-certain-malnourishment-diseases/verma-reetesh-kumar
Indian system of medicine_ Dr Renuka Mahajan.pptxRenukaPathak4
This document provides an overview of Indian Ayurvedic medicine. It discusses that Ayurveda is an ancient system of medicine mentioned in Hindu texts over 5000 years old. The basic principles of Ayurveda include balancing the three doshas or bioenergies - vata, pitta, and kapha. Diagnosis involves examination of pulses, tongue, skin, and stool. Treatment aims to remove imbalances through panchakarma purification methods, diet, herbs, and lifestyle changes. The major branches of Ayurveda include internal medicine, ear/nose/throat, surgery, genetics, pediatrics, and rejuvenation therapies.
This document provides an overview of the Ayurvedic system of medicine. It discusses that Ayurveda originated in India over 5000 years ago from the Vedic texts. The key concepts in Ayurveda include the three doshas (Vata, Pitta, Kapha), the seven dhatus, and the view that health results from balance among the doshas. Diagnosis in Ayurveda considers multiple factors of the patient. Treatment includes panchakarma purification techniques, medicines, and lifestyle changes. Ayurveda also focuses on preventive measures and views health from a holistic perspective involving physical, mental, and spiritual well-being.
Similar to Digestion process and causes of indigestion based on Avicenna's view and modern medicine (20)
Chlorogenic acid may be a potent inhibitor of dimeric SARS-CoV-2 main proteas...LucyPi1
Abstract Background: Since the emergence of coronavirus disease 2019 to date, there is no available approved drug or definitive treatment for coronavirus disease 2019 viral infection, and the identification of novel hits against therapeutic targets has become a global emergency. Echinacea purpurea is a traditional herb utilized to treat cough, fever, sore throat, respiratory tract infection, and so on as an immune stimulant. In this study, in silico molecular docking approach was used to screen phytocompounds from E. purpurea against severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 main protease 3C-like protease (3CLpro) and severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus main peptidase (96% sequence similarity) to blunt the viral gene expression and viral replication. Methods: Initially, we screened phytocompounds for their druggability and ADMET property. Furthermore, x-ray crystallographic structures of main proteases 3CLpro and main peptidase having Protein Data Bank ID 6LU7 and 2GTB were used as protein targets for the identification of potential drug candidates. We performed docking using AutoDock Vina by PyRx 0.8 software. BIOVIA Discovery Studio Visualizer v2019 was used to analyze ligand-protein complex. The probable protein targets of the selected compound were predicted by BindingDB (P ≥ 0.7). STRING and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes pathways are utilized to identify the molecular pathways modulated by the predicted targets (FDR ≤ 0.05), and the network interaction between compounds and protein pathways was constricted by Cytoscape 3.6.1. Results: Among all the compounds, chlorogenic acid showed druggable characteristics and scored the lowest binding energy with main protease and main peptidase via interacting with active site 1 domain amino acid residues. Interestingly, chlorogenic acid interacted with Phe140 main protease 3CLpro, which is potentially involved in the dimerization. Enrichment analysis identified chlorogenic acid to modulate insulin resistance, necroptosis, interleukin-17, tumor necrosis factor signaling pathway, legionellosis, T helper 17 cell differentiation, advanced glycation end products and receptor for advanced glycation end products, mitogen-activated protein kinase, Ras, estrogen, vascular endothelial growth factor, B-cell receptor, nuclear factor kappa B, Rap1, hypoxia inducible factor-1, phosphatidylinositide 3-kinase-Akt, insulin, mechanistic target of rapamycin, p53, retinoic acid inducible gene I like receptor, and ErbB signaling pathways. Conclusion: Chlorogenic acid may act as a potent main protease 3CLpro inhibitor and may also inhibit the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 dimerization, viral gene expression, and replication within the lung epithelium. Chlorogenic acid may go a long way in finding one of the multipronged solutions to tackle coronavirus disease 2019 viral infection in the future.
A comprehensive review on Polyalthia longifoliaLucyPi1
Abstract
Herbal plants act as a significant source for discovering new compounds with potential therapeutic activities.
Polyalthia longifolia, which is commonly known as an Indian mast tree, has various pharmacological properties,
such as an anticancer, ulcer protective, hypoglycemic, hypotensive, a corrosion inhibitor, a bio-adsorbent, and few
more. Moreover, it is known as false ashoka owing to its close resemblance with Saraca indica (ashoka tree).
Various compounds have been reported from the extract of some parts of the plant, such as leaves, bark, root, and
seeds. These extracts possess an ability to treat a number of human ailments, such as fever, ulcer, skin diseases,
helminthiasis, and cardiac problems. Studies performed on the leave extract shows evidence that some compounds
cause cell death in various cancer cell lines. The plant also has some biological applications, such as antibacterial,
antiviral, and antimicrobial, which makes it clinically significant and useful. This review is an effort to explore and
gather plant information in an organized manner. It reveals detailed information about the propagation, synonyms,
vernaculars, varieties of plant, medicinal significance, ecology and distribution, botanical and ethnobotanical
description, phytochemical constituents, and pharmacological activity of the plant.
Reliability and validity of the Tibetan medicine constitution scale: a cross-...LucyPi1
Abstract Background: The constitutional theory is an important aspect of Tibetan medicine, however a quantitative measurement tool for constitution identification still does not exist. The objective of this study is to evaluate the reliability and validity of a Tibetan medicine constitution scale (TMCS) that consists of three sub-scales and 31 items. Methods: From June to July 2019, 622 people from the general population in Beijing, China, aged 18 to 60 were investigated. We employed Cronbach’s alpha (α), split-half reliability, and test-retest reliability to determine the reliability of the scale. The content validity and contract validity of the TMCS were evaluated using factor analysis and correlation analysis based on Tibetan medicine theory. The items were screened according to the reliability test results. Results: After the items were screened, 22 items remained in the scale. The Cronbach’s alpha value for the internal consistency reliability of the TMCS was 0.754 (95% confidence interval (CI): 0.700–0.761). The correlation coefficient for the two-week test-retest of the total score was 0.726 (95% CI: 0.571–0.834). The split-half coefficient was 0.689 (95% CI: 0.640–0.734). The scale can be explained by eight potential factors, including morphological structure, physiological function, personality, adaptability, etc. The body mass index was negatively correlated with the score of the sub-rlung scale (r = − 0.376), slightly positively correlated with the sub-mkhris pa scale (r = 0.099), and positively correlated with the sub-bad kan scale (r = 0.362). Conclusion: The TMCS is a reliable and valid instrument that can be used to assess the body constitution of the general population in Beijing, China. Future studies are needed to explore the differences in biological characteristics among the constitutional types and the association between constitution and disease.
The riddles of number nine in Chinese medicine processing methodLucyPi1
Abstract The “nine cycles of steaming and shining”, “nine making”, “nine turns” and “nine cycles of calcining and quenching” methods that are recorded and used since ancient times are merely one aspect of the unique processing methods of traditional Chinese medicine. Inducing the Chinese medicine processing method “nine cycles of steaming and shining” from historical review and summarizing the practical wisdom based on the canonical aspects of traditional Chinese medicine and the experiences of ancient Chinese medicine sages to promote the new development of traditional Chinese medicine. After the long-term and multiple “nine” processing, the materials of traditional Chinese medicine exhibit significant beneficial changes in terms of taste, efficacy, and chemical composition contents, thus emphasizing that Chinese medicine processing plays a significant role in their efficacy enhancement and toxicity reduction. Heshouwu (Polygoni Multiflori Radix), Dihuang (Rehmanniae Radix), Huangjing (Rhizoma Polygonati), Dahuang (Radix et Rhizoma Rhei), and Xixiancao (Herba Siegesbeckiae) are representatives of Chinese medicinal materials prepared using the “nine-system” processing method. This review discovers the aim and the molecular mechanism of “nine” processing of the abovementioned herbs from the viewpoints of modern pharmacochemistry and pharmacology to provide a theoretical support for the “nine” processing method of traditional Chinese medicine and to promote the international market of traditional Chinese medicine.
Research progress in the use of leeches for medical purposesLucyPi1
Abstract Leeches are invertebrates that have a long history of application in the development of human medicine in both the East and the West. This paper comprehensively analyzes and evaluates current research and the latest progress with regard to the application of leeches, their medical value, and their application prospects from various perspectives, so as to provide a reference for new viewpoints and directions for research on leeches. Modern research has revealed that leeches contain various bioactive components, which have pharmacological effects such as anticoagulation, antithrombosis, blood viscosity reduction, and anti-atherosclerosis. Leech therapy is an important treatment approach for venous congestion after microsurgery and is also an effective adjuvant treatment for diabetic feet, chronic pain, and tumors. Therefore, leeches are of importance for the research and development of new drugs, the restoration of blood supply after surgery, and the adjuvant treatment of diseases accompanied by blood blocking. In addition, leeches can also be used as model organisms for research in evolutionary biology and invertebrate neurophysiology as well as in neurophysiological, behavioral, and functional studies.
Brucea javanica oil inhibits proliferation of hepatocellular carcinoma cells ...LucyPi1
Abstract Background: Brucea javanica oil (BJO), distributed primarily in Southeast Asia, has long been utilized as a therapeutic agent for treating malignancies. However, its anticancer mechanisms are not clearly understood. The objective of this study was to examine the mechanisms underlying its treatment of hepatocellular carcinoma cells. Methods: CCK8 assay was used to evaluate cell viability. Hoechst33342 staining and flow cytometry analyses were used to examine apoptosis. Mito-Tracker Red CMXRos kit was used to measure the membrane potential of mitochondria. ATP assay kit was used to evaluate ATP levels. Western blots were used to assess the presence of AKT, adenosine monophosphate-activated protein kinase, Caspase3, Caspase9, Bax, and Bcl-2. Results: BJO inhibited the proliferation of hepatocellular carcinoma cells HepG2 in a time- and dose-dependent manner. It induced apoptosis, with the percentage of cells treated with 50–150 μg/mL BJO increasing from 8.01% to 28.02% in a concentration-dependent manner (P < 0.05, when 50 μg/mL of BJO group compared with the control group; P < 0.001, when 100 or 150 μg/mL of BJO group compared with the control group). After exposed to BJO, the expression of C-caspase3, C-caspase9 and Bax upregulated while that of Bcl-2 downregulated. BJO suppressed the PI3K/AKT pathway and promoted phosphorylation of adenosine monophosphate-activated protein kinase, while repressing the phosphorylation of mechanistic target of rapamycin. Compared with treatment by BJO alone, the PI3K/AKT agonist 740Y-P increased the survival rate of HepG2 cells (P < 0.01) and attenuated the inhibitory effect of BJO on cell apoptosis (P < 0.05). Conclusion: BJO is capable of inhibiting proliferation of HepG2 cells and inducing apoptosis via the PI3K/AKT pathway.
Effect of Jianpi-yangwei decoction on gut fungi in the patients with gastric ...LucyPi1
Abstract Background: Our previous study shows that the empirical formula of Chinese medicine Jianpi-yangwei decoction (JYD) can improve the quality of life in patients with gastric cancer undergoing chemotherapy by increasing beneficial gut bacteria and decreasing harmful bacteria. The present study aims to investigate the effect of JYD on gut fungi in patients with gastric cancer undergoing chemotherapy. Methods: A total of 73 patients with gastric cancer undergoing chemotherapy were recruited. Twenty-nine patients in the chemotherapy group were given standard chemotherapy and 44 patients in the observation group were given JYD plus standard chemotherapy. A control group (55 cases) was recruited from the healthy medical examiners. After 3 months of treatment, life-quality score was evaluated and fecal microbiota was tested by high-throughput sequencing based on the 18S rRNA gene. Results: After treatment, life-quality score in the observation group was significantly lower than that in the chemotherapy group (P < 0.05). There was no significant difference between the observation and control groups’ diversity and richness indices of intestinal fungi. The Chao index for intestinal fungi in the chemotherapy group was significantly lower than that in the observation group (P < 0.05). There was a significant difference between the control and chemotherapy groups in the intestinal fungi according to Shannon and Simpson indices (P < 0.05). Linear discriminant analysis effect size analysis showed no significant differences among the three groups, but significant difference in intestinal fungi was observed between the observation group and the chemotherapy group. At the genus level, the relative abundance of the Aspergillus genus in the observation and control groups was significantly lower (P < 0.05), the relative abundance of the Cutaneotrichosporon, Galactomyces, and Ganoderma genus taxa was significantly higher compared with those in the chemotherapy group (P < 0.05), and there was no significant difference between the observation group and control group. Conclusion: JYD can ameliorate chemotherapy-induced fungal dysbacteriosis in patients with gastric cancer undergoing chemotherapy and improve the quality of life of patients.
A broad perspective on COVID-19: a global pandemic and a focus on preventive ...LucyPi1
Abstract Coronavirus 2019 has become a highly infectious disease caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2, a strain of novel coronavirus, which challenges millions of global healthcare facilities. Coronavirus are sub-microscopic, single stranded positive sense RNA viruses that leads to multi organ dysfunction syndrome, severe acute and chronic respiratory distress syndrome and pneumonia. The spike glycoprotein structure of the virus causes the viral protein to bind with the receptors on the lung and gut through angiotensin-converting enzyme 2. In some cases, the infected patients become hyper to the immune system because of the uncontrolled production of cytokines resulting in “cytokine storm”, a devastating consequence of coronavirus disease 2019. Due to the rapid mutant strain and infective nature of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2, discovering a drug or developing a vaccine remains a global challenge. However, some anti-viral agents, certain protease inhibitor drugs, non-steroidal inflammatory drugs and convalescent plasma treatment were suggested. The containment and social distancing measures only aim at reducing the rate of new infections. In this view, we suggest certain traditional herbs and complementary and alternative medicine as a supporting public healthcare measure to boost the immune system and also may provide some lead to treat and prevent this infection.
The coastal medicinal plant Vitex rotundifolia: a mini-review on its bioactiv...LucyPi1
This document summarizes research on the coastal medicinal plant Vitex rotundifolia. It provides background on the plant's long history of traditional medicinal use in European and Asian countries to treat various ailments. The review focuses on the bioactive compounds (flavonoids, phenolic acids, terpenes) that have been isolated from V. rotundifolia and research on their pharmacological activities, such as anti-inflammatory and antioxidant effects. These compounds may be useful for developing new pharmaceuticals to treat disease.
International expert consensus on clinical application of traditional Chinese...LucyPi1
Abstract Guided by the theory of traditional Chinese medicine (TCM), TCM formula granules are made through the optimal process of extraction, concentration, drying, and granulation by combining modern new preparation technologies and pharmaceutical technologies. TCM formula granules are stable, safe, convenient, and effective. Compared with TCM decoction pieces, TCM formula granules can achieve the full process control of its industry chain from field to workshop and standardize the management of the origin of medicinal materials, processing of decoction pieces, processing technology, quality inspection, sales, and products distribution. TCM formula granules can partially replace Chinese patent medicines. Only available for around 800 common varieties of TCM, TCM formula granules cannot replace decoction pieces for many types which are not commonly used in clinical practice. A large number of formula granules are used in clinical and animal studies so that investigators no longer need to extract and control the quality of TCM decoction pieces. How to improve the production process, establish the quality standard, perfect the regulatory system, and expand the clinical application are the problems we need to solve as soon as possible for the better development of formula granules.
Bibliometric analysis of acupuncture research through the Web of Science data...LucyPi1
Abstract Background: The main points of focus of bibliometric analysis of acupuncture treatment of diseases include pain (headache, low back pain), insomnia, and knee osteoarthritis, for example. In this paper, we analyze the frontiers, hotspots, and research trends of acupuncture over the past 30 years and compare them for each of three 10-year periods. Methods: All the studies on acupuncture research in three different periods (1990–1999, 2000–2009, 2010–2019) were collected from the Web of Science database. The evolution of the research, hotspots, and trends in acupuncture were explored intuitively by analyzing the frequency, betweenness centrality, and subject word clustering of the three periods. Results: (1) 1990–1999, the main content relating to research was the mechanism of research of acupuncture treatment of pain. Naloxone was the high-frequency subject word, and centrality included, for example, the spinal cord, enkephalin, smoking cessation, and detoxification. The results of keyword cluster analysis showed that the main research content included capsaicin-induced neurogenic edema, chemical dependency treatment, afferent fiber, and sufferers from xerostomia. (2) 2000–2009, during this stage, the frequency of keywords appeared in new research content such as randomized controlled trials of acupuncture and low back pain, but pain still dominated the main research content. From the perspective of intermediary centrality, along with the rise in randomized controlled trials, there were many important meta-analyses, as well as the management of acupuncture treatment. The main elements of the keyword cluster analysis included, for example, systematic review, randomized controlled pilot study, add-on therapy, brief overview, and ovarian morphology. (3) 2010–2019, during this period, compared with the previous two stages, there was increased frequency of keywords, a growth in clinical randomized controlled trials, and distribution of centrality was evident in the emergence of acupuncture in care, osteoarthritis treatment, and breast cancer research. The keyword clustering covered, for example, neural specificity, inflammatory reaction, chronic pain, sleep pattern, and consort statement. Conclusion: This article summarizes the trend of development of acupuncture from 1990 to 2019 and compares the main research categories and hotspots in each of three different 10-year periods within this span, thereby helping elucidate the research direction within the field.
The dynamic changes and mechanisms of Rehmanniae radix processing based on Ma...LucyPi1
The document discusses research on the traditional Chinese medicine Rehmanniae radix (dihuang). It summarizes that Rehmanniae radix undergoes multiple steaming and drying cycles as part of traditional processing, which significantly increases levels of the Maillard reaction. The Maillard reaction occurs when amino acids and sugars react at high temperatures, producing flavors, colors, and potential health effects. The study analyzes changes in pH, color, amino acids, and other markers during processing to understand how the Maillard reaction impacts the processed herb. Thermal analysis techniques also examine the reaction's effects on the herb when it is carbonized. The goal is to scientifically explain the traditional processing method and how it transforms the raw herb
Investigation of in vitro antioxidant activity of dihydromyricetin and flavon...LucyPi1
Abstract Background: Vine tea from fermented Ampelopsis grossedentata leaves has been used as a herbal tea and folk medicine in the southern region of China for hundreds of years. The aim of this investigation was to analyze the total flavonoids found in vine tea, including three bioactive flavonoids, and the total phenolic contents in the aqueous methanol extracts of 10 vine tea samples. In addition, this study also aimed to examine the antioxidant activity of dihydromyricetin and vine tea’s flavonoid-rich extract. Methods: The total flavonoids and total phenolic content assay of extracts from vine tea were performed by ultraviolet-visible spectroscopy and epoch microplate spectrophotometer, respectively. Three bioactive flavonoids were quantified simultaneously using high performance liquid chromatography. The antioxidant activity of dihydromyricetin and vine tea’s flavonoid-rich extract was evaluated in vitro using six different methods. Results: Vine tea contained a large number of flavonoids, with dihydromyricetin as its main constituent. The flavonoid-rich extract exhibited a significant scavenging effect on superoxide anion radicals, and on 3-ethylbenzthiazoline-6-sulphonic acid and 1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl radicals. It also possessed definite activity in lipid peroxidation inhibition, ferric reduction, and the moderation of Fe2+ ion chelation ability. There was a significant negative correlation between dihydromyricetin content and antioxidant activity in the vine tea samples, including superoxide anion radical scavenging activity (P = −0.754, P < 0.05), lipid peroxidation inhibition activity (P = −0.759, P < 0.05), ferric-reducing antioxidant power (P = −0.843, P < 0.01), respectively. Dihydromyricetin played a dominant role in the antioxidant activities of the flavonoid-rich extract. Conclusion: Vine tea’s flavonoid-rich extract could be used as a new antioxidant source to safeguard against oxidative stress.
Advances in anti-inflammatory and immunoregulatory mechanisms of sinomenineLucyPi1
Abstract Sinomenine, a major active ingredient from traditional Chinese medicine Qingfengteng (Sinomenium acutum (Thunb.) Rehd.et Wils.), has been proven to have anti-inflammatory, analgesic, anti-tumor, immunomodulatory and other pharmacological effects, and is clinically used for various inflammatory and autoimmune diseases. However, due to complex molecular mechanisms and pathological characteristics in inflammatory and immune responses, the precise anti-inflammatory and immunological mechanisms of sinomenine are still unclear. This review summarizes the anti-inflammatory and immunoregulatory mechanisms of sinomenine during recent years in rheumatoid arthritis, respiratory system, nervous system, digestive system and organ transplant rejection. The molecular pharmacological mechanisms of sinomenine responsible for anti-inflammatory and immunosuppressive effects were in detail introduced based on 3 aspects including cytokines induction, signal pathways modulation and immune cells function regulation. Moreover, this review also raises some concerns and challenges in future sinomenine study, which will contribute to crucial theoretical and practical significance for in-depth development and utilization of sinomenine as medicinal resource.
Abstract Background: Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) can cause insulin resistance (IR) and diabetes. Our previous studies have demonstrated that Jian-Gan-Xiao-Zhi decoction (JGXZ) could be effective for the treatment of NAFLD and IR. However, the possible mechanism underlying the effects of JGXZ on NAFLD and IR remains unknown. Methods: Fifty rats received a high-fat high-carbohydrate (HFHC) diet for 12 weeks to induce NAFLD. After 4 weeks of HFHC treatment, rats were orally treated with JGXZ (8, 16, and 32 g/kg weight) for 8 weeks. Ten rats in the control group received standard chow. In the positive control group, rats were orally treated with metformin (90 mg/kg weight) for 8 weeks. After JGXZ and metformin treatment, H&E staining was conducted on rat livers and serum biochemical markers, including alanine aminotransferase (ALT), aspartate aminotransferase (AST), triglyceride (TG), and total cholesterol (TC), were measured using test kits. Moreover, a fasting blood glucose test and an oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT) were conducted. Serum levels of insulin were determined using ELISA kit, and the homeostatic model assessment of insulin resistance (HOMA-IR) was calculated. The levels of total insulin receptor substrate-1 (IRS1), AMP-activated protein kinase-α (AMPKα) and c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK) as well as the levels of phosphorylation of IRS1 (p-IRS1), phosphorylation of AMPK (p-AMPK) and phosphorylation of JNK (p-JNK) were measured using western blotting. Results: The body weights in JGXZ low-, middle-, and high-dose groups were lower than those in the model group (P < 0.05, P < 0.01, P < 0.01, respectively). The serum levels of AST (P < 0.05 in JGXZ middle- and high-dose groups), ALT (P < 0.01 in JGXZ middle-dose group and P < 0.05 in JGXZ high-dose group), TG (P < 0.01 in JGXZ middle- and high-dose groups), and TC (P < 0.01) upon JGXZ treatment were lower those than in NAFLD model rats. H&E staining showed that JGXZ treatment reduced steatosis of the hepatocytes in NAFLD model rats. JGXZ decreased the levels of fasting blood glucose (P < 0.01), HOMA-IR (P < 0.01), AUC (area under the curve) of the OGTT (P < 0.05) and p-IRS1 (P < 0.01 in JGXZ middle- and high-dose groups, P < 0.05 in JGXZ low-dose groups). Moreover, JGXZ regulated the hepatic AMPKα/JNK pathway in NAFLD model rats, which reflected the induction of p-AMPKα and inhibition of p-JNK. Conclusion: This study showed that JGXZ improved liver function and reduced steatosis of the hepatocytes in NAFLD model rats. Moreover, JGXZ improved IR in NAFLD model rats. The possible mechanism underlying the effects of JGXZ on NAFLD and IR involves the modulation of the AMPK/JNK pathway.
Omics technology: an important tool in mechanism studies of Chinese herbal fo...LucyPi1
Identifying the active ingredients from natural herbal medicines and demonstrating their potential mechanisms are key points in the traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) field. In recent years, increasing studies have focused on the effects and mechanisms of Chinese herbal formulas. Basic studies on these formulas further coincide with the theory and practical use of TCM according to the clinical experiences for thousands of years. Single compounds have specific molecular structures; therefore, their methodologies in effect and mechanism studies are similar in both Western and Eastern medicines, making them more acceptable by researchers worldwide. On the contrary, the multicomponent, multitarget, and multipathway structures of Chinese formulas make it challenging to explore their mechanisms accurately where the routine method used in Western medicine studies would be inapplicable, which is the main reason for the unacceptance of Chinese herbal formulas by researchers worldwide and presents a huge obstacle to the modernization of TCM. With the rapid progress in basic TCM studies, scientific and technological innovations have achieved a breakthrough in TCM. Omic technology, a series of research methods based on high-throughput analysis and detection techniques in modern biological research system such as genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics, and metabolomics, evaluates thousands of targets and pathways rather than focusing on a single target or pathway and could screen the global changes in genes, proteins, metabolites, and other factors involved in the process of biological signaling transduction [1]. This is in agreement with the “holism” theory in TCM, which explains the overall mechanisms of Chinese herbal formulas comprehensively. In this study, we introduced the conventionally used omic technologies and their applications in research of mechanism studies of Chinese herbal formulas.
Gastrointestinal effects of Artemisia absinthium Linn. based on traditional P...LucyPi1
Abstract One of the most extensively used herbs in traditional Persian medicine (TPM) used in the treatment of gastrointestinal (GI) disorders, is the plant Artemisia absinthium Linn. (AAL). It also has a wide range of activities such as analgesic and anti-inflammatory, anti-oxidant, anti-fungal, and anti-bacterial activities, hepatoprotective, and neuroprotective activities in addition to having gastroprotective effects. This article is a review comparing TPM resources with new medicines. This review investigates this herb in major TPM sources and strives to extrapolate the exact function it serves in the digestive tract and compares the collected information on the function of AAL with information found in new medical resource databases such as ISI, Pubmed, Scopus, Google Scholar, and Scientific Information Database. AAL from the Asteraceae family of TPM, known as Afsentin, was used in the treatment of GI weaknesses, stomach pains, swellings, intestinal parasites, diarrhea, and vomiting. AAL increased appetite, so it was used for insect repellents and insecticide. Recent studies have indicated that the effects of this plant improved the symptoms of Crohn's disease and played a role in reducing inflammatory factors. It also has strong anti-parasitic, anti-insect, hepatoprotective, and antioxidant effects. Given the widespread use of AAL as a traditional medicine currently in use in different countries, particularly in the treatment of GI diseases, further clinical studies that focus on the therapeutic qualities of this plant are required in the future.
Jadwar (Delphinium denudatum Wall.): a medicinal plantLucyPi1
This review summarizes the medicinal uses of Delphinium denudatum Wall. (jadwar), according to historical documents and modern studies. Rhazes first documented its use in the 10th century to treat poisonings. Later, it was used for neurological, gastrointestinal, and other diseases. Modern studies show it has anti-microbial, anti-fatigue, anxiolytic, anticonvulsant, analgesic, and liver protective properties. The review focuses on therapeutic effects of its extracts and identifies phytochemicals that may underlie these effects, such as alkaloids and flavonoids. It concludes that controlled clinical trials are still needed to confirm effects against various diseases.
Effects of chicory (Cichorium intybus L.) on nonalcoholic fatty liver diseaseLucyPi1
Abstract There is a dramatic increase in the prevalence of nonalcoholic fatty liver disease, which is slowly turning into a pandemic as well as a major challenge across the world. Nonalcoholic fatty liver disease is described as a range of liver conditions such as fat accumulation, hepatic steatosis, or end-stage liver disease. Patients with nonalcoholic fatty liver disease are asymptomatic and their mortality is higher than people without nonalcoholic fatty liver disease. The pathogenesis of nonalcoholic fatty liver disease has not been clearly determined yet. The “two hits” hypothesis is designed to explain the pathogenesis of nonalcoholic fatty liver disease. Dyslipidemia, oxidative stress, insulin resistance, obesity, and chronic inflammation are some of the morbidities involved in the progression of nonalcoholic fatty liver disease. Chicory (Cichorium intybus L.) is an herbaceous perennial, known as chicory. Chicory contains various compounds, such as vitamins, sonchuside A, caffeic acid derivatives, fructo-oligosaccharides, chlorogenic acid, magnolialide, polysaccharides, coumarins, phenolic acids, terpenoids, flavonoids, polyphenol, cichoriosides, ixerisosides, eudesmanolides, inulin, bitter sesquiterpene lactones, and alkaloids. Current research has revealed that chicory supplementation might be effective in the treatment of nonalcoholic fatty liver disease. The anti-inflammatory, antihepatotoxic, antihyperlipidemic, antidiabetic, antihyperglycemic, and antioxidant properties of chicory provide plausible mechanisms by which chicory may affect the various steps of disease progression and severity. Existing studies have shown that chicory supplementation has beneficial effects on nonalcoholic fatty liver disease, but the existence of only one human study and possible side effects of chicory necessitate further studies.
Evaluation of scientific evidence for abortifacient medicinal plants mentione...LucyPi1
Abstract Background: Miscarriage or spontaneous ending to a pregnancy takes place at the early stages of pregnancy without intervention. Pregnant women may use medicinal herbs to relieve some of the symptoms of pregnancy as they believe that all herbs are safe. Some abortion-inducing herbs were mentioned by the famous Iranian philosophers, Avicenna and Aghili, in documents of traditional Persian medicine titled Al-Qanun Fi Al-Tibb (The Canon of Medicine, written by Avicenna in the 11th century) and Makhzan Al-adviyah (The Storehouse of Medicaments, written by Aghili in the 18th century). Methods: Electronic databases such as PubMed, Scopus, Google Scholar, Cochrane Library and Web of Science were searched to find new scientific evidence that these plants are toxic during pregnancy. Data was collected from 1831 to 2019. Results: Twenty-one plants were found to be abortive according to Al-Qanun Fi Al-Tibb (The Canon of Medicine) and Makhzan Al-adviyah (The Storehouse of Medicaments). Scientific research has shown that these plants possess abortifacient effects by the mechanisms of toxic alkaloids, uterine stimulants, and emmenagogue that interferes with implantation and results in fetus toxicity. These studies included in vivo or in vitro studies. Some of these plants showed abortifacient effects by more than one mechanism. Ruta graveolens, Nigella sativa, Curcuma longa, Lupinus termis, Apium graveolens, Mentha longifolia, and Peganum harmala possess uterine stimulant properties. Ruta graveolens, Juniperus sabina, Cicer arietinum, Piper longum, Artemisia absinthium, and Citrullus colocynthis interfere with implantation. Ruta graveolens, Nigella sativa, Curcuma longa, Tanacetum parthenium, Piper longum, Laurus nobilis, Apium graveolens, Mentha longifolia, and Cinnamomum iners exhibit emmenagogue effects. Lupinus termis, Delphinium staphisagria, Laurus nobilis, Trigonella foenum-graecum, Zataria multiflora, and Artemisia absinthium contain toxic alkaloids and possess teratogenic effects. Conclusion: The results of this study of traditional Persian medicine resources have been confirmed with new scientific evidence. Therefore, pregnant women should avoid consuming herbs without knowledge of their safety.
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Digestion process and causes of indigestion based on Avicenna's view and modern medicine
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Persian Medicine
Digestion process and causes of indigestion based on Avicenna's view
and modern medicine
Ali Reza Derakhshan1
, Mahdi Yousefi1
, Sohrab Dehghan2
, Arman Zargaran3
, Mahmood Khodadoost4
1
Department of Persian Medicine, School of Persian and Complementary Medicine, Mashhad University of
Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran. 2
Department of Traditional Medicine, School of Traditional Medicine, Shahid
Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran. 3
Department of History of Medicine, School of Persian
Medicine, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran. 4
School of Traditional Medicine, Shahid Beheshti
University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran.
*Corresponding to: Mahmood Khodadoost, School of Traditional Medicine, No.8, Shams Alley, Vali-e-Asr Street,
Tehran, Iran. Email: mkhodadoost@sbmu.ac.ir.
Highlights
This manuscript reviews digestion process and the problem of indigestion from the perspective of Avicenna
and aims to establish a link between the perspective of Avicenna and the evidence of modern medicine.
Traditionality
Avicenna (born 980, died 1037, Hamadan, Iran) is regarded as the most distinguished Persian medical
scholar. His masterwork Canon of Medicine became the mainstream medical system in the west until 17th
century. Avicenna paid a lot of attention to gastrointestinal disorders and his view was based on the humoral
theory.
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Abstract
The process of food digestion is one of the most important physiologic processes in human body. In this review, we
are seeking the views of Avicenna, the most distinguished Persian medical scholar about digestion and indigestion.
Avicenna’s view was based on the humoral theory. Avicenna has focused scrutiny on the process of digestion. He
divided this process into four phases including gastric, hepatic, intravascular and intra-organ digestion. A defect in
any of these phases can lead to disturbance in other stages. Avicenna approached the problem of indigestion
through factors of diet, lifestyle and inherent structural characteristics of digestive organs. Modern medicine
confirms Avicenna's opinion about the start of digestion from the mouth, the role of the stomach in digestion and
the role of the liver in the metabolism of foods. Overeating or eating certain foods, snacking between meals, eating
variety of different foods together, intense physical activity, sexual activity after a meal, stress and sleep
insufficiency are among factors that may be linked to indigestion in modern medicine viewpoints and also have
been mentioned in Avicenna's teachings. It seems rational to consider the medical approaches recommended by
Avicenna for future studies in the field of digestive disorders.
Keywords: Persian medicine, Digestion, Indigestion, Malabsorption, Avicenna
Abbreviations:
CAM, Complementary and alternative medicine; GI, Gastrointestinal; PM, Persian medicine.
Competing interests:
The authors declare that there is no conflict of interests regarding the publication of this paper.
Citation:
Ali Reza Derakhshan, Mahdi Yousefi, Sohrab Dehghan, et al. Digestion process and causes of indigestion
based on Avicenna's view and modern medicine. Traditional Medicine Research, 2019, 4(3): 140-147.
Executive Editor: Cui-Hong Zhu.
Submitted: 22 September 2018, Accepted: 20 January 2019, Online: 15 February 2019.
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Background
Food digestion is considered one of the most important
physiologic processes in our body. Several factors play
a key role in proper digestion and absorption such as
mixing action of stomach and intestinal motility,
enzyme secretion and activity, appropriate mucosal
function, optimum blood supply and normal
microbiome [1]. Consequently, any defect in these
factors can affect the absorption of nutrients which
may result in development of a wide range of disorders
such as neurologic dysfunctions [2], skin diseases [3],
respiratory diseases [4] and rheumatic disorders [5].
Since conventional medical therapies may have side
effects or do not provide satisfactory results,
enthusiasm for complementary and alternative
medicine (CAM) is growing. In the field of
gastrointestinal (GI) illness [6, 7], the most prominent
use of CAM is dedicated to functional GI disorders.
Persian medicine (PM) has a history of more than
4000 years [8]. It has been commonly practiced in
ancient Persia and prospered there as well as Muslim
countries. PM is a system containing various methods
for prevention, diagnosis and treatment of many
ailments since the ancient times [9]. PM gives a lot of
attention to the GI system and the physiology of
digestion and absorption in particular. In PM with its
holistic approach, any disorder of GI system can affect
the function of other organs such as nervous,
respiratory, circulatory and rheumatologic systems
[10-12].
Abu Ali Al-Hussain Ibn Abdullah ibn Sina better
known as Avicenna (born 980, near Bukhara, Persia
[now in Uzbekistan]—died 1037, Hamadan, Iran) is
regarded as the prince of physicians whose innovative
ideas had a major contribution to development of
medicine in medieval times. More than 400 books in
the fields of medicine, philosophy, astronomy and
other branches of science are attributed to him [13].
His masterwork is Al-qanoon fi al-teb (Canon of
Medicine) which comprises five books. In fact, Canon
of Medicine is the summary of medical knowledge of
its time. It is known as an outstanding achievement in
the history of medicine, which was celebrated until
17th century [14-16]. Avicenna’s view was basically
based on the humoral theory which was mainly
founded by ancient Greeks and evolved by Persian
physicians and was the mainstream medical system in
the west until 17th century [17]. This theory holds that
the human body is brought into being as a result of
mixing of four basic substances known as humors
which are in balance in a healthy state. Any imbalance
in these four humors (i.e. excess or deficit of one of
them) can result in diseases and disabilities [18].
Avicenna paid a lot of attention to GI disorders and
discussed several GI topics in his encyclopedia in
detail [19].
Considering that explaining the Avicenna’s
teachings as an indicator view in history of medical
science could provide a framework for comparing
medical knowledge of the past and modern medical
sciences. In this article we aimed to study the views of
Avicenna on the subject of digestion, indigestion, its
causes and outcomes and tried to bridge between his
teachings and modern evidences.
Mainbody
Digestion process
Avicenna described the process of digestion in the first
volume of the Canon of Medicine under the heading
“creation of humors”. According to his views, the food
goes through four digestive stages from the beginning
to the end of the digestive process. Food particles
undergo transformation in each stage until they are
ready to be used by the target organ. Here we briefly
introduce these stages of digestion from the
perspective of PM based on Avicenna’s Canon of
Medicine [20].
The first stage starts from the oral cavity and is
completed in the stomach. Avicenna believed that the
process of chewing and excretion of saliva were the
main factors involved in oral digestion, therefore they
have put a lot of emphasis on proper chewing of the
food. Ingested food then enters the stomach and the
first stage of transformation is completed there. It is
important to know that liver, spleen, diaphragm and
abdominal muscles are also involved in this stage of
digestion. By this time, food is transformed into a
semifluid substance called Chylus. Chylus moves from
the stomach and intestine to the Masariqa (mesenteric
veins) and then Baab (portal vein) and ultimately
reaches the liver. The waste product of the first stage of
digestion will form the feces.
In modern physiology, digestion is defined as the
process by which the ingested food is dissolved and
broken down to simple chemical compounds with the
help of enzymes excreted from the GI tract. This
process starts in oral cavity as Avicenna mentioned.
The amylase and lipase present in saliva digest the
starch and lipids and continue their action in the
stomach. Chewing the food for a longer time helps the
amylase and lipase exert their action on starch in a
proper way [1, 21].
Besides, by breaking down the food to small pieces,
the act of chewing increases the area of contact for the
enzymatic action in oral cavity. As mentioned earlier
Avicenna has pointed out these two factors in digestion
with his remarkable precision [22]. Avicenna cited the
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organs adjacent to GI tract to have a role in digestion
process and specifically noted the liver, spleen and
diaphragm. Avicenna believed that liver help gastric
digestion by its hararat (heat). hararat in PM has wide
meaning and does not refer solely to the temperature of
the liver. In this concept the enzymatic activity of an
organ or release of ATP within cells can be explained
below the definition of hararat [23]. Role of liver in
digestion can be explained by the release of bile from
gallbladder. It has been proved that liver malfunction
can reduce the production of bile salts. In addition,
anatomical defects in the biliary system may reduce
the delivery of bile salts to the digestive canal [1].
Diaphragm is mainly involved in the respiratory
process. However, it has an assisting role in vomiting,
defecation and urination by increasing intra-abdominal
pressure as well as inhibiting gastric reflux by
increasing the pressure on the esophagus [24].
Although spleen plays no direct role (like secreting
digestive enzymes) in the digestive process, it has been
proven that dysfunction of spleen can lead to
dysfunction of other digestive organs by dysregulation
of immune system as well as gut associated lymphatic
tissue dysfunction [25]. It should be noted that
Avicenna regards the role of the spleen in the digestion
process as related to the spleen vessels, not the splenic
tissue itself. Today we know that pancreatic enzymes
play a major role in digestive process while Avicenna
has not mentioned this fact. This can be due to two
reasons: limitation of the knowledge regarding the
action of pancreas or the possibility that he has
considered the pancreas and spleen as a single organ.
Table 1 Four stages of digestion from the perspective of Avicenna and the evidence of modern medicine
Avicenna's view Modern medicine's view
Gastric digestion Digestion begins in the oral cavity
with crucial role of chewing and
saliva.
Food is transformed into a semifluid
substance called Chylus.
In addition to stomach, the liver, the
spleen and the diaphragm have a role
at this stage.
The role of the pancreas is not
expressed explicitly by Avicenna,
although he may have considered the
pancreas as part of the spleen.
Mechanical and chemical digestion begins in the oral
cavity with the effect of chewing and salivary amylase
and lipase.
Digestion (specially proteins) continues at this stage
with a key role of gastric juice and pancreatic enzymes.
Role of liver in this stage can be explained by the
release of bile from gallbladder.
Dysfuction of spleen can lead to dysfunction of other
digestive organs by dysregulation of immune system as
well as gut associated lymphatic tissue dysfunction.
The diaphragm can play a role in digestion process in
some cases by increasing intra-abdominal pressure.
Hepatic digestion The blood passes through Masariqa
(mesenteric) and Baab (portal) veins
and distributes in the liver.
The hepatic digestion leads to
metabolization of food and formation
of four humors.
These humors enter a vessel that
emerges from the convex part of the
liver and join the body circulation.
The superior mesenteric vein collects blood from small
intestine and forms the portal vein in combination with
splenic vein. Portal vein carries blood from
gastrointestinal tract to the liver.
Liver process the blood, break down, and metabolize
the nutrients. The blood that enters the liver is drawn
into the sinusoids and after metabolization enters into
the inferior vena cava via hepatic vein.
Intravascular
digestion
Occurs in the blood vessels.
Prepares humors for consumption in
tissues.
Enzymatic reactions inside vessels such as endothelial
lipase and protease activities can be considered as
evidence of intravascular metabolism and digestion.
Intra-organ
digestion
Digested food reaches the tissue and
digestion completed in each tissue
specifically. The result is tissue
growth and regeneration
Intracellular enzymatic reactions and degradation and
catabolism of food molecules can match this opinion.
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The second stage of digestion takes place in the liver.
Avicenna explained that the blood of the portal vein is
distributed in the liver and the liver transforms the
Chylus into a product called Chymus, which is
consisted of the humors. Humors are basic substances
in human body that are divided into four general
categories: Blood (Dam), Phlegm (Balgham), Yellow
bile (Safra) and Black bile (Sauda). Each of these
humors have their own characteristics and functions. In
other words, normal humors are created in the liver as
the final products of the hepatic digestion. This
description is likely to match the fact that the main
function of the liver is to process the blood, break
down, and metabolize the nutrients. As described by
Avicenna these humors enter a vessel that emerges
from the convex part of the liver and join the body
circulation, which we know today that this description
is related to inferior vena cava. The waste products of
this stage are entering the bloodstream and excrete
from blood into urine by the kidneys as stated in
modern physiology.
The third stage of digestion takes place in the blood
vessels, which further prepares the nutrients for
delivery to the tissues. This phase of digestion is in fact
an intermediate stage that prepares the blood and its
ingredients for the fourth stage (intra-organ digestion).
The fourth stage of digestion takes place in the various
tissues of the body separately by which the food is
transformed into a specific tissue. In other words, after
passing the three stages of the digestion and after the
specific reactions at each stage, the food is converted
into substances transmitted by the blood stream to each
target tissue and eventually in the fourth stage, it is
used for growth and regeneration in each tissue. The
waste products of the third and fourth stage of
digestion form the sweat, which is excreted through the
skin. Enzymatic reactions inside vessels such as
endothelial lipase and protease activities can be
considered as evidence of intravascular metabolism
and digestion [26, 27]. Although molecular medicine
was not known at the time of Avicenna, he considered
each tissue as a part of digestion process. Degradation
and catabolism of food molecules, which occurs within
cells, can match this opinion. Table 1 summarizes
Avicenna's description of four digestive stages and
related evidence of modern medicine.
Although the topic of four stage of digestion
described by Avicenna and other PM practitioners is
based on humoral theory, it largely meets modern
findings. Avicenna presented a coherent picture of
digestion process and related disorders however in
some minor discussions, his teachings differ from
current medical science due to lack of access to
modern diagnostic and imaging equipment. Although
the oral, gastric and intestinal digestion is considered
the first stage of digestion from Avicenna’s point of
view, it is of great importance because it can affect the
next stages of digestion as well.
Indigestion
Definition
Avicenna defined indigestion under the term of Sou-e
hazm, as incomplete process of digestion and
absorption of food. It is important to note that
indigestion at any stage can affect the quality of
product in next stages as well. The abnormal products
are considered harmful to the body [28]. In modern
medicine, indigestion is a term that means lack of
adequate digestion and includes a wide variety of
symptoms. The word that can be used interchangeably
with indigestion, is dyspepsia [29].
Symptoms
Avicenna considers unusual foul odor of stool as the
cardinal symptom of indigestion. Other symptoms that
can be noticed according to the cause of indigestion
include bloating, pain or burning sensation of stomach,
flatulence and gas passing, nausea, emaciation and
abdominal gurgling sounds [14]. Today the term of
indigestion refers to group of symptoms ranging from
pain or discomfort to postprandial fullness, early
satiation, abdominal bloating, burping, gurgling sounds
or even nausea and vomiting [30, 31]. Symptoms that
mentioned by Avicenna for indigestion have many
overlaps with symptoms of dyspepsia especially
functional dyspepsia.
Causes
In Avicenna’s view, some organic causes as well as
various dietary and lifestyle factors can be involved in
indigestion and its possible consequences. Avicenna
divided causes of indigestion into intrinsic and
extrinsic. Intrinsic factors are mainly related to organic
causes whereas extrinsic factors dealing with diet,
eating habits and lifestyle parameters such as physical
and sexual activity, mental and emotional states and
sleeping [14]. Today we know that several mechanisms
including physiologic, biologic, psychologic and
environmental mechanisms are contributing to
indigestion [32]. Table 2 shows the causes of
indigestion from the perspective of Avicenna and
related evidence of modern medicine.
From comparative perspective, the subject of
indigestion in PM can be related to: (1) Lack of
breakdown of macromolecules to monomers resulting
in production of dimers or larger molecules and their
absorption [44] especially autoimmune diseases (i.e.
celiac disease) and allergic disorders (i.e. allergic
rhinitis) [45]; (2) Interaction among various food
particles resulting in the production of intermediate
molecules with antigenic properties that can damage
the mucosa of GI tract [46]; (3) Production of large
amount of gas made from insufficient digestion which
is absorbed from the GI epithelium leading to change
in epithelial permeability [47]; (4) Improper quality of
the absorbed material can alter the metabolism of GI
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mucosal cells or affect the next stages of digestion
including the liver metabolism [48].
Today the researchers highlight the role of
indigestion and malabsorption in the pathophysiology
of a wide range of diseases such as a number of GI,
developmental, rheumatic, neurologic, allergic and
autoimmune and even psychiatric disorders. Moreover,
the link between digestive and neurologic system
under the term brain-gut axis has been studied in
several papers. Currently more and more documents
are supporting the concept of a balanced and diverse
gut microbiota in maintenance of proper cognition and
emotional functioning [49, 50].
As it mentioned, most of Avicenna’s teachings on
the topic of indigestion causes had direct or indirect
evidence. However, some were controversial and some
had no relevant evidence. Considering that Avicenna
has thought in the framework of humoral medicine, it’s
difficult to propose a mechanism for some of his
teachings that have no evidence in modern medicine.
Table 2 Possible causes of indigestion: Avicenna's view and modern medicine
Causes Avicenna’s views Modern studies
Intra-abd
ominal
causes
Structural abnormality or
imbalance of humors in
abdominal organs specially
stomach, intestine or liver.
Peptic ulcer, gastroesophageal reflux disease, gastric or esophageal
cancer, pancreatic or biliary disorders, intolerance to food or drugs are
considered as organic causes of dyspepsia [31].
Dietary
factors
Overeating
Inappropriate fasting
Eating foods which have high
potential of rotting (i.e. fresh
milk, fish and watermelon)
Eating a variety of foods in one
meal.
Eat before digestion of the
previous meal
Not following the right order of
eating
Eating large amounts of food at a meal is effective in inducing
indigestion [33].
Fatty foods, spicy foods, carbohydrate-containing foods and some
other foods such as pickles vinegar, soft drinks, grain, tea, salt, pizza,
watermelon, red pepper, and macaroni are the foods that cause the
highest exaggeration of symptoms in functional dyspepsia. In other
hand, apples, rice, bread, caraway seed, honey, quince, and walnut can
alleviate symptoms. Milk and dairy products were controversial in
dyspepsia [34, 35] but they have been implicated as trigger for
Irritable bowel syndrome [36].
Higher prevalence of snacking between meals have reported in
patients with dyspepsia [37].
Differences in digestibility and absorption of commonly ingested
short-chain carbohydrates can lead to exacerbation of symptoms in
functional gastrointestinal disorders [38].
Any alteration in eating habits and diet can affect the overall function
of the gut [13, 15].
Lifestyle
factors
Intensive physical activity after
meals
Sexual intercourse after meals
Mental and emotional stress
after meals
Bathing after meals (There is no
study about the relationship
between bathing and
gastrointestinal disorders)
Drinking more or less than
needed
Sleeping more or less than
needed
Exposure to very cold or very
hot or polluted weather
Regular physical activity is associated with lower symptoms in
irritable bowel syndrome but endurance sports is associated with more
gastrointestinal symptoms [34].
Excessive eating and drinking may result in greater hemodynamic
changes associated with sexual activity [16]. Furthermore, it has been
reported that large meals are a risk factor for death after sexual
intercourse [39].
Stress can influences activities in the gut and lead to dysfunction of
gastrointestinal system through disruption of homeostasis in the gut
[13, 40].
Difficulty falling asleep or sleep insufficiency has been identified as a
risk factor for dyspepsia [34].
Air pollution can change gut microbiota and immune function [41]. It
also can be a potential trigger of IBS [42]. Specific alteration of
rhythm in temperature stress produces somatic and visceral pains in
IBS [43].
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Prospect
Understanding CAM perceptions on preventive health
issues can help illuminate ways in integrative medicine
and framing use of CAM in health care and public
health systems. Given the importance of digestion
from the view of PM and support of considerable parts
of its teachings by modern medical findings, it seems
rational to consider the medical approaches of this
system for future studies in the field of digestive
disorders. PM practitioners have provided many
recommendations for maintaining health especially
proper GI function. Since these recommendations are
the result of many years of experience of prominent
medical scientists of the past, further integrative
research is needed in order to promote public health in
this field with safe, affordable and efficacious
recommendations in harmony with culture and
traditions.
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