Difference between-prokaryotic-and-eukaryotic-transcription-ppt-and-pdf
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Prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells differ in their processes of transcription. Prokaryotes lack a nucleus and nucleolus, and their DNA is located in the cytoplasm. Transcription and translation occur simultaneously in prokaryotes. Eukaryotic cells have membrane-bound nuclei containing DNA, and transcription occurs separately from translation within the nucleus.
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Difference between prokaryotic and eukaryotic transcription
Prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells differ in their processes of transcription. Prokaryotes lack a nucleus and nucleolus, and their DNA is located in the cytoplasm. They have a single linear chromosome and use RNA polymerase to transcribe mRNA directly from DNA. Eukaryotes have a nucleus that houses their DNA, which is organized into linear chromosomes. They use RNA polymerase II to transcribe mRNA with introns that are later spliced out, producing mature mRNA ready for translation.
Difference between prokaryotic and eukaryotic translation
This document discusses the differences between prokaryotic and eukaryotic translation but provides no other details as the link is broken and no text is available from the given source.
Lecture 1 Recombination_ Homologous Recombination (Final).pptx
Homologous recombination is a process where DNA breaks and recombines to produce new combinations of genes. It occurs during meiosis through the pairing of homologous chromosomes between maternal and paternal copies. This leads to genetic diversity in offspring and crossing over, where segments are exchanged between chromosomes. Defects in homologous recombination can cause nondisjunction and diseases like cancer due to inefficient DNA repair.
Kinetics of multi substrate enzyme catalyzed reaction
Enzyme kinetics is the study of enzyme-catalyzed chemical reactions. Enzymes lower the activation energy of reactions by binding substrates to their active sites. Multi-substrate reactions can follow sequential or non-sequential mechanisms. In sequential mechanisms, both substrates must bind before any product is released, while non-sequential mechanisms allow product release before all substrates bind. Ping-pong mechanisms are a type of non-sequential mechanism where the enzyme is temporarily modified between substrate bindings.
Plant transformation vectors and their types
This document summarizes a presentation on plant transformation vectors and their types. It discusses various types of vectors used for plant transformation including plasmids, viruses, bacteriophages, and cosmids. Plasmids are the most commonly used vector for plant transformation. Agrobacterium-mediated transformation using tumor-inducing (Ti) plasmids is an effective method for genetically transforming plants. Viral vectors like cauliflower mosaic virus (CaMV) are also used but have certain limitations.
Mitochondrial genome
Mitochondria contain their own circular genome that is 16.5kb in size and located in the mitochondrial matrix. The mitochondrial genome contains 37 genes that encode 13 proteins, 22 tRNAs, and 2 rRNAs. These genes help produce enzymes and proteins that are crucial for oxidative phosphorylation and energy production in mitochondria. The control region of mitochondrial DNA contains signals that regulate mitochondrial DNA and RNA synthesis.
REPLICATION FIDELITY.pptx
DNA replication fidelity relies on processive DNA polymerases that remain stably bound to DNA during elongation. Processivity is conferred by DNA sliding clamps that bind polymerases, increasing replication speed. Additionally, fidelity is ensured by proofreading mechanisms where polymerases remove incorrectly paired bases using intrinsic exonuclease activity. Together, processive replication coupled with proofreading allows DNA to be accurately copied and passed to subsequent generations with high fidelity despite occasional mutations.
RNA SPLICING
RNA splicing is a process where introns are removed from precursor messenger RNA (pre-mRNA) and exons are joined together to produce mature mRNA. It occurs in the nucleus and is essential for eukaryotes to produce proteins. The spliceosome, a large complex of RNA and proteins, facilitates two transesterification reactions that remove introns and ligate exons. RNA splicing generates protein diversity through alternative splicing and is important for cellular functions and disease processes.
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Difference between prokaryotic and eukaryotic transcription
Prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells differ in their processes of transcription. Prokaryotes lack a nucleus and nucleolus, and their DNA is located in the cytoplasm. They have a single linear chromosome and use RNA polymerase to transcribe mRNA directly from DNA. Eukaryotes have a nucleus that houses their DNA, which is organized into linear chromosomes. They use RNA polymerase II to transcribe mRNA with introns that are later spliced out, producing mature mRNA ready for translation.
Difference between prokaryotic and eukaryotic translation
This document discusses the differences between prokaryotic and eukaryotic translation but provides no other details as the link is broken and no text is available from the given source.
Lecture 1 Recombination_ Homologous Recombination (Final).pptx
Homologous recombination is a process where DNA breaks and recombines to produce new combinations of genes. It occurs during meiosis through the pairing of homologous chromosomes between maternal and paternal copies. This leads to genetic diversity in offspring and crossing over, where segments are exchanged between chromosomes. Defects in homologous recombination can cause nondisjunction and diseases like cancer due to inefficient DNA repair.
Kinetics of multi substrate enzyme catalyzed reaction
Enzyme kinetics is the study of enzyme-catalyzed chemical reactions. Enzymes lower the activation energy of reactions by binding substrates to their active sites. Multi-substrate reactions can follow sequential or non-sequential mechanisms. In sequential mechanisms, both substrates must bind before any product is released, while non-sequential mechanisms allow product release before all substrates bind. Ping-pong mechanisms are a type of non-sequential mechanism where the enzyme is temporarily modified between substrate bindings.
Plant transformation vectors and their types
This document summarizes a presentation on plant transformation vectors and their types. It discusses various types of vectors used for plant transformation including plasmids, viruses, bacteriophages, and cosmids. Plasmids are the most commonly used vector for plant transformation. Agrobacterium-mediated transformation using tumor-inducing (Ti) plasmids is an effective method for genetically transforming plants. Viral vectors like cauliflower mosaic virus (CaMV) are also used but have certain limitations.
Mitochondrial genome
Mitochondria contain their own circular genome that is 16.5kb in size and located in the mitochondrial matrix. The mitochondrial genome contains 37 genes that encode 13 proteins, 22 tRNAs, and 2 rRNAs. These genes help produce enzymes and proteins that are crucial for oxidative phosphorylation and energy production in mitochondria. The control region of mitochondrial DNA contains signals that regulate mitochondrial DNA and RNA synthesis.
REPLICATION FIDELITY.pptx
DNA replication fidelity relies on processive DNA polymerases that remain stably bound to DNA during elongation. Processivity is conferred by DNA sliding clamps that bind polymerases, increasing replication speed. Additionally, fidelity is ensured by proofreading mechanisms where polymerases remove incorrectly paired bases using intrinsic exonuclease activity. Together, processive replication coupled with proofreading allows DNA to be accurately copied and passed to subsequent generations with high fidelity despite occasional mutations.
RNA SPLICING
RNA splicing is a process where introns are removed from precursor messenger RNA (pre-mRNA) and exons are joined together to produce mature mRNA. It occurs in the nucleus and is essential for eukaryotes to produce proteins. The spliceosome, a large complex of RNA and proteins, facilitates two transesterification reactions that remove introns and ligate exons. RNA splicing generates protein diversity through alternative splicing and is important for cellular functions and disease processes.
Transposable Elements
A transposable element (TE or transposon) is a DNA sequence that can change its position within a genome, sometimes creating or reversing mutations and altering the cell's genome size.
Transposition often results in duplication of the TE.
Barbara McClintock's discovery of these jumping genes earned her a Nobel Prize in 1983.
Transposable elements make up a large fraction of the genome and are responsible for much of the C-value of eukaryotic cells.
Genetics
1. The document discusses genome size, structure of eukaryotic chromosomes, and chromatin structure. It describes how DNA is packaged at different levels within the cell, from nucleosomes to chromatin fibers to condensed mitotic chromosomes.
2. Key points include that genome size varies between organisms but is not correlated with complexity, and that eukaryotic DNA contains more non-coding regions like introns, resulting in lower gene density. DNA is packaged into nucleosomes containing histones then further condensed through different levels to form metaphase chromosomes.
3. Chromatin exists in two main forms, loosely packed euchromatin and tightly packed heterochromatin, which can be facultative and condense during certain phases or in
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The document summarizes recent research findings on apoptosis regulation by Bcl-2 family members and XIAP. Key points include:
1) BID and BIM can mediate crosstalk from death receptors to mitochondria to induce apoptosis.
2) XIAP is a crucial factor in determining whether Fas induces type I or type II apoptosis.
3) FasL can trigger both apoptosis and necroptosis in neutrophils.
4) Non-apoptotic roles of IAPs and death receptors are becoming increasingly evident and important.Gene targeting and sequence tags
To modifying the structure of a specific gene.
Gene targeting vector introduced into the cell.
Vector modifies the normal chromosomal gene through homologous recombination.
Useful in treating some human genetic disorders – Hemophilia, Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy.
Treating human diseases by genetic approaches – Gene Therapy.
Gene Therapy – Replacing the defective gene by normal copy of the gene.
Expressed sequence tag/EST is a short partial sequence, typically 200-400 bp long, of a complimentary DNA/Cdna.
EST is a short sub-sequence of a cDNA sequence.
Used to identify gene transcripts, and are instrumental in gene discovery and in gene-sequence determination.
Approximately 74.2 million ESTs are available in public databases.
EST results from one-short sequencing of a cloned cDNA.
Low-quality fragments.
Length is approximately 500 to 800 nucleotides.
RNA editing
This document provides an outline on RNA editing with 8 sections. It defines RNA editing as any process other than splicing that changes an RNA transcript sequence. It describes the main mechanisms of substitution and insertion/deletion editing, giving examples of A-to-I and C-to-U editing. It discusses the significance of RNA editing in regulating gene expression and increasing protein diversity. It also covers how RNA editing is important in the nervous system, immune system, and its role in cancers and potential for therapeutic intervention.
Mitochondria and chloroplast structure and genome organisation
The mitochondrion is a membrane-bound organelle found in eukaryotic cells. It has an outer membrane, intermembrane space, inner membrane, cristae (folds in the inner membrane), and matrix. The inner membrane contains proteins involved in oxidative phosphorylation and ATP synthesis. Mitochondria contain their own circular DNA separate from the cell's nuclear DNA. Chloroplasts are similar organelles found in plant cells that conduct photosynthesis, and also contain their own DNA.
Cot curve
Cot value and Cot Curve analysis is a technique for measuring DNA complexity based on renaturation kinetics. DNA is denatured and allowed to reanneal, with larger DNA taking longer. Cot value accounts for DNA concentration, time, and buffer effects, representing repetitive sequences - lower Cot means more repeats. Examples show bacteria have nearly all single-copy DNA, while mouse has varying proportions of single-copy, middle repetitive, and highly repetitive sequences. Cot curve analysis provides information on genome size, complexity, and proportions of sequence types.
Prokaryotic and eukaryotic gene structures
Organization of genome in Prokaryotes:
The term prokaryote means “primitive nucleus”. Cell in prokaryotes have no nucleus. The prokaryotic chromosome is dispersed within the cell and is not enclosed by a separate membrane. Much of the information about the structure of DNA comes from studies of prokaryotes, because they are less complex than eukaryotes. Prokaryotes are monoploids they have only one set of genes (one copy of the genome). In most viruses and prokaryotes, the single set of genes is stored in a single chromosome (single molecule either RNA or DNA).
Organization of genome in Prokaryotes:
The term prokaryote means “primitive nucleus”. Cell in prokaryotes have no nucleus. The prokaryotic chromosome is dispersed within the cell and is not enclosed by a separate membrane. Much of the information about the structure of DNA comes from studies of prokaryotes, because they are less complex than eukaryotes. Prokaryotes are monoploids they have only one set of genes (one copy of the genome). In most viruses and prokaryotes, the single set of genes is stored in a single chromosome (single molecule either RNA or DNA). Organization of genome in Prokaryotes:
The term prokaryote means “primitive nucleus”. Cell in prokaryotes have no nucleus. The prokaryotic chromosome is dispersed within the cell and is not enclosed by a separate membrane. Much of the information about the structure of DNA comes from studies of prokaryotes, because they are less complex than eukaryotes. Prokaryotes are monoploids they have only one set of genes (one copy of the genome). In most viruses and prokaryotes, the single set of genes is stored in a single chromosome (single molecule either RNA or DNA).
Translation in prokaryotes
This document summarizes the process of translation in prokaryotes. It begins with an introduction to translation occurring in the cytoplasm where ribosomes synthesize proteins using messenger RNA (mRNA). The three main stages of translation are then described in detail: initiation, elongation, and termination. Initiation involves assembly of the ribosome and initiation factors on the mRNA start codon. Elongation is the process of adding amino acids to the growing polypeptide chain through binding of transfer RNA (tRNA) and the actions of elongation factors. Termination occurs when a stop codon is reached and release factors trigger hydrolysis and release of the completed protein. Key components of translation like ribosomes, mRNA, tRNA, and their functions are
Polyadenylation
Polyadenylation is the addition of a poly(A) tail to messenger RNA. The poly(A) tail consists of multiple adenosine monophosphates and plays an important role in mRNA stability, nucleocytoplasmic export, and translation. Cleavage and polyadenylation is controlled by cis elements located upstream and downstream of the polyadenylation site and involves endonuclease cleavage of the pre-mRNA followed by poly(A) polymerase addition of adenines in a template-independent manner. Alternative polyadenylation and cytoplasmic polyadenylation allow for regulation of mRNA expression through differing poly(A) tail lengths.
Chloroplast genome organisation
Chloroplasts are double-membrane organelles found in plant cells that contain chlorophyll and are the site of photosynthesis. Chloroplast DNA is circular and ranges in size from 120,000 to 170,000 base pairs. It contains approximately 120 genes, including genes that encode proteins involved in photosynthesis and the transcription and translation machinery. Chloroplast DNA replication is semi-conservative and there are typically multiple copies of the chloroplast genome within each chloroplast.
Alternative splicing : mechanism and regulation
Alternative splicing is a deviation from the conventional splicing as it removes introns in a different manner. It has a lot of significance in the development of diseases like cancers and in plants adapting to various stress conditions.
Rna world
The RNA world hypothesis proposes that RNA, not DNA or proteins, was the first self-replicating molecule and the central player in early life. RNA can both store genetic information and catalyze chemical reactions, acting as both the genome and enzymes. Evidence for this includes the discovery that some RNA molecules can self-replicate and that the ribosome, the cell's protein-building machinery, has RNA as its key component. While still debated, the RNA world hypothesis provides a plausible explanation for how life could have originated and evolved prior to the development of DNA and proteins.
chloroplast DNA
This document discusses chloroplast DNA (cpDNA). Chloroplasts contain their own circular genome of double-stranded DNA ranging from 140-200kb. The cpDNA contains genes that code for proteins involved in photosynthesis as well as rRNA and tRNA. It has a quadripartite structure containing single copy and inverted repeat regions. Tobacco and liverwort were two of the first chloroplast genomes to be sequenced. Molecular studies of cpDNA regions have been useful for plant systematics. Replication of cpDNA is independent of nuclear DNA and involves enzymes like DNA polymerase and helicase.
Genetics of Mitochondria
mitochondria being a semi-autonomous organelle having endosymbiotic origin has certain note worthy characteristic features.
Protein sorting in mitochondria
Mitochondria contain proteins encoded by both their own genome and the nuclear genome. Newly synthesized nuclear-encoded proteins contain targeting signals that direct them to the mitochondria. There are several pathways that transport mitochondrial proteins across the outer and inner membranes and sort them to their correct submitochondrial compartment - the outer membrane, intermembrane space, inner membrane, or matrix. Protein translocases like TOM, TIM23, and TIM22 recognize different targeting signals and mediate the transport and sorting of precursor proteins to their proper destinations.
Chromosome walking
Chromosome walking is a method used to isolate and clone a particular gene or allele through positional cloning. It involves using overlapping clones that contain DNA fragments near the target gene to "walk" through the chromosome until reaching the gene. Each successive clone is tested to map its precise location until eventually reaching the target gene. Chromosome walking was developed in the early 1980s and can be used to analyze genetically transmitted diseases and find single nucleotide polymorphisms. However, it has limitations such as being a slow process and difficulty walking through repeated sequences.
protein stability
1) G.N. Ramachandran created the Ramachandran plot in 1963, which is an essential tool for understanding protein structure. The plot analyzes allowed regions of phi and psi dihedral angles in peptide units.
2) Protein stability refers to a protein maintaining its native folded conformation rather than becoming denatured. Stability depends on a balance of forces and is important for protein function.
3) Factors that influence protein stability include pH, ligand binding, disulfide bonds, and interactions within the protein and between the protein and solvent. Chaperone proteins and proteases also help maintain stability in cells.
TRANSPOSABLE ELEMENTS
This document discusses transposable elements (TEs), which are segments of DNA that can change positions within the genome. It classifies TEs into two classes based on their mechanism of transposition. Class 1 elements use a "cut and paste" mechanism involving transposase, while Class 2 retrotransposons use reverse transcriptase in a "copy and paste" mechanism. Examples of TEs discussed include Ac-Ds elements in maize, P elements in Drosophila, and LINEs and SINEs in humans. The effects of TE insertion include gene mutation, changes in gene regulation, gene duplication, deletion, and chromosome rearrangements. Applications of TEs include their use as cloning vectors and providing raw material for evolution
codon_optimization
The document discusses codon optimization, which is a process that improves gene expression and increases translational efficiency of a gene of interest. It does this by accounting for the codon bias of the host organism. Codons are three nucleotide sequences in RNA that specify which amino acid is needed for protein synthesis. The document also lists some common codon optimization tools like Twistbioscience, Idtdna, and Genscript.
Animal Genetic Engineering 110816.ppt
Transgenic animals are created using two main methods: DNA microinjection and manipulating embryonic stem cells. Examples of transgenic animals include GH-mice with increased growth, marathon mice with enhanced endurance, and goats producing the human blood clotting protein Antithrombin in their milk. Transgenic fish like GloFish have been genetically engineered to fluoresce for environmental monitoring. Mammalian cloning is done through nuclear transfer as demonstrated by Dolly the sheep. Transgenic technologies allow for applications like disease modeling and industrial production of human therapeutic proteins from the milk of livestock.
3g algae
Brown algae obtain their brown color from the pigments fucoxanthin and chlorophyll a and c. Brown pigments absorb blue-green light, allowing brown algae to photosynthesize at depth where green light has been filtered out. Red algae contain additional red and blue pigments called phycocyanin and phycoerythrin which also help them absorb blue-green light for photosynthesis at depth. Kelps are an example of a large, complex brown alga that can reach 12 meters in length and form underwater forests. Red algae examples include the flat, sheet-like Porphyra laver and the slippery Aeodes orbits.
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A transposable element (TE or transposon) is a DNA sequence that can change its position within a genome, sometimes creating or reversing mutations and altering the cell's genome size.
Transposition often results in duplication of the TE.
Barbara McClintock's discovery of these jumping genes earned her a Nobel Prize in 1983.
Transposable elements make up a large fraction of the genome and are responsible for much of the C-value of eukaryotic cells.
Genetics
1. The document discusses genome size, structure of eukaryotic chromosomes, and chromatin structure. It describes how DNA is packaged at different levels within the cell, from nucleosomes to chromatin fibers to condensed mitotic chromosomes.
2. Key points include that genome size varies between organisms but is not correlated with complexity, and that eukaryotic DNA contains more non-coding regions like introns, resulting in lower gene density. DNA is packaged into nucleosomes containing histones then further condensed through different levels to form metaphase chromosomes.
3. Chromatin exists in two main forms, loosely packed euchromatin and tightly packed heterochromatin, which can be facultative and condense during certain phases or in
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The document summarizes recent research findings on apoptosis regulation by Bcl-2 family members and XIAP. Key points include:
1) BID and BIM can mediate crosstalk from death receptors to mitochondria to induce apoptosis.
2) XIAP is a crucial factor in determining whether Fas induces type I or type II apoptosis.
3) FasL can trigger both apoptosis and necroptosis in neutrophils.
4) Non-apoptotic roles of IAPs and death receptors are becoming increasingly evident and important.Gene targeting and sequence tags
To modifying the structure of a specific gene.
Gene targeting vector introduced into the cell.
Vector modifies the normal chromosomal gene through homologous recombination.
Useful in treating some human genetic disorders – Hemophilia, Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy.
Treating human diseases by genetic approaches – Gene Therapy.
Gene Therapy – Replacing the defective gene by normal copy of the gene.
Expressed sequence tag/EST is a short partial sequence, typically 200-400 bp long, of a complimentary DNA/Cdna.
EST is a short sub-sequence of a cDNA sequence.
Used to identify gene transcripts, and are instrumental in gene discovery and in gene-sequence determination.
Approximately 74.2 million ESTs are available in public databases.
EST results from one-short sequencing of a cloned cDNA.
Low-quality fragments.
Length is approximately 500 to 800 nucleotides.
RNA editing
This document provides an outline on RNA editing with 8 sections. It defines RNA editing as any process other than splicing that changes an RNA transcript sequence. It describes the main mechanisms of substitution and insertion/deletion editing, giving examples of A-to-I and C-to-U editing. It discusses the significance of RNA editing in regulating gene expression and increasing protein diversity. It also covers how RNA editing is important in the nervous system, immune system, and its role in cancers and potential for therapeutic intervention.
Mitochondria and chloroplast structure and genome organisation
The mitochondrion is a membrane-bound organelle found in eukaryotic cells. It has an outer membrane, intermembrane space, inner membrane, cristae (folds in the inner membrane), and matrix. The inner membrane contains proteins involved in oxidative phosphorylation and ATP synthesis. Mitochondria contain their own circular DNA separate from the cell's nuclear DNA. Chloroplasts are similar organelles found in plant cells that conduct photosynthesis, and also contain their own DNA.
Cot curve
Cot value and Cot Curve analysis is a technique for measuring DNA complexity based on renaturation kinetics. DNA is denatured and allowed to reanneal, with larger DNA taking longer. Cot value accounts for DNA concentration, time, and buffer effects, representing repetitive sequences - lower Cot means more repeats. Examples show bacteria have nearly all single-copy DNA, while mouse has varying proportions of single-copy, middle repetitive, and highly repetitive sequences. Cot curve analysis provides information on genome size, complexity, and proportions of sequence types.
Prokaryotic and eukaryotic gene structures
Organization of genome in Prokaryotes:
The term prokaryote means “primitive nucleus”. Cell in prokaryotes have no nucleus. The prokaryotic chromosome is dispersed within the cell and is not enclosed by a separate membrane. Much of the information about the structure of DNA comes from studies of prokaryotes, because they are less complex than eukaryotes. Prokaryotes are monoploids they have only one set of genes (one copy of the genome). In most viruses and prokaryotes, the single set of genes is stored in a single chromosome (single molecule either RNA or DNA).
Organization of genome in Prokaryotes:
The term prokaryote means “primitive nucleus”. Cell in prokaryotes have no nucleus. The prokaryotic chromosome is dispersed within the cell and is not enclosed by a separate membrane. Much of the information about the structure of DNA comes from studies of prokaryotes, because they are less complex than eukaryotes. Prokaryotes are monoploids they have only one set of genes (one copy of the genome). In most viruses and prokaryotes, the single set of genes is stored in a single chromosome (single molecule either RNA or DNA). Organization of genome in Prokaryotes:
The term prokaryote means “primitive nucleus”. Cell in prokaryotes have no nucleus. The prokaryotic chromosome is dispersed within the cell and is not enclosed by a separate membrane. Much of the information about the structure of DNA comes from studies of prokaryotes, because they are less complex than eukaryotes. Prokaryotes are monoploids they have only one set of genes (one copy of the genome). In most viruses and prokaryotes, the single set of genes is stored in a single chromosome (single molecule either RNA or DNA).
Translation in prokaryotes
This document summarizes the process of translation in prokaryotes. It begins with an introduction to translation occurring in the cytoplasm where ribosomes synthesize proteins using messenger RNA (mRNA). The three main stages of translation are then described in detail: initiation, elongation, and termination. Initiation involves assembly of the ribosome and initiation factors on the mRNA start codon. Elongation is the process of adding amino acids to the growing polypeptide chain through binding of transfer RNA (tRNA) and the actions of elongation factors. Termination occurs when a stop codon is reached and release factors trigger hydrolysis and release of the completed protein. Key components of translation like ribosomes, mRNA, tRNA, and their functions are
Polyadenylation
Polyadenylation is the addition of a poly(A) tail to messenger RNA. The poly(A) tail consists of multiple adenosine monophosphates and plays an important role in mRNA stability, nucleocytoplasmic export, and translation. Cleavage and polyadenylation is controlled by cis elements located upstream and downstream of the polyadenylation site and involves endonuclease cleavage of the pre-mRNA followed by poly(A) polymerase addition of adenines in a template-independent manner. Alternative polyadenylation and cytoplasmic polyadenylation allow for regulation of mRNA expression through differing poly(A) tail lengths.
Chloroplast genome organisation
Chloroplasts are double-membrane organelles found in plant cells that contain chlorophyll and are the site of photosynthesis. Chloroplast DNA is circular and ranges in size from 120,000 to 170,000 base pairs. It contains approximately 120 genes, including genes that encode proteins involved in photosynthesis and the transcription and translation machinery. Chloroplast DNA replication is semi-conservative and there are typically multiple copies of the chloroplast genome within each chloroplast.
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Alternative splicing is a deviation from the conventional splicing as it removes introns in a different manner. It has a lot of significance in the development of diseases like cancers and in plants adapting to various stress conditions.
Rna world
The RNA world hypothesis proposes that RNA, not DNA or proteins, was the first self-replicating molecule and the central player in early life. RNA can both store genetic information and catalyze chemical reactions, acting as both the genome and enzymes. Evidence for this includes the discovery that some RNA molecules can self-replicate and that the ribosome, the cell's protein-building machinery, has RNA as its key component. While still debated, the RNA world hypothesis provides a plausible explanation for how life could have originated and evolved prior to the development of DNA and proteins.
chloroplast DNA
This document discusses chloroplast DNA (cpDNA). Chloroplasts contain their own circular genome of double-stranded DNA ranging from 140-200kb. The cpDNA contains genes that code for proteins involved in photosynthesis as well as rRNA and tRNA. It has a quadripartite structure containing single copy and inverted repeat regions. Tobacco and liverwort were two of the first chloroplast genomes to be sequenced. Molecular studies of cpDNA regions have been useful for plant systematics. Replication of cpDNA is independent of nuclear DNA and involves enzymes like DNA polymerase and helicase.
Genetics of Mitochondria
mitochondria being a semi-autonomous organelle having endosymbiotic origin has certain note worthy characteristic features.
Protein sorting in mitochondria
Mitochondria contain proteins encoded by both their own genome and the nuclear genome. Newly synthesized nuclear-encoded proteins contain targeting signals that direct them to the mitochondria. There are several pathways that transport mitochondrial proteins across the outer and inner membranes and sort them to their correct submitochondrial compartment - the outer membrane, intermembrane space, inner membrane, or matrix. Protein translocases like TOM, TIM23, and TIM22 recognize different targeting signals and mediate the transport and sorting of precursor proteins to their proper destinations.
Chromosome walking
Chromosome walking is a method used to isolate and clone a particular gene or allele through positional cloning. It involves using overlapping clones that contain DNA fragments near the target gene to "walk" through the chromosome until reaching the gene. Each successive clone is tested to map its precise location until eventually reaching the target gene. Chromosome walking was developed in the early 1980s and can be used to analyze genetically transmitted diseases and find single nucleotide polymorphisms. However, it has limitations such as being a slow process and difficulty walking through repeated sequences.
protein stability
1) G.N. Ramachandran created the Ramachandran plot in 1963, which is an essential tool for understanding protein structure. The plot analyzes allowed regions of phi and psi dihedral angles in peptide units.
2) Protein stability refers to a protein maintaining its native folded conformation rather than becoming denatured. Stability depends on a balance of forces and is important for protein function.
3) Factors that influence protein stability include pH, ligand binding, disulfide bonds, and interactions within the protein and between the protein and solvent. Chaperone proteins and proteases also help maintain stability in cells.
TRANSPOSABLE ELEMENTS
This document discusses transposable elements (TEs), which are segments of DNA that can change positions within the genome. It classifies TEs into two classes based on their mechanism of transposition. Class 1 elements use a "cut and paste" mechanism involving transposase, while Class 2 retrotransposons use reverse transcriptase in a "copy and paste" mechanism. Examples of TEs discussed include Ac-Ds elements in maize, P elements in Drosophila, and LINEs and SINEs in humans. The effects of TE insertion include gene mutation, changes in gene regulation, gene duplication, deletion, and chromosome rearrangements. Applications of TEs include their use as cloning vectors and providing raw material for evolution
codon_optimization
The document discusses codon optimization, which is a process that improves gene expression and increases translational efficiency of a gene of interest. It does this by accounting for the codon bias of the host organism. Codons are three nucleotide sequences in RNA that specify which amino acid is needed for protein synthesis. The document also lists some common codon optimization tools like Twistbioscience, Idtdna, and Genscript.
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Brown algae obtain their brown color from the pigments fucoxanthin and chlorophyll a and c. Brown pigments absorb blue-green light, allowing brown algae to photosynthesize at depth where green light has been filtered out. Red algae contain additional red and blue pigments called phycocyanin and phycoerythrin which also help them absorb blue-green light for photosynthesis at depth. Kelps are an example of a large, complex brown alga that can reach 12 meters in length and form underwater forests. Red algae examples include the flat, sheet-like Porphyra laver and the slippery Aeodes orbits.
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Diiagnosiis of UTI Quiick Refference Guiide ffor Priimary Care
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CNIO Frontiers Meeting New Trends in Anticancer Drug Development March 22‐25,...
This document provides an agenda for the CNIO Frontiers Meeting on New Trends in Anticancer Drug Development taking place from March 22-25, 2015 at the Spanish National Cancer Research Centre in Madrid. Over the three day program, there will be keynote lectures and talks on new targets and pathways in clinical development for cancer treatment, innovative drug development approaches including clinical trial design and biomarkers, immunotherapy, and personalized cancer medicine. Speakers will discuss topics such as androgen receptor blockade, PI3K/mTOR inhibitors, DNA damage repair pathways, antibody-drug conjugates, targeting the epigenome, cancer metabolism, applications of cancer genomics, and integrating patient-derived tumor xenograft models.
J01153740
Staphylococcus Saprophyticus Infection As A Cause Of Uti In Female Adolescents In Enugu Area, Nigeria
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This study examined the incidence of asymptomatic bacteriuria and pyuria in 86 pregnant women and 56 non-pregnant women in Iran. Bacteriological and microscopic urine analysis found that 29.1% of pregnant women had asymptomatic bacteriuria compared to 5.4% of non-pregnant women, and 20.9% of pregnant women had pyuria compared to 5.4% of non-pregnant women. The most common bacteria found in pregnant women was Staphylococcus epidermidis (36%). The study concludes that the incidence of asymptomatic bacteriuria is significantly higher in pregnant women, especially in the first trimester, compared to non-pregnant women. Urine culture is necessary for screening
Vertebrates 120706032503-phpapp02
This document defines and describes the five main groups of vertebrate animals: mammals, birds, reptiles, fish, and amphibians. It provides details about the key characteristics of each group, such as mammals having hair and giving live birth, birds having feathers and laying eggs, reptiles having scales and laying eggs, fish living in water and breathing through gills, and amphibians being able to live on land and in water. The document aims to teach students about the different types of vertebrate animals and their defining biological traits.
Ex health urinalysis
Occult blood, urobilinogen, WBC-esterase, and nitrite are substances that may be present in urine and can indicate infections if found. Normal urine is a shade of yellow and clear, while abnormal appearances like cloudy, milky, red, or orange urine may suggest issues like infections or other medical conditions. Understanding urinalysis results involves considering factors like a person's physical characteristics, medical history, medications, and lifestyle habits.
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Diiagnosiis of UTI Quiick Refference Guiide ffor Priimary Care
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LAND USE LAND COVER AND NDVI OF MIRZAPUR DISTRICT, UP
This Dissertation explores the particular circumstances of Mirzapur, a region located in the
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The complex relationship between human activities and the environment has been the focus
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The utilization of land is impacted by human needs and environmental factors. In countries
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Accurate understanding of land use and cover is imperative for the development planning
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and water managers, and urban planners, are interested in obtaining data on land use and cover
changes, conversion trends, and other related patterns. The spatial dimensions of land use and
cover support policymakers and scientists in making well-informed decisions, as alterations in
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crucial for coordinated efforts across different administrative levels. Advanced technologies like
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9
Changes in vegetation cover refer to variations in the distribution, composition, and overall
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Chapter 4 - Islamic Financial Institutions in Malaysia.pptx
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Denis is a dynamic and results-driven Chief Information Officer (CIO) with a distinguished career spanning information systems analysis and technical project management. With a proven track record of spearheading the design and delivery of cutting-edge Information Management solutions, he has consistently elevated business operations, streamlined reporting functions, and maximized process efficiency.
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Date: May 29, 2024
Tags: Information Security, ISO/IEC 27001, ISO/IEC 42001, Artificial Intelligence, GDPR
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