The document discusses irrigation methods, highlighting their importance, types, and criteria for selection. It elaborates on surface, sub-surface, and pressurized irrigation methods, detailing different techniques such as check basins, border, and drip irrigation, including their advantages and limitations. Additionally, it describes the components and design considerations for sprinkler irrigation systems, emphasizing the efficient use of water and the need for proper installation and maintenance.

1. 20AG501
IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE ENGINEERING
By
S.Satheeshkumar
AP/AGE
KNCET

2. Unit 2
Irrigation methods
IRRIGATION
Irrigation is defined as the artificial application of water to
the soil
Importance of water to plants
1. Plants contain 90% water which gives turgidity and
keeps them erect
2. Water is an essential part of protoplasm
3. It regulates the temperature of the plant system
4. It is essential to meet the transpiration requirements
5. It serves as a medium for dissolving the nutrients
present in the soil
6. It is an important ingredient in photosynthesis

3. TIME OF IRRIGATION
Crops draw water from the moisture stored in the
soil.
When the moisture present in the soil is low
When the soil is supplied with moisture in excess
optimum soil moisture
The upper limit of the optimum soil moisture range
is the field capacity (-0.01 to -0.03 Mpa)
The lower limit is just above the wilting point (-1.5
Mpa).
The objective of irrigation is to store the moisture in
the soil between these limits.

4. All the macro and micropores will be filled with water
All the water present in macropores will drain to
subsoil within 48 hours and moisture in micropores
will be available to plants
As the soil dries due to loss of water by evaporation
and transpiration
 When the same condition continues, the plant will
wilt without dieing
This condition is called as wilting coefficient
The irrigation is given whenever plants require water

5. IRRIGATION METHODS
1. Surface 2. Sub-surface 3. Pressurized irrigation
Criteria for selection of irrigation method
Water supply source
Topography
Quantity of water to be applied
The crop
Method of cultivation

8. Pressurised irrigation

10. Surface irrigation methods
Oldest (4000 years back)
90% of world’s irrigation
Suitable for low to
moderate infiltration rates
& leveled lands
<2-3% slope.
It is labour intensive.
Surface is grouped
1) Border 2)Check basin
3)Furrow irrigations.

11. Check basins
1)Rectangular 2) Ring
 It is the most common surface
irrigation method
 Here, the field is divided into
smaller unit areas
 Bunds or ridges are
constructed
 The water applied to a desired
depth can be retained until it
infiltrates into the soil
 The size of the basin varies
from 10 m2
to 25 m2
depending
upon soil type, topography,
stream size and crop

13. Adaptability
Small gentle and uniform land slopes and soils
having moderate to low infiltration rates.
Adapted to grain and fodder crops in heavy soils
and suitable to permeable soils
Advantages
Check basins are useful when leaching is required to
remove salts from the soil profile
Rainfall can be conserved and soil erosion is
reduced by retaining large part of rain
High water application and distribution efficiency

14. Limitations
The ridges interfere with the movement of implements
More area occupied by ridges and field channels
The method impedes surface drainage
Precise land grading and shaping are required
Labour requirement is higher
Not suitable for crops which are sensitive to wet soil
conditions around the stem

15. 1. Border irrigation
Long parallel strips called
borders.
These borders are
separated by low ridges.
Uniform gentle slope in
the direction of irrigation.
Each strip is irrigated
independently by turning
the water in the upper
end.
The water spreads and
flows down the strip in a
sheet confined by the
border ridges.

16. Suitability
Moderately low to moderately high infiltration rates.
It is not used in coarse sandy soils
Wheat, barley, fodder crops, legumes & not for rice
Advantages
a) Border ridges can be constructed with simple farm
implements like bullock drawn “A” frame ridger or bund
former.
b) Labour requirement in irrigation is reduced as compared
to conventional check basin method.
c) Uniform distribution of water
d) Large irrigation streams can be efficiently used.
e) Adequate surface drainage is provided

23. • Short furrow- its is suitable for vegetables ,L=5 to
6m,5 to 6 rows grouped into a basin.
• Every furrow -water is allowed into every furrow at
each irrigation
• Alternative furrow -water is allowed to channel one
to alternative furrows. It is suitable for area the water
is deficient.(25-30% water saved)
• Wide space furrow- Wide= 2 to 5 m. two or more
rows of crops are present in between two furrows
• Shallow furrow- applying water to shallow furrow
which is made by bamboo corrugators and it is
suitable for closed growing crops

27. •

41. DRIP IRRIGATION
MERITS
1. Increased water use efficiency
2. Better crop yield
3. Uniform and better quality of the produce
4. Efficient and economic use or fertiliser through fertigation
5. Less weed growth
6. Minimum damage to the soil structure
7. Avoidance of leaf burn due to saline soil
8. Usage in undulating areas and slow permeable soil
9. Low energy requirement (i.e.) labour saving
10. High uniformity suitable for automization

44. DEMERITS
1. Clogging of drippers
2. Chemical precipitation
3. Salt accumulation at wetting front
COMPONENTS AND ITS SELECTION
HEAD EQUIPMENTS
a. Water source - Subsurface tank
b. Pump - Suction, monoblock pump, delivery non return valve, gate
valve
c. Filter station - Sand filter, screen filter, manifold and pressure gauge
d. Fertiliser application - Fertiliser tank and ventury assembly

45. Suction pump

46. Pressure relief valves, regulators or bye pass arrangement:
• These valves may be installed at any point where possibility
exists for excessively high pressures, either static or surge
pressures to occur.
• A bye pass arrangement is simplest and cost effective means
to avoid problems of high pressures instead of using costly
pressure relief valves.
Check valves or non-return valves:
• These valves are used to prevent unwanted flow reversal.
• They are used to prevent damaging back flow from the
system to avoid return flow of chemicals and fertilizers from
the system into the water source itself to avoid
contamination of water source.

47. Monoblock pump

48. Gate valve

49. Pump/Overhead Tank:
• It is required to provide sufficient pressure in the system.
• Centrifugal pumps are generally used for low pressure trickle
systems.
• Overhead tanks can be used for small areas or orchard crops
with comparatively lesser water requirements.
Filters:
Gravel or Media Filter:
• Consist of fine gravel or coarse quartz sand (usually 1.5 – 4 mm)
• These filters are effective in removing light suspended
materials, such as algae and other organic materials, fine sand
and silt
• Water is introduced at the top, while a layer of coarse gravel is
put near the outlet bottom.

50. Sand filter

51. Screen Filters:
• Screen filters are always installed for final filtration as an
additional safeguard against clogging.
• While majority of impurities are filtered by sand filter, minute
sand particles and other small impurities pass through it.
• The screen filter, containing screen strainer, which filters
physical impurities and allows only clean water to enter into the
micro irrigation system
• The screens are usually cylindrical and made of non-corrosive
metal or plastic material.

52. Screen filter

53. Centrifugal Filters:
• Centrifugal filters are effective in filtering sand, fine gravel
and other high density materials from well or river water.
• Water is introduced tangentially at the top of a cone and
creates a circular motion resulting in a centrifugal force,
which throws the heavy suspended particles against the
walls.
• The separated particles are collected in the narrow
collecting vessel at the bottom.

54. Disk Filters:
• Disk filter contains stacks of grooved, ring shaped disks that
capture debris and are very effective in the filtration of
organic material and algae.
• During the filtration mode, the disks are pressed together.
There is an angle in the alignment of two adjacent disks,
resulting in cavities of varying size and partly turbulent flow.
• The sizes of the groove determine the filtration grade.
• Disk filters are available in a wide size range (25-400
microns). Back flushing can clean disk filters.

55. manifold

56. Pressure gauge

57. Fertilizer tanks

58. DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM
e. Conveyance line - Main line, sub main, grommet take off assembly,
laterals, minor tubes and end caps.
f. Drippers - Pressure corresponding drippers (moulded/threaded
type)
g. Valves - Non-return valve (NRV), Ball valves, Air release valve (ARV),
flush valves
h. Water meter - If necessary
i. Water source

59. Distribution Network:
• It mainly constitutes main
line, submains line and
laterals with drippers and
other accessories.
1. Mainline
• The mainline transports water
within the field and distribute
to submains.
• Mainline is made of rigid PVC
and High Density Polyethylene
(HDPE).
• Pipelines of 65 mm diameter
and above with a pressure
rating 4 to 6 kg/cm2 are used
for main pipes.

60. 2. Submains
• Submains distribute water evenly to a number of lateral lines
• For sub main pipes, rigid PVC, HDPE or LDPE (Low Density
Polyethylene)
• Diameter ranging from 32 mm to 75 mm having pressure rating
of 2.5 kg/cm2 are used
3. Laterals
• Laterals distribute the water uniformly along their length by
means of drippers or emitters
• These are normally manufactured from LDPE
• Generally pipes having 10, 12 and 16 mm internal diameter with
wall thickness varying from 1 to 3 mm are used as laterals

61. 4. Emitters / Drippers
• They function as energy dissipaters, reducing the inlet pressure
head (0.5 to 1.5 atmospheres) to zero atmospheres at the
outlet.
• The commonly used drippers are
1) online pressure compensating or
2) online non-pressure compensating,
3) in-line dripper,
4) adjustable discharge type drippers,
5) vortex type drippers and
6) micro tubing of 1 to 4 mm diameter.
These are manufactured from Poly- propylene or LLDPE.

62. A) Online Pressure Compensating drippers:
• A pressure compensating type dripper supplies water uniformly
on long rows and on uneven slopes.
• These are manufactured with high quality flexible rubber
diaphragm or disc inside the emitter that it changes shape
according to operating pressure and delivers uniform discharge.
• These are most suitable on slopes and difficult topographic
terrains.

63. B) Online Non-Pressure Compensating drippers:
• In such type of drippers discharge tends to vary with
operating pressure.
• They have simple thread type, labyrinth type, zigzag path,
vortex type flow path or have float type arrangement to
dissipate energy.

64. C) In-Line Drippers or Inline tubes:
• These are fixed along with the line
• They have generally a simple thread type or labyrinth type
flow path
• Such types of drippers are suitable for row crops
• They are provided with independent pressure compensating
water discharge mechanism and
• extremely wide water passage to prevent clogging

65. INSTALLATION, OPERATION OF DRIP IRRIGATION SYSTEM
The installation of the drip system be divided into 3 stages
1. Fitting of head equipments
2. Connecting mains and sub mains
3. Laying of lateral with drippers.

66. INSTALLATION OF HEAD EQUIPMENTS
1. Minimum use of fitting such as elbows and bends to be made
2. Whether the pump delivery can be connected to the sand / screen
filter
3. Arrangement of back-wash to be made as per the farmer's
suitability
5. Arrangement of by-pass water to be made
6. Sufficient space to be provided for the easy operation of filter valves
7. Hard surface or cement concrete foundation to be made for sand
filter so that it will not collapse due to vibration and load.
8. M-seal over the joints uniformly to avoid leakage
9. Fix the pressure gauges in inlet and outlet of the filter

67. CONNECTING MAINS AND SUB MAINS
1. It should be laid at a depth of more than 30 - 45 cm so as to
avoid damages during intercultivation
2. Remove mud, if any, in the pipes before fitting. These pipes
can be fitted using solvent cement with the help of brush
3. Provide flush valve at the end of main and sub main such that
it faces towards slope
4. Apply uniform pressure vertically over the drill while drilling
in the sub main so that the hole will be smooth and round.
5. The loose fitting of take-off indicates the breakage of
grommet

68. LAYING OF LATERALS AND DRIPPERS
1. Pass water through the poly tube and get it flushed so that it
gets bulged and makes easy for punching
2. The dripper position should be fixed according to design, soil and
water report and water level in peak summer
3. If two drippers are to be provided such that all the drippers come
in a straight line
4. Punching should be done from the sub main

69. STANDARD PROCEDURE FOR ASSESSING DIS PERFORMANCE
1. Check installation according to approved design layout
2. Start the pump
3. Flush the filters
4. Allow the drip system to be loaded with water for 10 min.
5. Note the pressure from the pressure gauge at the inlet and
outlet of sand and screen filters
6. Record the dripper discharge as per the format
7. Measure the volume of water collected for 36 seconds
8. Measure the pressure at start and end of laterals

72. Introduction
• Water is sprayed into the air and allowed to fall on the ground
surface somewhat resembling rainfall.
Advantages
• Elimination of the channels for conveyance
• Suitable to all types of soil except heavy clay
• Suitable for irrigating crops where the plant population per
unit area is very high.
• Water saving
• Increase in yield
• Mobility of system
• Possibility of using soluble fertilizers and chemicals
• Less problem of clogging of sprinkler nozzles due to sediment
laden water

74. Components of sprinkler irrigation system
A sprinkler system usually consists of the following components
(i) A pump unit
(ii) Tubings- main/submains and laterals
(iii) Couplers
(iv) Sprinker head
(v) Other accessories such as valves, bends, plugs and risers

76. (i) Pumping Unit:
• Sprinkler irrigation systems distribute water by spraying it over
the fields.
• The water is pumped under pressure to the fields.
• A high speed centrifugal or turbine pump can be used for
operating sprinkler irrigation for individual fields.
• Centrifugal pump is used when the distance from the pump
inlet to the water surface is less than eight meters.
• For pumping water from deep wells or more than eight meters,
a turbine pump is suggested. The driving unit may be either an
electric motor or an internal combustion engine.
(ii) Tubings:
• The tubings consist of mainline, submanins and laterals.
• Aluminum or PVC pipes are generally used for portable systems

77. (iii) Couplers: Couplers are used for connecting two pipes and
uncoupling quickly and easily.
Essentially a coupler should provide
(a) a reuse and flexible connection
(b) not leak at the joint
(c) be simple and easy to couple and uncouple
(d) be light, non-corrosive, durable
(iv) Sprinkler Head:
• Different types of sprinklers are available.
• They are either rotating or fixed type.
• The rotating type can be adapted for a wide range of application
rates and spacing.
• They are effective with pressure of about 10 to 70 m head at the
sprinkler.
• Pressures ranging from 16 to 40 m fixed head

78. (v) Fittings and accessories:
(a) Water meters: It is used to measure the volume of water
delivered
(b) Flange, couplings and nipple used for proper connection to the
pump, suction and delivery
(c) Pressure gauge: It is necessary to know whether the sprinkler
system is working with desired pressure to ensure application
uniformity
(d) Bend, tees, reducers, elbows, hydrants, butterfly valve and
plugs
(e) Fertilizer applicator:
• Soluble chemical fertilizers can be injected into the sprinkler
system and applied to the crop
• The equipment for fertiliser application is relatively cheap and
simple and can be fabricated locally

79. General rules for sprinkler system design
• Main should be laid up and down hill
• Lateral should be laid across the slope or nearly on the contour
• For multiple lateral operation, lateral pipe sizes should not be
more than two diameter
• Water supply source should be nearest to the center of the area
• Layout should facilitate and minimize lateral movement during
the season
• Booster pump should be considered where small portion of field
would require high pressure at the pump
• Layout should be modified to apply different rates and amounts
of water where soils are greatly different in the design area

80. Selecting the most appropriate sprinkler systems
1. The crop or crops to be cultivated
2. The shape and size (acres) of the field
3. The topography of the field
4. The amount of time and labor required to operate the system
Constraints in application of sprinkler irrigation
(i) Uneven water distribution due to high winds
(ii) Evaporation loss when operating under high temperatures
(iii) Highly impermeable soils are not suitable
(iv) Initial cost is high
(v) Proper design
(vi) Lack of Package of practices & Lack of awareness
(vii) High water pressure required in sprinkler (>2.5kg/cm2)
(viii) Difficulty in irrigation during wind in sprinkler

82. Crop response to sprinkler
• The trials conducted in different parts of the country revealed
water saving due to sprinkler system varies from 16 to 70 %
General classification of different types of sprinkler systems
• Sprinkler systems are classified into the following two major
types on the basis of the arrangement for spraying irrigation
water.
1. Rotating head or revolving sprinkler system
2. Perforated pipe system

83. 1) Rotating head:
• Small size nozzles are placed on riser pipes fixed at uniform
intervals along the length of the lateral pipe
• and the lateral pipes are usually laid on the ground surface.
• They may also be mounted on posts above the crop height
and rotated through 90°.

84. 2) Perforated pipe system:
• This method consists of drilled holes or nozzles along their
length through which water is sprayed under pressure.
• This system is usually designed for relatively low pressure (1
kg/cm2).

85. Based on the portability, sprinkler systems are classified into the
following types:
(i) Portable system : A portable system has portable main lines,
laterals and pumping plant

86. (ii) Semi portable system: A semi portable system is similar to a
portable system except that the location of water source
and pumping plant is fixed.
(iii) Semi permanent system: A semi permanent system has
portable lateral lines, permanent main lines and sub mains
and a stationery water source and pumping plant.
(iv) Solid set system: A solid set system has enough laterals to
eliminate their movement. The laterals are positions in the
field early in the crop season and remain for the season.
(v) Permanent system: A fully permanent system consists of
permanently laid mains, sub mains and laterals and a
stationery water source and pumping plant.

93. FERTIGATION (FERTILISER APPLICATOR)
This is the process of applying fertilisers through the irrigation
system.
ADVANTAGES
1. Eliminates manual application
2. Quick and convenient
3. Uniformity in application
4. High efficiency and saving of fertiliser upto 30 - 40%
5. Less fel1ilizer leaching
6. Better penetration of P and K in the layers
7. Co-ordination of nutrition requirement with crop
8. Possibility of dosage control.
9. Others like herbicides, pesticides, acid, etc can also he applied

94. LIMITATIONS
1. Toxicity to field workers
2. Chance of backflow into water source
3. Insoluble fertilisers are not suitable (super phosphate)
4. Corrosive effect of fertiliser
5. Phosphate may get precipitated in the pipe line and dripper due
to pH reaction
6. High cost
• NITROGEN FERTILISATION
• PHOSPHORUS FERTILISATION
• POTASSIUM FERTILIZATION

95. Equipment and Methods for
Fertilizer Injection
i) By-pass pressure tank
ii) Venturi system and
iii) Direct injection system
By-pass pressure tank:
• This method employs a tank into
which the dry or liquid fertilizers
kept
• The tank is connected to the
main irrigation line by means of a
by-pass
• This by-pass flow is brought
about by a pressure gradient
between the entrance and exit of
the tank

96. Venturi Injector:
• A constriction in the main water
flow pipe increases the water
flow velocity thereby causing a
pressure differential (vacuum)
• This is sufficient to suck fertilizer
solution from an open reservoir
into the water stream
• The rate of injection can be
regulated by means of valves
• This is a simple and relatively
inexpensive method of fertilizer
application

97. Direct injection system:
• A pump is used to inject fertilizer solution into the irrigation
line.
• The type of pump used is dependent on the power source.
• The pump may be driven by an internal combustion engine,
an electric motor or hydraulic pressure.
• The electric pump can be automatically controlled and is
thus the most convenient to use.
• The use of a hydraulic pump, driven by the water pressure of
the irrigation system, avoids this limitation.
• The injection rate of fertilizer solution is proportional to the
flow of water in the system.
• A high degree of control over the injection rate is possible,
no serious head loss occurs and operating cost is low.

98. Comparison of Kennedy's and Lacey's theory
• The concept of silt transportation is same in the both the cases . Both the theories agree
that the silt is carried by the vertical component of the eddies generated by the friction
of flowing water against channel surface. The difference is that Kennedy considered
trapezoidal channel section and therefore, he neglected the eddies generated from the
sides, on the preassumption that these has horizontal movement for greater part and,
therefore. did not have silt supporting power. For this reason. Kennedy’s critical
velocity formula was derived only in terms of depth of flow . On other hand, Lacey
considered that an irrigation channel achieves a cup shaped section (semi-ellipse) and
that the entire wetted perimeter (P) the channel contributes to the generation of Silt
supporting eddies. He, therefore used hydraulic mean radius R=(A/P) as a variable in his
regime velocity formula instead of depth (v).
• Kennedy stated all the channels to be in a state of regime provided they did not silt or
scour. But. Lacey differentiated between the two regime conditions. i.e. Initial regime
and final regime.
• According to Lacey, the grain size of the material forming the channel is an important
factor and should need much more rational attention than what was given to it by
Kennedy. Kennedy has simply stated that Critical velocity ratio (V/Vo=m) varies
according to the silt conditions (i.e. silt grade and silt Charge). Lacey, however.
connected the grain Size (d) With his Silt factor (f) by the equation f=1.76
The silt factor (f) occurs in all those Lacey's equations, which are used to determine channel
dimensions.

99. • Kennedy has used Kutter's formula for determining the actual generated channel
velocity. The value of Kutter’s rugosity coefficient (n) is again a guess work.
Lacey, on the Other hand, after analysing huge data on regime Channels, has
produced a general regime flow equation. stating that V= 10.8 R(2/3)
S(1/3)
• Kennedy has not given any importance to bed width and depth ratio. Lacey has
connected wetted perimeter (P) as well as area (A) of the channel with
discharge, thus, establishing a fixed relationship between bed width and depth.
• Kennedy did not fix regime Slopes for his channels although his diagrams
indicate that steeper slopes are required for smaller channels and flatter slopes
are required for larger channels. Lacey, on the other hand, has fixed the regime
slope, connecting it with discharge by the formula given by
• This regime slope formula, given by Lacey, gives excessive slope values. Not
even a Single channel has been constructed according to this regime slope
equation, either on lower Chenab Canal System or on the Lower Bari Doab
Canal System or on the Jhelum Canal System. The rigidity of this regime slope
equation was,therefore. later changed by Lacey
S =
S ∞

100. Materials for lining water courses and field channel
• Objectives of Canal Lining.
• Το save water (reduce seepage)
• Το stabilize channel bed and banks (reduce erosion)
• Το avoid piping through and under channel banks
• To decrease hydraulic roughness (flow resistance)
• Το promote movement, rather than deposite, of sediments
• To avoid water logging of adjacent land
• To control weed growth
• To decrease maintenance cost and facilitate cleaning
• To reduce excavation cost ( when extent material is unsuitable)
• To reduce movement to contaminated groundwater plumes
• Requirements Of Good Lining
• Economy Impermeability
• Structural stability hydraulic efficiency
• Durability resistance to erosion
• Reparability

101. Factors Responsible for Selection of Particular Type or Lining
•Size and Importance of the canal
•Canal Slopes and Alignments.
•Climate of the Area.
•Availability of Materials.
•Initial Expenditure
S.No Type of lining Safe limiting velocity
1
2
3
Boulder lining
Burnt clay tile lining
Cement concrete lining
1.5 m/s
1.8 m/s
2.7 m/s*

102. Types of Lining
• Earthen Lining
• Portland Concrete Lining
• Plastic and Rubber Lining
– Protection
– Anchoring
• Exposed and Buried Membranes Lining
• Fly Ash lining

103. Types of Lining
• Earthen Lining
• Earthen lining usually require significant over excavation, and transport
of suitable material( in large volumes ) from another side
• Many earthen linings are 2-3 feet thick ; “thin”lining are 6-12 inches
thick
• Clay lining are crack after only a few cycles of wetting and drying
causing increased seepage losses . Bentonite clay swells considerably
when wet, but cracks may not completely seal after the canal has been
dried, then filled with water again.
• Bentonite is a special kind of clay, usually made up of decomposed
volcanic ash and containing a high percentage of colloidal particle less
than 0.000 cm in diameter.
• High –swell Bentonite may swell 8 to 20 times in volume when wetted;
other types may swell less than 8 times in volumes
• Repeated drying-wetting cycles can cause loss of lining density, loss of
stability and progressive deterioration of the lining than Bentonite, clay
linings may be of montmorillonite; or montmorillonite chlorite
• Some clay linings have been treated with lime to stabilize the material.
The addition of lime to expansive soils (e.g. Bentonite) improves
workability and increases structural strength

104. Types of Lining
• Portland Concrete Lining
• Small concrete-lined canals are usually non-reinforced
• Steel reinforcement (rebar or steel mesh) is also not commonly used
on large canals anymore unless there are compelling structural
reasons
• The elimination of steel reinforcement from concrete canal linings
save to 15% of the total cost.
• During the past several years it has become popular to install
concrete small canals at the same time as final excavation and
finishing, often using control the alignment and longitudinal slope
• Reinforced concrete can contain rebar and or wire mesh.
Reinforcement usually for structural reasons, but also to control
cracking of the lining
• Concrete panel joints may have rubber strips to prevent seepage
• Weep holes or flap valves are often installed in cut sections of a
concrete-lined canal to relieve back pressures which can cause
failure of the lining.

105. Types of Lining
• Plastic and Rubber Lining
• Plastic linings are also referred to as "geomembranes" or "flexible membrane linings
• Plastic canal linings have been in use for approximately 40 years
• Plastic and rubber linings are covered with soil, and bricks
• Plastic lining are typically 10 to 20 mm (0.010 to 0.020 inches, or 0.25 to 0.5 mm)- thicker
membranes are usually recommendable because of increased durability, and because the overall
installation cost only increase by about 15% for a doubling in thickness
• The USBR previously used 10 mm plastic linings, later changed most specifications to 20 mm linings
• Plastic linings of as low as 8 mm (PE), and up to 100 mm have been used in canals retention ponds
• Low density polyethylene (LDPE) is made of nearly the same material as common trash bags but
these trash bags have a thickness of only 1.5 -2 mm
• Plastic canal linings are manufactured in rolls, 5 to 7 ft in width. then seamed together in a factory or
shop to create sheets or panels of up to 100 ft (or more) in length.
• Rubber membrane linings can have a thickness ranging from 20 to 60 mm
• Flexible plastic and synthetic rubber linings are susceptible to damage (punctures, tears) both during
after installation
• Flatter than normal side slopes (say 3: I ) are sometimes preferred with plastic linings to help prevent
the possible migration of the lining down the slope, and to help prevent uncovering of the lining by
downward movement of soil
• correctly installed plastic and synthetic rubber linings are completely impervious, provided they have
not been damaged. and provided that the flow level in the channel does not exceed the height of the
lining

106. Types of Lining
• plastic liners will "age" and lose plasticizer, causing a loss of flexibility and greater potential for
damage. Increased plasticizer during fabrication has been shown to be effective in this regard plas-
ti-ciz-er (plas ‘tuh s/e zuhr) n. a group of substances that are used in plastics to impart viscosity,
flexibility, softness, or other properties to the finished product
• Some canals in central have had plastic linings for more than 30 years, and most of it is still in good
condition (measured seepage is essentially zero in the lined sections, but some evidence of
puncture/tearing has been found)
• Plastic lining material is sometimes used to retrofit existing concrete-lined canals after the concrete
lining canal fails and or continued maintenance is considered infeasible
• In India, some canals have been lined with plastic (PE) on the bottom, and bricks or tiles on the side
slopes
• Polyethylene (PE) is the lowest cost geo membrane material, PVC is next lowest. Some newer
materials such as polyolefin are more expensive
• Protection
• Anchoring
– Floating of the lining(high water table)
– Resist gravity force along side slope
– Wind loading

107. Types of Lining
• Exposed and Buried Membranes Lining
• Exposed membrane linings have been tried, but tend to deteriorate quickly for
various reasons
• Exposed membrane linings have recently been installed in some full (operating
canals)
• Buried membrane lining should have a cover layer of soil of approximately
1/12of the water depth ,plus 10 inches
• Some vegetation can penetrate these types of lining (asphatlic too), so
sometimes soil sterilant is applied to the soil on the banks and bed before lining

108. Types of Lining
• Fly Ash lining
• Fly ash is a fine dust particulate material (roughly the size of silt)
produced by coal-burning power plants, usually in the form of
glassy spheres
• Fly ash contains mostly Si (Silicon dioxide), (aluminium oxide)
and (iron oxide)
• Fly ash is often mixed with soil to form canal linings, the mixture
being more dense and less permeable than soil alone
• Fly ash is sometimes mixed with both soil and Portland cement

109. Water control and diversion structure
• Types of impounding structures:
The following are the few important types of impounding structures
• Dam
• Weir and Barrage
• Lake
• Pond
• Other water impounding structures

110. Water control and diversion structure
• Dam
• A Dam is a hydraulic structure of fairly impervious material built across a river
to create a reservoir on its upstream side for impounding water for various
purposes such as Irrigation, Hydropower, Water-supply, Flood Control,
Navigation, Fishing and recreation
• Dams may be constructed to meet any one more of the above purposes.
As ,such, Dam can be classified as ; Single-purpose and Multiple purpose Dam

111. • Classification Based on the functions of dam:
• Storage dams
• Diversion dams
• Detention dams
• Debris dams
• Coffer Dam
• Classification Based on structure design and Materials:
• Gravity Dams
• Earth Dams
• Rockfill Dams
• Arch Dams
• Buttress Dams
– Deck types
– Multiple-arch type
– Massive-head type
• Steel Dams:
• Timber Dam :