2. Introduction
Data can be define as the quantitative or qualitative value
of a variable (e.g. number, images, words, figures , facts or
ideas)
It is a lowest unit of information from which other
measurements and analysis can be done.
Data is one of the most important and vital aspect of any
research study.
4. Internal sources of Data:
Many institutions and departments have information about their regular functions for
their own internal purposes . When this type pf information are used in any survey is
called internal sources of data.
Eg social welfare societies.
External sources of data:
When information is collected from outside agencies is called external sources of
data. Such types of data are either primary or secondary.
This type of information can be collected by census or sampling method by
conducting survey
5. Primary Data
• Data that has been collected from first-hand experiences is known as primary data. It has more reliable ,
authentic and not been published anywhere.
• Such data are published by authorities who themselves are responsible for their collection.
• They are original and raw
Primary data has not been changed or altered by human being, therefore its validity is greater than
secondary data.
Example:
• Documents
• Creative works
• Interviews
• Man-made materials
• Surveys
6. Merits:
Data interpretation is better
High accuracy of data
Address as specific research issues
Greater control
Demerits:
Evaluated cost
Time consuming
More number of resources are required
Inaccurate feedback
Required lot of skill with labour.
7. Secondary Data:
Secondary data are those that have already been collected by others.
These are usually in journals, research publication ,official record etc.
Secondary data may be available in the published or unpublished form.
When it is not possible to collect the data by primary method ,the
investigator go for secondary method
Example:
• Unpublished thesis and dissertations
• Manuscript
• Books
• Journals
8. Merits
– Quick and cheap source of data
– Wider geographical area
– Longer orientation period
– Leading to find primary data
Demerits
– No fulfill our specific research needs
– Poor accuracy
– Data are not up to date
– Poor accessibility in some cases
9. Qualitative Method
•Deals with descriptions.
•Data can be observed but not measured. It
approximates or characterizes but does not
measure the attributes, characteristics, and
properties of a thing or phenomenon.
10. Quantitative Method
• Deals with numbers.
• Data which can be measured.
• This method rely on random sampling and structured data collection
instruments that fit diverse experiences into predetermined
response categories.
11. Clerical Tools
• Used when researcher studies people and gathers
data on the feelings, emotions, attitudes and
judgment of the subjects.
Example:
•Questionnaire
•Interview
•Experiment
•Observation
12. Mechanical Devices
• Includes all tools that are used in different
branch of science. It is more on to measure
things.
Example:
• Thermometers
• Cameras
• Microscopes
• Meter stick
13. Questionnaire
•It is a list of prepared questions or a checklist.
•This is usually sent of distributed to respondents
for the purpose of seeking their opinions, views,
suggestions, or perceptions.
14. Advantages of Questionnaire
• Practical
• Large amounts of information can be collected from a large
number of people in a short period of time
• Can be carried out by the researcher or by any number of people
with limited affect to its validity and reliability
• The results of the questionnaires can usually be quickly and
easily quantified by either a researcher or through the use of a
software package
• Can be analysed more 'scientifically' and objectively than other
forms of research
15. Disadvantages of Questionnaire
• Lacks validity
• There is no way to tell how truthful a respondent is being
• There is no way of telling how much thought a respondent has
put in
• The respondent may be forgetful or not thinking within the full
context of the situation
• People may read differently into each question and therefore
reply based on their own interpretation of the question
16. Interview
• It is one of the major techniques in gathering data or
information.
• It is a conversation between two or more people where
questions are asked by the interviewer to elicit facts or
statements from the interviewee.
17. Advantage of the Interview
• Generating more valid and compete information
• Interviewer can classify points or questions which are
vogue to the interviewee
• Seeing the sincerity in terms of answering the questions
• Flexibility
• Greater complex questions can be asked
18. Disadvantage of Interview
• Respondents would be hard to be contacted
• Time consuming
• Inaccurate in terms of getting numerical data
• Inaccurate due to bias data given by the interviewee
in favourable with the study
• Difficult to make conclusion
19. Observations
• Collect data on behavior
• Observation relies on the researchers’ ability to gather data
though their senses - and allows researchers to document actual
behaviour rather than responses related to behaviour
• Observing organizational behaviors in their functional settings is
one of the most direct ways to collect data.
20. Advantages to Observation:
• They are free of the biases inherent in the self-report data.
• They put the practitioner directly in touch with the behaviors in
question.
• They are involved real-time data, describing behavior occurring in
the present rather than the past.
• They are adapting in that they can be modified depending on what
is being observed.
21. Experimentation:
• Experimentation explores cause and effect relationships by
manipulating independent variables in order to see if there is a
corresponding effect on a dependent variable
• Pure experimentation requires both a controlled environment and
the use of a randomly assigned control group
• This can be difficult to achieve in human centred experiments
conducted in the real-world
22. Other ways of collecting data
• Schedules
• Warranty cards
• Store audits
• Pantry audits
• Consumer panels
• Use of mechanical devices
• Projective techniques
