Database SystemsDesign, Implementation, and ManagementCo.docx

Database Systems
Design, Implementation, and Management
Coronel | Morris
11e
©2015 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be
scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible
website, in whole or in part.
Chapter 3
The Relational Database Model
Learning ObjectivesIn this chapter, one will learn:That the
relational database model offers a logical view of dataAbout the
relational model’s basic component: relationsThat relations are
logical constructs composed of rows (tuples) and columns
(attributes)That relations are implemented as tables in a
relational DBMS
*

Learning ObjectivesIn this chapter, one will learn:About
relational database operators, the data dictionary, and the
system catalogHow data redundancy is handled in the relational
database modelWhy indexing is important
*
A Logical View of DataRelational database model enables
logical representation of the data and its relationshipsLogical
simplicity yields simple and effective database design
methodologies Facilitated by the creation of data relationships
based on a logical construct called a relation
*
Table 3.1 - Characteristics of a Relational Table
*

KeysConsist of one or more attributes that determine other
attributesUsed to: Ensure that each row in a table is uniquely
identifiableEstablish relationships among tables and to ensure
the integrity of the dataPrimary key (PK): Attribute or
combination of attributes that uniquely identifies any given row
*
DeterminationState in which knowing the value of one attribute
makes it possible to determine the value of anotherIs the basis
for establishing the role of a key Based on the relationships
among the attributes
*
DependenciesFunctional dependence: Value of one or more
attributes determines the value of one or more other
attributesDeterminant: Attribute whose value determines
another Dependent: Attribute whose value is determined by the
other attributeFull functional dependence: Entire collection of
attributes in the determinant is necessary for the relationship
*

Types of Keys Composite key: Key that is composed of more
than one attributeKey attribute: Attribute that is a part of a
keyEntity integrity: Condition in which each row in the table
has its own unique identity All of the values in the primary key
must be uniqueNo key attribute in the primary key can contain a
null
*
Types of Keys Null: Absence of any data value that could
represent:An unknown attribute value A known, but missing,
attribute value A inapplicable condition Referential integrity:
Every reference to an entity instance by another entity instance
is valid
*
Table 3.3 - Relational Database Keys
*

Figure 3.2 - An Example of a Simple Relational Database
*
Integrity Rules
*Entity IntegrityDescriptionRequirement All primary key
entries are unique, and no part of a primary key may be
nullPurposeEach row will have a unique identity, and foreign
key values can properly reference primary key
valuesExampleNo invoice can have a duplicate number, nor it
can be null
Integrity Rules

*Entity IntegrityDescriptionRequirement A foreign key may
have either a null entry or a entry that matches a primary key
value in a table to which it is relatedPurposeIt is possible for an
attribute not to have a corresponding value but it is impossible
to have an invalid entry
It is impossible to delete row in a table whose primary keys has
mandatory matching foreign key values in another
tableExampleIt is impossible to have invalid sales
representative number
Figure 3.3 - An Illustration of Integrity Rules
*
Ways to Handle NullsFlags: Special codes used to indicate the

absence of some value NOT NULL constraint - Placed on a
column to ensure that every row in the table has a value for that
columnUNIQUE constraint - Restriction placed on a column to
ensure that no duplicate values exist for that column
*
Relational AlgebraTheoretical way of manipulating table
contents using relational operatorsRelvar: Variable that holds a
relationHeading contains the names of the attributes and the
body contains the relationRelational operators have the property
of closureClosure: Use of relational algebra operators on
existing relations produces new relations
*
Relational Set Operators
*Unary operator that yields a horizontal subset of a table
Select (Restrict) Unary operator that yields a vertical subset of
a table
Project Combines all rows from two tables, excluding duplicate
rowsUnion-compatible: Tables share the same number of
columns, and their corresponding columns share compatible
domains
Union Yields only the rows that appear in both tablesTables
must be union-compatible to yield valid results
Intersect

Figure 3.4 - Select
*
Figure 3.5 - Project
*
Figure 3.6 - Union
*

Figure 3.7 - Intersect
*
*
Relational Set OperatorsDifference Yields all rows in one table
that are not found in the other tableTables must be union-
compatible to yield valid results Product Yields all possible
pairs of rows from two tables
*
Relational Set OperatorsJoinAllows information to be
intelligently combined from two or more tables DivideUses one
2-column table as the dividend and one single-column table as
the divisorOutput is a single column that contains all values
from the second column of the dividend that are associated with
every row in the divisor
*

Types of Joins Natural join: Links tables by selecting only the
rows with common values in their common attributesJoin
columns: Common columns Equijoin: Links tables on the basis
of an equality condition that compares specified columns of
each tableTheta join: Extension of natural join, denoted by
adding a theta subscript after the JOIN symbol
*
Types of Joins Inner join: Only returns matched records from
the tables that are being joinedOuter join: Matched pairs are
retained and unmatched values in the other table are left null
Left outer join: Yields all of the rows in the first table,
including those that do not have a matching value in the second
table Right outer join: Yields all of the rows in the second
table, including those that do not have matching values in the
first table
*

Figure 3.8 - Difference
*
Figure 3.9 - Product
*
Figure 3.10 - Two Tables That Will Be Used in JOIN
Illustrations
*
Figure 3.16 - Divide

*
Data Dictionary and the System Catalog Data dictionary:
Description of all tables in the database created by the user and
designer System catalog: System data dictionary that describes
all objects within the database Homonyms and synonyms must
be avoided to lessen confusionHomonym: Same name is used to
label different attributes Synonym: Different names are used to
describe the same attribute
*
Relationships within the Relational Database 1:M relationship -
Norm for relational databases 1:1 relationship - One entity can
be related to only one other entity and vice versa Many-to-many
(M:N) relationship - Implemented by creating a new entity in
1:M relationships with the original entities Composite entity
(Bridge or associative entity): Helps avoid problems inherent to
M:N relationships, includes the primary keys of tables to be
linked
*

Figure 3.21 - The 1:1 Relationship between PROFESSOR and
DEPARTMENT
*
Figure 3.26 - Changing the M:N Relationship to Two 1:M
Relationships
*
Figure 3.27 - The Expanded ER Model
*
Data RedundancyRelational database facilitates control of data
redundancies through use of foreign keysTo be controlled
except the following circumstancesData redundancy must be
increased to make the database serve crucial information

purposesExists to preserve the historical accuracy of the data
*
Figure 3.30 - The Relational Diagram for the Invoicing System
*
IndexOrderly arrangement to logically access rows in a
tableIndex key: Index’s reference point that leads to data
location identified by the keyUnique index: Index key can have
only one pointer value associated with itEach index is
associated with only one table
*
Tutor
Name
Course
Date

Implicit Attitude Test Project
Introduction
The implicit attitude project is aimed at measuring the strength
of human mental associations and the representation of objects.
it is purposed to assess, and test stereotypes held against certain
groups in the society and the world at large. Besides. Measuring
how the implicit attitudes affect my social interactions
regarding communication behavior with members of different
groups. This is vital as it affects how I interact as well as
express myself to groups depending on the perceptions I have
developed.
1.1 Project Objectives
The project aims to:
· Depict who among different groups I have preferences for and
the metrics for such inclinations. These groups include Race
(black/white Americans), Sexuality (gay/straight Americans),
and Arab-Muslims/Others.
· Establish the best expressive definition of race amongst the
many definitions
· Examine predictive attitude preferences before the test and
how they affect my interactions.
· Undertake the Implicit Attitude Tests provided by Harvard
University in a bid to establish my personal preferences.
· Compare and provide an analysis between my predicted
preferences and the actual results obtained after taking the tests.
· Explain the difference between predicted against the actual
results and to what extent can they be depictive of accurate
representation.
· Discuss the effects of the established bias from my
preferences to personal communication behavior with different
groups.
1.2 Project Methodology
The methodology of the Implicit Association Test project is
outlined below:
Predicted test results definition: this is the first step in the
project. I am tasking with developing the kind of results I would

expect from the actual test results. It is a key procedure to
ensure that expected results are well formulated consciously.
This ensures that the preferences to groups are outlined to
provide an understanding of the bias that I feel exists before
taking the test. Expected results give a basis of comparison once
I undertake the actual implicit attitude test.
Research: it is the second stage to whereby I partake to find
literature materials that provide data and critical information
about the core topic that is race and effects of bias to
communications.
· Definition of Race: in this case, looking for the best suitable
description of the race was a key part of the research. The
definition I settle on should clearly and expressively define
race.
· Effect of Attitude on communication: communication is
critical on how we interact amongst people of different origins
as well as backgrounds. In this, research is required to find out
the effects of the attitude and bias we develop towards our
communication behavior. This goes a long way to show how our
attitudes influence our relations with people of varying groups
in society.
· Take IAT tests: the step requires the actual Implicit
Association actual tests provided by Harvard University. The
implicit test is intended to measure a person's mental
representations to depict the social aspect of their attitude. The
tests to be taken to analyze our implicit attitude in three
aspects; Arab-Muslims (Arab-Muslim and others), race (white
and black American), and sexuality (straight and gay). The tests
have different categorizations on the degree attitude one feels or
thinks they prefer towards a particular aspect of a group. The
varying degree of positive attitude ranges from neutral, slight,
moderate, to strong preference as well as the same degrees for
the negative attitude of preference to a group.
· Analysis of expected and actual test results: this step
indicates the finality of the Implicit Association Test project.
Results are compared to find out whether there is a match or

contrast is noted. The differences are noted and discussed on the
influence they have on our attitudes. The results of this stage
depict how our communication behavior is a consequence of the
bias and attitude we have developed towards certain groups of
society.
1.3 Race Definition
Establishing an accurate definition of what race means is vital
before undertaking the Implicit Association Test. The race has
several definitions depending on the varying views. Race can be
defined as a grouping that human beings develop based on
unique physical and social characteristics that may lead them to
form as a society as viewed by different other societies.
According to the Cambridge Dictionary, a race is a group of
people who are perceived or have a similar physical feature or
may be considered by others as people of the same type or
overtime has belonged to a group. Also, the people may have
shared a concurring origin, background, language as well as
history leading to the current setting in the society. Societal
rules have in the modern community been a key factor in
influencing how people are affiliated or are put in groups that
can be referred to as races. I settled on the definition outlined
by the Cambridge Dictionary as it captures a wide grasp of
literature regarding race definitions.
A group, especially of people, with similar physical
characteristics, who are considered as belonging to the same
type, or the fact of belonging to such a group.
The race of race is largely confused or mixed up with the race.
For instance, race can be referred to as the genetic makeup
differences while ethnicity is seen as the cultural difference.
However, race can as well be used to refer to people of a
culture. Therefore, an accurate definition of the race would be a
group of people with similar interests, features, characteristics
that give them a sense of belonging, for instance, a tribe, nation
who have unified traits. Scientific evidence has not been
considered in the categorizations that define races in the world
today. Therefore, my understanding is social categorizations

influence what lead to the different races currently in place
more than the actual genetic and biological differences that
people may have acquired naturally.
3. How Attitudes Affect Communication:
Communication is vital as it dictates how we express ourselves
to other people. The bias or attitudes we develop based on race
religion as well as sexuality greatly affect our communication
behavior. Stereotypes go a long way in influencing key
decisions that people make in their day to lives. For instance, a
person may decide to withhold information to ensure people of a
race suffer. In workplaces, a person with bias will tend to
ignore or not communicate in the right manner to some
colleagues while communicating effectively to others to whom
they prefer to be of a superior race. Such discrepancies affect
productivity as tasks that need to be completed by a team will
face hindrances due to the communication glitch that occurs
among employees with bias. Discrimination will be the order of
the day thus inhibiting an all-inclusive culture amongst the
employees. Therefore, in the modern world, people, as well as
an organization, should endeavor to ensure that bias, implicit
and explicit attitudes are discouraged to enable a unity to thrive
amongst people of all groupings.
4. Implicit Attitudes Test
4.1 Expected IAT Results
· Race IAT: I predict that and expect my result to be inclined
towards "slight preference towards the White Americans." I am
aware that preference is generally viewed to be that of racism
against the black. The results are guided by the fact that my
background as a White American has led to opinions that are
skewed in favor of white Americans. However, other than
opinions my decisions now have all been made at no preference
and would consider myself explicitly as a non-racist. I interact
and cherish every human being and consider them as per their
abilities rather than race or grouping.
· Sexuality IAT: I expect the result to be of the preference of
straight Americans that is “moderate preference to straight

Americans”. I believe that heterogeneity is the way human
beings were created to romantically socialize. Therefore, my
preference is of straight Americans. Nevertheless, when
communicating I do not have communication behavior affected
by someone’s sexual orientation if the topic of engagement
remains as generic as possible. Communicating with gay people
may not affect me, however, at different stages of interactions I
may tend to have skewed opinions.
· Arab-Muslim IAT: I predict that my results for this test will
not be skewed and will be of "no preference." In America,
religion is a contagious topic and Arab-Muslim suffers
discrimination the most. I subscribe to the Roman Catholic and
have as well faced bias from people of other religions. I would
never want any form of stereotyping based on Religion as
people worship only one Supreme Being whom they believe in
and no one can claim theirs is the true religion.
4.2 Actual IAT Results
Race IAT: The test results show “a slight automatic preference
for white Americans over black Americans.”
Sexuality IAT: The test results show “a moderate automatic
preference for straight Americans over gay Americans.”
Arab-Muslim IAT: the test results indicate “a moderate
automatic preference of Other over Arab-Muslims.”
5. Effects on Communication
The implicit Association results provide a true reflection of our
preference when in an unconscious state. The race IAT results
were expected and provided a perfect match of my inclination
when unconscious while it is worth noting that my preference is
not linked to my actions or interactions with the black
Americans. I am fair and neutral whenever having any
conversation and in do not exhibit racist behavior. The reason
for my White American preference is attributed to my
background and upbringing. When growing up White children
would tend to discriminate against the blacks to the extent of
avoiding conversations with them a practice that pains me to
date. Hence, I would discourage any parent from intending to

cultivate hate against the blacks and vice versa as they raise
their children.
According to Mendez, people should practice conscious
consideration of how they interact and communicate with the
people they must establish bias against (Mendez, para.2.). This
ensures that the right decisions are made in whichever situation
that arises thus avert any communication crisis, especially at the
workplace. The implicit association aids people to realize the
grouping they stereotype and hence inform them about their
conduct in subsequent engagement. Therefore, we can exercise
proactiveness in dealing with both biases to people we have no
preference.
The sexuality IAT test result was expected and I have a strong
depiction of my conduct when conversing with gay Americans. I
strongly dislike homosexuality or the bisexual approach to
human sexuality. This behavior can well be attached to my
background. I believe that human beings should be attracted to
the opposite sex. I find it uncomfortable discussing gay-related
topics. Although I do not discriminate against them, I can easily
make decisions against them as I need to be critically mindful to
ensure fairness. However, I believe that every human being as a
right to follow their will and they deserve a chance to express
their perspectives in conversations. Hence, there is a need to
develop the right frameworks that ensure continuity of
conversations amongst people of skewed preference against gay
people to ensure that they still get the services they require
(Penner). This is because most of them find it difficult to
explain themselves. For instance, stigma causes gay people to
shy away from seeking medical attention, especially whenever
faced with sexually related health matters. The need for a
conscious person to provide them with the service will play a
vital role for them to comprehensively and conclusively express
their shortcomings.
I was surprised by the results obtained from the Arab-Muslim
IAT. I had expected a no preference result however the actual
reality presented that I have a moderate preference for Others. I

find that implicit may only represent our natural setting
preferences rather than real behavior. Although I do not prefer
Arab-Muslims or Others, the implicit is inclined to others due to
the religion I strongly follow. The test should be able to
distinguish a liking for something not meant to indicate
displeasure for another. For instance, a strong liking for coffee
should not be interpreted to mean dislike for tea and vice versa.
Besides, it is a good indicator that I should be obligated to
ensure neutrality in all communication and discussions
involving religions thus unbiased opinions.
During conflicts racial and religion, biased opinions and
arguments have taken a center stage in America. Scholars have
clearly shown that leaders play a critical role in influencing
how people interact with one another given their different
background settings. The effects of such discrimination go a
long way in impacting how people share and converse. For
instance, the Black Americans may end up not communicating
with their White counterparts due to fear of victimization. In the
twenty-first century, leaders, as well as every other citizen,
should put in practice conscious behavior, conduct, and speech
irrespective of their implicit association.
In conclusion, the implicit test result may not necessarily reflect
actual prejudice. Our behavior should be guided by humane
conscious and explicit attitude-behavior that does not put down
anyone. The preferences we have developed may be from
childhood or background can be unlearned and new admirable
traits imparted within our societal interactions. Implicit
attitude, bias, or stereotypes should only portray our
unconscious and we ought always to strive to act and
communicate in impartiality despite the group.
Works Cited
Maina, Ivy W., et al. "A decade of studying implicit
racial/ethnic bias in healthcare providers using the implicit

association test." Social Science & Medicine 199 (2018): 219-
229.
Mendez, Julia. “The Impact of Biases and How to Prevent Their
Interference in the Workplace.” Insight, 27 April 2017,
https://www.insightintodiversity.com/the-impact-of-biases-and-
how-to-prevent-their-interference-in-the-workplace/#
Penner, Louis A., et al. "The effects of oncologist implicit
racial bias in racially discordant oncology interactions." Journal
of clinical oncology 34.24 (2016): 2874.
Race. “Definition of ‘Race’ - English Dictionary.” Cambridge
Dictionary,
dictionary.cambridge.org/us/dictionary/english/race
Appendix
Race IAT
Sexuality IAT
Arab-Muslim IAT
Kuhn 1
Kuhn 8
Alexander J. Kuhn
Professor Allen J. Lippman
COM 110
20 Nov. 2018
Implicit Attitudes Project
1. Introduction
The purpose of the Implicit Attitudes Project is to explore
any implicit attitudes, or automatic preferences that I may have
about particular groups of people and how those preferences
may affect how I communicate with members of those groups.
1.1 Project Objectives

The objectives of this assignment are as follows:
· Predict what preferences I may have regarding three particular
groups of people i.e. Race (black/white Americans), Sexuality
(gay/straight Americans), and Arab/Muslims/others
· Develop a specific definition of race
· Examine how attitudes affect communication
· Determine my personal preferences by taking the Implicit
Association Tests (IAT's) created by Harvard University
· Analyze the differences between my predicted and actual test
results
· Determine how my preferences affect my personal
communication behavior.
1.2 Project Methodology
The methodology of the project is as follows:
· Establish Expected Test Results: The first step was to predict
my results for each implicit attitude test that I was going to
take. It was important to establish any preferences held toward
or against the particular groups before I took the tests. This
allowed me to compare my actual results to my predicted results
to further understand my attitudes towards those groups of
people.
· Research: The second step required me to research two topics
regarding attitudes, race and communication:
· Definition of Race: I was required to research a supported
definition of race that I endorsed.
· How Attitudes Affect Communication: We were also required
to research how attitudes held by us and other people can affect
communication between groups of people in society.
· Take The IAT Tests: The third step required us to take three
Implicit Association Tests created by Harvard University. The
tests analyzed our implicit attitudes towards or against Arab-
Muslims (Arab-Muslim and others), race (white and African
American), and sexuality (homosexual and heterosexual). The
results of the tests were in categories based on how strong of a
preference you had. For example, the test may determine that
you have a slight, moderate, strong, or no preference for or

against a particular group.
· To analyze the differences: The final step in the project was to
analyze our results compared to our predicted results. This
allows us to think about how our attitudes affect communication
with certain groups of people in our lives.
2. What is Race?
Before taking the Implicit Association Tests it is important
to establish a supported definition of race that we determine to
be accurate. There are many different definitions of race from
thousands of different sources, with some stating it is a social
construct. Consequently, pin pointing a particular definition to
support is challenging.
The Cambridge Dictionary defines race when relating to people
as:
A group, especially of people, with particular similar
physical characteristics, who are considered as belonging to
the same type, or the fact of belonging to such a group.
I chose this definition of race because it covers two
important defining characteristics of what people consider race
to be, physical characteristics, and what people think makes
people belong to a certain group. Similarities between physical
attributes is what most people may think of when discussing
race, but I personally believe that these comparisons are mostly
a byproduct of learned mental categorization opposed to
categorization based on scientific evidence.
3. How Attitudes Affect Communication:
Communication can be affected by established implicit and
explicit attitudes regarding race, religion and sexuality.
Notions about particular groups can affect how individuals
interact with those groups. Bias is one way to describe attitudes
towards particular groups of people and relate them to real
world effects on communication. Researchers Eric Hehman,
Jessica K. Flake, and Jimmy Calanchini define bias as
consisting of two parts, prejudices "a balanced evaluation (e.g.,
good, bad) of a group," and stereotypes "mental associations

between a group (e.g., blacks) and attributes (e.g., threat)."
These prejudices and stereotypes are communicated to
individuals in many different ways, including in the media. The
goal of this project is to identify and analyze any attitudes,
prejudices and stereotypes we may have about particular groups
of people and to determine how they affect communication with
these groups.
4. Implicit Attitudes Test
4.1 Expected IAT Results
· Race IAT: I expect my results of the race IAT to be a "slight
preference towards white Americans." While I would like to
assume that I have no preference between white and black
Americans I know that my past experiences have shaped certain
stereotypes that are not explicit. I grew up in a rural area that
on average had strong prejudices toward African Americans. My
explicit views are that I have no preference, but my upbringing
may have had negative effects on my implicit attitudes towards
African Americans despite the fact that I have many black
friends and consider myself to be very welcoming of people of
all walks of life.
· b.) Sexuality IAT: I predict that my results for the sexuality
IAT will be "no preference between gay and straight
Americans." I am a bisexual male and while I prefer my
romantic partners to be bisexual as well I do not think I have a
general preference when it comes to communicating with either
group. I have a pretty good mix of heterosexual, bisexual, and
homosexual friends and I don't think that there is much of
anything affecting how I communicate with them.
· c.) Arab-Muslim IAT: I predict that my results for the Arab-
Muslim IAT will be "no preference between Arab-Muslims or
others." Arab-Muslims in post 9/11 America undoubtedly face
a large amount of religious discrimination. I have experienced
religious discrimination for being Roman-Catholic when my
family lived in a rural town. I wouldn't want anyone else to feel
as unwelcome as I did back then simply because of what they

believe in.
4.2 Actual IAT Results
· Race IAT: The result of the test suggests "a moderate
preference for white Americans over black Americans."
· Sexuality IAT: The results of the test suggests "a strong
preference for gay Americans over straight Americans."
· Arab-Muslim IAT: The result of the Arab-Muslim IAT
suggests "a moderate preference for other groups over Arab-
Muslims."
5. Effects on Communication
While I had expected my IAT results to be either “no
preference” or “slight preference” in the case of the race IAT I
was surprised to find that my results leaned much more than I
had expected. As I expected from the beginning, my implicit
attitudes are not the same as my explicit views on each subject.
I found that people may become defensive when disagreeing
with their IAT results, however my results, while different than
expected, can all be explained and much can be gleaned from
the results. I do not think that these implicit attitudes always
affect communication on the surface, but they do affect how I
perceive these groups and how I interact with them whether I
am conscious of it or not.
The sexuality IAT was the result that surprised me the
most. My results showed a strong preference for gay people
over straight individuals. I believe my own sexuality had the
most to do with this. I was much more likely to quickly
associate terms like “gay” or “homosexual” with “good” than
vice versa. I do not dislike straight individuals, however, and I
don’t think having a strong preference for one makes the other a
strong dislike. These associations are more subconscious and
relate to past experience. Having a preference for spaghetti over
pizza does not automatically mean that you have a strong
dislike of pizza, you simply prefer one over the over.
In my research I found that the stigma surrounding sexuality in
healthcare can affect the way patients communicate their
sexuality with medical professionals and how well medical

professionals can access an individual’s risk level. Medical
researchers Sabin, Riskind, and Nosek define stigma as “the co-
occurrence of labeling, stereotyping, separation, status loss, and
discrimination in a situation in which power is exercised.” In
their study they found that although disclosure of sexuality to
healthcare providers is important in risk reduction for those in
the LGBT community many LGBT individuals do not
communicate their sexuality to their doctors due to this stigma.
This choice to not communicate sexuality to doctors is
detrimental to a doctor’s ability to access and individuals risk
level and provide appropriate treatments. It was found that in
healthcare providers sampled, implicit preferences always
favored heterosexuals over homosexuals. This is a great
example of how implicit attitudes can affect not only
communication, but also people’s wellbeing as a whole.
Recognizing and accepting implicit preferences is a good way
for doctors to best help their patients and a good way for
homosexual patients to receive the best care and disease
prevention possible.
The results of the race IAT were very close to my predicted
results, but they still made me think about how these
preferences were formed and how they affect communication
with African Americans. I believe that my result reflected my
upbringing in a town with a very small African American
population. Most of my experiences with black Americans are
from the past several years I have spent in Charlotte, North
Carolina. While there were black people at the school I went to
in rural North Carolina the general student body had very strong
prejudices against them and any white person that befriended a
black person risked severe harassment. Again, a moderate
preference for white people over black people does not imply a
moderate dislike for black individuals, and I believe that my
moderate preference for white people over black people is
strongly related to those experiences I had when I was younger.
I do believe that my implicit attitudes towards African
Americans have changed significantly over the past decade and

will continue to change as I get older and learn more about
myself.
Past experiences are shown to have an effect on how people
form perceptions of other groups. Tanner Riley, a researcher for
the University of Portland Pilot Scholars, researched the effect
that racial perceptions had on communication in conflict.
Throughout his research he found that pervious experiences can
either make someone avoid interacting with a person of
different race, or make someone more comfortable
communicating with someone who is of a different race. This is
referred to as the contact hypothesis. The contact hypothesis is
especially important to keep in mind for people in authority
positions like police officers and public officials.
Communication responses during conflict are influenced by
racial perceptions and we can see this manifesting itself in the
form of police brutality. It is important to keep these
perception in mind when discussing complex issues such as
these.
In conclusion I believe the implicit attitudes tests are a good
way to determine any unconscious preferences that may be had
about particular groups over others. While I feel it is an
accurate measure of these attitudes I do not think that the
results of the test can accurately determine actual prejudice,
simply a preference for one or the other based on previous
experiences. Experiences, stigmas and stereotypes are all
factors that lead into people’s formation of preferences and
sometimes these preferences can cross over into discrimination
against particular people. Therefore it is important to keep an
open mind to the results of the IAT tests so that one can better
understand how their attitudes affect communication with each
other and to avoid harmful stereotypes and stigmas.

Works Cited
“Definition of ‘Race’ - English Dictionary.” Cambridge
Dictionary,
dictionary.cambridge.org/us/dictionary/english/race.
dictionary.cambridge.org/us/dictionary/english/race
Accessed 20 November,
2018.
Hehman, E., Flake, J. K., and J. Calanchini, (in press).
Disproportionate use of Lethal
Force in Policing is Associated With Regional Racial
Biases of Residents. Social Psychological and Personality
Science. Accessed 20 November, 2018.
Riley, Tanner, "Do Racial Perceptions Affect Communication in
Conflict?". Communication Studies Undergraduate
Publications, Presentations and Projects. 2014. pp. 58.
pilotscholars.up.edu/cst_studpubs/58 Accessed 20 November,
2018.
Sabin, J. A., Riskind. R. G., and B.A. Nosek. Health Care
Providers’ Implicit and Explicit Attitudes Toward Lesbian
Women and Gay Men. American Journal of

Public Health, 2015. pp1831-1841. Accessed 20
November, 2018.
Implicit Attitudes Project
Objective
The purpose of this assignment is to give you the opportunity to
explore implicit attitudes that you may hold about particular
groups and how those attitudes might affect how you
communicate with individual members of those groups.
Instructions
This is the project sequence that you should employ to complete
your work i.e. do these in the following order:
1. Establish expected test results.
2. Research: Definition of race.
3. Take IAT tests.
4. Analyze the differences between expected and actual results.
5. Write paper.
6. Attach test results and rubric (page 13).
Establish Preferences
You will take three tests; the Sexuality IAT, the Race IAT, and
the Arab-Muslim IAT. Before taking the tests it’s important to
determine what if any conscious preferences you may hold now.
To make that determination, select one answer from each of the
three tables below:
1. Race:
No preference between white or black Americans
Prefer white Americans over black Americans
Prefer black Americans over white Americans

Strong preference for black Americans
Moderate preference for black Americans
Slight preference for black Americans
No preference
Strong preference for white Americans
Moderate preference for white Americans
Slight preference for white Americans
2. Sexuality:
Prefer gay Americans over straight Americans
No preference between gay or straight Americans
Prefer straight Americans over gay Americans
Strong preference for gay Americans
Moderate preference for gay Americans
Slight preference for gay Americans
No preference
Strong preference for straight Americans
Moderate preference for straight Americans
Slight preference for straight Americans
3. Arab-Muslim:

Prefer Arabs-Muslims over Others
No preference between Arabs- Muslims or Others
Prefer Others over Arab-Muslims
Strong preference for Arab-Muslims
Moderate preference for Arab-Muslims
Slight preference for Arab-Muslims
No preference
Strong preference for Others
Moderate preference for Others
Slight preference for Others
What is Race?
The goal in this section of the paper is the answer the question
posed in the heading i.e. what is race? To do this, you should
present a specific supported definition of race that you endorse.
Ideally, you should evaluate several definitions of race and then
select the best definition. You may refer to the definition given
in the sample paper but you may not copy it. A brief discussion
on why you selected the definition you did should be included.
Take IAT Tests
Log onto the website below:
https://implicit.harvard.edu/implicit/demo/
Once there, read the brief introductory information and then
click on “Go to Demonstration Tests.” Read the “Preliminary
Information” and then click on “I Wish to Proceed.” There you
will be presented with a menu of tests. You will take the Race
IAT, the Sexuality IAT, and the Arab-Muslim IAT. Pick the

test you want to start with first and when finished, copy your
results and save them. The tests are short but intense. It is
strongly recommended that you take the tests on separate days
or wait a minimum of an hour before taking another test.
Implicit Attitudes Test
After you take the IAT tests, your next step is to compare your
actual results against your predicted results:
· Results Expected – Your expected results can be presented in
a simple bullet point format. An explanation of why you
expected to get the specific results you did is not necessary.
· Actual Results (a copy of your actual results must be attached
to or included in your paper) – Again, these can be presented in
a bullet point format noting the differences between your
expected and actual results.
Effects of Biases on Personal Communication/Behavior
Using your expected and actual test results as a base, describe
the reaction you had to your results. Were you surprised by
them, and most important, how do you think your preferences
affect how you communicate with white/black, Arab-Muslim, or
gay/straight people? Keep in mind that you should be
approaching this analysis from the perspective of a cause and
effect relationship. That is, think of your biases/preferences as
causes, and then think through how those causes would affect
your communication/behavior because they always do. The
simple truth is this: If you have preferences, they affect your
behavior – period.
Note: Many students (the author of the sample assignment
included) find it necessary to speculate on how or why, they
developed their preferences/biases. This may be a worthwhile
exercise but you must remember two things:
· Biases/preferences are formed very early. Research suggests

for example, that racial preferences are formed as early as three
– five years old.
· Biases/preferences operate below the level of awareness –
Remember, these are implicit biases, biases you’re not
necessarily aware of. As a result, your ability to assess your
preferences based on your conscious thought processes alone is
severely limited. Put another way; you can’t know what you
don’t know.
Assignment Submission
The Implicit Attitudes Project will be submitted, and graded
online. The portal can be found under Course Assignments
immediately under these instructions. Once graded, you will be
able to access your work by clicking on the appropriate column
in the grade center. You will only be allowed to submit your
assignment one time so you should make absolutely certain that
your work is correct before uploading it to the system.
The outline is due by 11:59 p.m. on the due date noted on the
course schedule. There is no grace period i.e. any outline
received after 11:59 p.m. will be marked late and will be
penalized one letter grade. The grading rubric that will be used
can be found on page 6 below.
Grading
Papers are graded on the following basis (see rubric below):
· Quality of research – 15%.
· Formatting – 15%.
· Content – 70%.
Class Discussion
Come to class prepared to discuss:
1. What were your stated preferences prior to taking the tests?
2. What were your actual results?

3. How you reacted to your results?
4. How your preferences affect how you communicate/interact
with white/black,
gay/straight, and Arab-Muslim people?
5. What, if anything, you plan to change about your
communication?
The Implicit Attitudes Test (IAT)
The IAT measures attitudes and beliefs that you may hold but
are either unwilling or unable to express. First, you might not
always be willing to share your private attitudes with others.
Second, you may not be aware of some of your own attitudes.
Your results on the IAT may include both components of
control and awareness.
How the IAT Works
The IAT measures the difference in response rates between two
paired concepts (e.g., young and good, or elderly and good).
The more closely associated the two concepts are, the faster you
respond to them. So, if young and good are strongly associated
for you, you will respond quickly to them. Conversely, if
elderly and good are not as strongly associated, you will
respond more slowly to them. This gives you a measure of how
strongly associated the two types of concepts are in your mind.
Findings
Over 4.5 million people from all over the world have
participated in Project Implicit’s research and another 15,000 do
so every month. The major findings the researchers have
observed in the seven years the project web site has functioned
are:
· Implicit biases are pervasive.
· People are often unaware of their implicit biases.
· Implicit biases predict behavior.
· People differ in levels of Written in MLA style:
COM 110

2
Implicit Attitudes Project Grading Rubric
Category
Excellent
Good
Below Average
Failing
Total
Content – 60%
Content is thorough, logical, well organized, and clearly
presented. Contains a clear and supported definition of race.
Ideas are substantive, and includes an appropriate
methodological overview, and clear project objectives. Clear
description of the effects of attitudes on communication
supported with experimental studies, and supported with a clear
cause and effect relationship. Clearly identified test results,
which are discussed openly and honestly. Meaningful discussion
of the effects of personal biases on communication. Includes a
Works Cited page in correct MLA format.
Content is reasonably logical and organized. May contain one
or two errors in reasoning. Project methodology and objectives
are presented but need more thorough explanations. Definition
of race may be dated. Experimental support is included but
lacks a clear cause and effect relationship. Test results are
included and discussed but may rely too heavily on conscious
awareness. Discussion of the effects of personal bias on
communication behavior is somewhat superficial. Works Cited
page contains several errors.
Parts of the paper are illogical, and/or poorly organized. A
number of obvious errors in reasoning. Project methodology
and objectives are presented but poorly organized, and are
incomplete. Contains an unsupported definition of race. May
lack experimental support and/or the support is not directly
related to the content. Discussion of test results is inconsistent

and vacillates between acceptance, and rejection of the test
results. Relies heavily on conscious awareness. Works Cited
page contains significant errors.
Content is superficial, poorly organized, and lacks clarity. Weak
or unsupported definition of race. Poor or missing
methodological overview. Lacks clear project objectives. Lacks
clear links between bias and effects on communication
behavior. Conclusions lack experimental support. Rationalizes
test results or rejects them out of hand. Works Cited page shows
little to no attempt to format the citations correctly e.g. only a
URL is cited.
Quality of research – 25%
Contains a minimum of four high quality sources. Has a
minimum of two experimental studies effectively integrated into
key ideas. Research is correctly cited in the text of the paper.
Four sources are included but quality is generally below the
level of scholarly journals. Contains two experimental studies
but results are generally rather than specifically applied to the
content. Research is cited in the text of the paper but may
contain inconsistencies.
Only two or three sources are cited. Sources are weak or
unreliable. Study results are incorrectly explained or applied.
Textual citations are incorrect or are missing entirely. Relies
heavily on web sources.
Contains only one or two sources. Lacks relevant experimental
studies, poorly integrated into key ideas. Either lacks correct
in-text citations or missing altogether.
Formatting – 15%
Paper strictly adheres to MLA format. Format is clear, neat,
and consistent. Uses white space consistently and
appropriately. Content is edited for clarity, grammar, and
spelling.
Paper is missing some elements of MLA e.g. a running header.
Format and spacing contain minor inconsistencies. Contains a

few spelling, and grammatical errors.
Little attempt made to comply with MLA requirements. Format
contains significant inconsistencies. A significant number of
spelling and grammatical errors.
Missing key elements of MLA format e.g. running header,
double spacing, indented paragraphs, etc. White space
inconsistent, uses either too little or too much space. Content is
poorly edited, multiple grammatical and spelling errors.
Grade

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