The document provides an overview of various quantitative and qualitative data collection techniques used in research, including questionnaires, interviews, observation, biophysical measures, and focus group discussions. It describes the process of constructing questionnaires, different types of questions, and ways to reduce biases. Interviews can be structured or in-depth. Observation involves visually observing events, while focus groups elicit information through group interaction moderated by a facilitator. The document outlines advantages and disadvantages of these techniques.

1. Data collection and report
writing

2. Presentation outline
• Measurement and Data Collection
– Quantitative techniques
– Qualitative techniques
– Validity and reliability of measurement tools
• Interpretation of results, discussion and
conclusion
– Interpretation of Results
– Discussion, conclusion and Recommendations
• Communication of research findings

3. Data Collection
• Existing
–Records (e.g., patient charts)
–Historical data: written narrative
records of the past
–Existing data set (secondary analysis)
• New

4. Major Types of Data Collection
Methods
• Self-reports
– Interview
– Questionnaire
• Observation
– Participant
– Nonparticipant
• Biophysiologic measures
– In vivo
– In vitro

5. Data collection…
• Quantitative
– Questionnaire
– Interview
– Observation
• Qualitative
– Focus group discussion
– Interview
• In-depth interview
• Key informant interview
– Observation

6. Quantitative Data
Collection Techniques

7. Questionnaire
• A questionnaire is a research instrument consisting of a
series of questions for the purpose of gathering
information from respondents
• a questionnaire consists of a number of questions that
the respondent has to answer in a set format.

8. Questionnaire…
Questionnaire construction
Question types
• open-ended and closed-ended questions.
– An open-ended question asks the respondent to formulate his
/her own answer.
– E.g., Why did you decide to stop taking hormone replacement
drugs?
• A closed-ended question has the respondent pick an
answer from a given number of options.
– E.g., Have you ever taken hormone replacement drugs? (yes/no)
– The response options for a closed-ended question should be
exhaustive and mutually exclusive.

9. Questionnaire…
• Types of Closed-Ended Questions
– Dichotomous questions
– Multiple-choice questions
– Rank-order questions
– Rating questions

10. Questionnaire…
Question sequence
• Questions should flow
– logically from one to the next.
– from the least sensitive to the most sensitive,
– from factual to attitudinal,
– from more general to more specific.

11. Questionnaire…
Question construction
• Develop an outline of the instrument’s content
• ***Questions can be borrowed/adopted from other instruments
• Carefully monitor the wording of each question
– for clarity, sensitivity to the respondents psychological
state, freedom from bias and reading level
• Sequence questions in a psychologically meaningful order
that encourages cooperation and openness
• Review of draft instruments by peers and then pretest with a
small sample of respondents

12. Questionnaire
• Advantages:
– Questions are presented in a consistent manner
– Less opportunity for subject bias
– Easier to administer to large groups
– Less costly to use than interviews
– Structured questionnaires are easier to code and
analyze
– Possibility of anonymity
– Lack of interviewer bias

13. Questionnaire…
Scales can be formatted in a number of
ways:
– Dichotomous: respondent has two options
– Nominal-polytomous: respondent has more than
two unordered options
– Ordinal-polytomous:respondent has more than two
ordered options
– Continuous: respondent is presented with a
continuous scale

14. Questionnaire…
Likert Scales
– Consist of several declarative statements
(items) expressing viewpoints
– Responses are on an agree/disagree
continuum (usually 5 or 7 response options)
– Responses to items are summed to compute
a total scale score

15. Questionnaire…
Response Biases and Response Sets
• Social desirability response set bias: a tendency to
misrepresent attitudes/traits by giving answers that are
consistent with prevailing social views
• Extreme response set bias: a tendency to consistently
express attitudes or feelings in extreme responses(eg
strongly agree)
• Acquiescence response set (yea- sayers): tendency to
agree with statements regardless of their content by
people
• Nay-sayers response set: tendency to disagree with
statements independently of the question content

16. Questionnaire…
Ways to reduce biases
• Biases can be reduced by counterbalancing
positively and negatively worded statements
• Developing sensitively worded questions
• Creating a permissive, non judgmental
atmosphere
• Guaranteeing confidentiality of responses

17. Interview
Structured interviews
•The questions the interviewer is
to ask are designed and written
before the interview
•every subject is asked the same
questions in the same way

18. Interview…
Advantages of Interviews (Compared
with Questionnaires)
– Higher response rates
– Appropriate for more diverse audiences
– Opportunities to clarify questions or to
determine comprehension
– Opportunity to collect supplementary data
through observation

19. Observation
• Observation is a technique for collecting data through
visual observation of events.
• It requires the nature of the data to be observable.
• Structured observation of pre-specified behaviors
• The method of data collection chosen for a study
should be appropriate for the type of information
required

20. Biophysiologic Measures
• In vivo measurements: Performed
directly within or on living organisms (e.g.,
blood pressure measures)
• In vitro measurements: Performed
outside the organism’s body (e.g.,
urinalysis)

21. Observation…
• Phenomena Amenable to Research
Observation
• Activities and behavior
• Characteristics and conditions of
individuals
• Skill attainment and performance
• Verbal and nonverbal communication
• Environmental characteristics

22. Qualitative Data
Collection Techniques

23. Observation
• Purpose is to get close enough to study
subjects to grasp their point of view
• The researcher observe socio-cultural
context and obtain insight about daily life
• Observer has dual purpose: participate
and observe.

24. Observation…
Advantages
• Provides deep understanding of the general
setting
• Allows to observe whether people do what they
say they do
• Useful to capture a phenomenon and its specific
components in greater detail

25. Observation…
Disadvantages
• Time consuming and require good skill in
local language, good memory and ability
to take note
• Enormous data may be generated
• Time lag between observation and note
taking is likely
• Expensive

26. Observation…
Concerns in Participant Observation
• Full participation may be impossible for
• Social reasons
• Ethical
• Legal

27. In-depth Interviews
• One-on-one interviews that probe and
elicit detailed answers to questions
– often using nondirective techniques to
uncover hidden motivations.

28. In-depth Interview…
Advantages
• No group pressure
• Respondent focus attention and feels important
• Long time period encourages revealing new
information
• Can probe to reveal feelings and motivations
• Discussion is flexible and can explore tangential
issues

29. In-depth Interview…
Disadvantages
• Much more expensive than focus groups
• Do not get the same degree of client
involvement
• Are physically exhausting for the
moderator…reduces the number of people
that can be interviewed in a given time
period.

30. key informant interview
• Key informant is an individual selected due
to his knowledge, previous experience and
social status
– Selection is not random

31. Focus Group Discussion(FGD)
• Focus groups are a method of group
discussion in which the interaction
between
– the moderator and the group,
– as well as the interaction between group
members,
– serves to elicit information and insights in
response to questions.

32. FGD…
• Encourages group interaction
• Important to develop culturally relevant
questionnaire
• Complement other methods
Advantages
• Do not discriminate against people who can not
read and write
• Encourages participants reluctant to be
interviewed
• Participant interaction helps weed out false and
extreme views

33. FGD…
Disadvantages
• The results are more subject to
interpretive bias and error
• Analysis process is more time-consuming
• Investigator risks getting too much
unnecessary information

34. FGD…
• 8 to 10 people at one time
• Relatively homogeneous groups
• Multiple, heterogeneous groups
• Group dynamics
• Moderator is key
• Relies on general topical guide with plenty
of time for interaction

35. FGD…
• Requirements for Focus Groups
• Good group of information-rich participants
– How many people?
– How many groups?
– Characteristics of participants
• Discussion guide and outline
– Ground rules
– Agenda
– Guiding questions
• Qualified Moderator
– Controls flow
– Stimulates discussion

36. FGD
• Good Moderator Characteristics
• able to break down barriers
• Must be a quick learner
– Good listener
– Absorb content
– Gauge personalities
– Adapt quickly
• Must be in control, but not dominating (guide rather than lead)
• Must appear to be neither an expert nor naive
• Must be flexible to allow for free flow of discussion
– Don’t concentrate too rigidly on the moderator guide
• Keep the big picture in perspective
• Know what is important
• When to move on

37. FGD…
Facilitating Group Dynamics
• Use introductions to set the tone
• State your purpose
• Encourage everyone to participate; no right or
wrong answers
• Use an ice breaker to get everyone comfortable
• State ground rules, procedural details
• Ask for permission to tape
• Ensure confidentiality/anonymity
• Report to contain summary of group, not
individuals

38. FGD…
Getting and keeping productive participation
• Overly talkative (Peacock) :
– The person may be eager or simply show off.
– Don't be embarrassed or sarcastic: you may want to call on their
participation later.
– Slow them down with difficult question or interrupt them
• Highly argumentative (Lion) :
– The person may have a combative, confrontational personality
or wants to heckle.
• Keep your own temper in check and don't allow
other group members to get excited.
• Rambler (Monkey) :
– They talk about everything except the topic.
– When they stop for breath thank and refocus their attention

39. FGD…
• Personality clash (Fighting cock):
– This is when two or more members clash.
• Such a clash may divide the group into factions as
each party gathers support from other members.
– Emphasize points of agreement and minimize disagreement
• Won't talk (Tortoise):
– This person may be board, indifferent, timed, insecure or may
feel superior to the group.
– Depend on what is motivating the individual.
– Arouse interest by seeking the person’s opinion.
• Ask for your opinion (Giraffe):
– There is nothing wrong with participants seeking your own
personal opinion on a topic.
• Avoid solving problems for them let them try by their
own

40. FGD…
• Wrong subject(Elephant):
– This person does not ramble but is simply off base.
– Restate the last point given.
– Above all don't embrass the individual
• Inarticulate (Parrot):
– Not able to put their thoughts into proper words.
– They may follow the discussion but not able to convey
their own idea.
– Paraphrase what they are saying

41. Pre test
• A PRE-TEST usually refers to a small-scale trial
of particular research components.
• A pretest is a trial run to determine whether the
instrument is clearly worded, free from major
biases, and useful in generating desired
information
• When do we carry out a pre-test?
• Pre-testing the data collection 1-2 weeks before
starting the fieldwork so that you have time to
make revisions.

42. Pre test
• Components to be assessed during the pre-
test?
– The reactions of respondents to the research
procedures and to questions related to
sensitive issues.
– The appropriateness of study type(s) and
research tools selected for the purpose of the
study (e.g., validity: Do they collect the
information you need? and reliability: Do they
collect the data in a precise way?).

43. Pre test
– The appropriateness of format and wording
of questionnaires and interview schedules
and the accuracy of the translations.
– The time needed to carry out interviews,
observations or measurements.

44. Validity and Reliability

45. Validity
Validity of Measuring Instrument
• Determination of the extent that an
instrument actually reflects the abstract
construct or concept it is supposed to
measure.
• For example, if I get on a scale and it tells
me my age, not my weight, then the scale
is not valid - it is not measuring what it is
supposed to measure.

46. Validity
• Internal Validity: refers to the extent to
which it is possible to make an inference
that a relationship is causal (the
experimental manipulation resulted in the
observed differences). cause)

47. Measures of Validity
– Face Validity
• Does the question "look" like it measures what it is
supposed to measure?
– Content Validity
• Does the question "look" like it measures what it is
supposed to measure?
• Give the instrument to a group of experts on the
concept, and ask them if they think the tool will
measure it adequately.

48. Validity…
Predictive Validity
• Does the measure predict another measure as we
expect?
– Convergent or Construct Validity
• Do two methods of collecting the same information
agree?
• For example, if you have a new stress instrument,
correlate the scores you get on your new
instrument with the scores obtained on a
previously validated stress instrument.

49. Threats to internal validity
There are 13 threats to internal validity:
1. History (events take place between the pre-test and the post-
test that are not the treatment of research interest)
2. Selection (difference between kinds of people in one
experimental group as opposed to another)
3. Maturation (observed effect is due to respondent growing
older and wiser between the pre-test and the post-test when
this maturation is not of research interest)
4. Testing (familiarity with a test where items and error responses
can be remembered at a later testing)

50. Threats to internal validity…
5. Mortality (different kinds of people drop out and the
experimental group are composed of different kinds
of persons at the post-test)
6. Instrumentation (when the effect might be a change
in the measuring instrument between pre-test and
post-test and not to the treatment’s differential impact
at each time interval.
7. Statistical Regression (movement of extreme scores
toward the mean in pre-test/post-test designs and the
treatment may have not been the cause

51. Threats to internal validity…
8. Interactions with selection
Selection-history
Selection-maturation
Selection-instrumentation
9. Ambiguity about the Direction of Causal Inference
(not sure if A cause B or B caused A or if A and B
interacted in a non-causal way)
10. Diffusion or Imitation of Treatments (the control
group gains access to the treatment)

52. Threats to internal validity…
11. Compensatory Equalization of Treatments (may
insist that control group receive the same treatment)
12. Compensatory Rivalry of Respondents Receiving
Less Desirable Treatments (attempt to reduce or
reverse the expected treatment effect)
13. Resentful Demoralization of Respondents Receiving
Less Desirable Treatments (effects may be due to
reactions rather then the treatment)

53. External Validity
• External Validity refers to the ability to generalize to
particular target populations, settings, times and
generalizing across particular target populations,
settings, times. There are 3 threats to external
validity.
• Interaction of Selection and Treatment (those who
volunteer and decline)
• Interaction of Setting and Treatment (bias in settings
or organizations who participate)
• Interaction of History and Treatment (circumstances
under which study conducted)

54. Reliability
Reliability of a Measuring Instrument
• Reliability testing is considered a measure of the
amount of random error in a measurement technique.
It is concerned with characteristics such as
consistency, accuracy, dependability, etc.
• Consistency of responses to a question (if you get on
your scale and it tells you that you weigh 110 lbs one
minute, then you step on it again and it tells you that
you weight 113 lbs, then it is not very reliable).

55. Reliability…
• Reliability, which is usually expressed
mathematically, using a form of the correlation
coefficient (r) with 1.00 indicating perfect
reliability and .00 indicating no reliability. A
reliability of .80 is considered the lowest
acceptable coefficient for a well developed
measurement tool.
• For a new instrument, a reliability of .70 is
considered acceptable (Burns & Grove, 1997).

56. Reliability…
• Measures of Reliability
– Test-Retest Reliability: Administer the same
questionnaire at a later time
– Equivalent Forms Reliability: Use different questions
that measure the same idea or concept and put
them in the same questionnaire
– Split-Half Reliability: The computer randomly splits
the responses in half and compares the two halves
for consistency
– Interrater reliability. This is used with observational
scales, when a person observes the subjects behavior and
rates it on a scale. If you have more than one rater, then you
have to determine how closely these people rate the same

57. Reliability and Validity of Physiological
Measures
• Measures of Reliability and Validity for Physiological
Outcomes
– Accuracy - Does the instrument measure what it is
supposed to in the best way possible? For example,
ABG's may be a more accurate measurement of
oxygen saturation than pulse oxymetry.
– Selectivity - Does the instrument measure only the
thing you are after, or is it being affected by more
than one signal. EKG readings give heart activity,
but can be affected by gross motor movement also.

58. Reliability and Validity of
Physiological Measures
– Precision - comparable to reliability in a paper and pencil
test. How consistent or reproducible is the measure. If you
take a pulse one minute and then another pulse in the next
minute, you would expect similar results (under most
conditions).
– Sensitivity - amount of change in a parameter that can be
measured precisely. If you are looking for a very small
change in your outcome measure (such as weight or blood
pressure), then you want an instrument which can
accurately detect very small changes.

59. Reliability and Validity of
Physiological Measures
– Error - a number of factors can affect physiological
measures. For example, if you sleep less than usual, it can
cause your natural killer cell activity to be lower.
Biochemical reactions from drugs, herbal substances, and
hormonal changes can also affect NK activity. These are
factors which the researcher would then have to control for
in some fashion

60. Criteria for achieving validity in
qualitative research
• Trustworthiness and genuineness
• Triangulation
• Respondent validation
• Peer agreement
• Independent audit
• Internal coherence
• Reflexivity

61. Writing is easy. All you do is stare
at a blank sheet of paper until
drops of blood form on your
forehead.
--- Gene Fowler

62. Proposal
• Abstract
• Background and statement of the problem
• Literature Review
• Objectives
• Methods and materials
• Budget
• Work plan
• References
• Annex

63. Budget continued…
• Supplies
Description Unit Quantity Unit
price
Total price
(In Birr)
Duplication paper Ream
Computer paper Ream
Stencil Pack
Duplicating ink Bottles
Ball point pen Pack
Pencil Each
Eraser Each
Sharpener Each

64. Work Plan
Activitie
s
Decemb
er
January
Februar
y
March
April
May
June
July
1 Proposal Development
2 Instrument Development
3 Resource Securing and Ethical Clearance
4 Recruitment and Training of data
collectors and supervisors
5 Pre-testing of the questionnaire
6 Field visit
7 Data collection
8 Data entry and clearance
9 Analysis of data
10 Report writing
11 Final reporting
12 Thesis defense
13 Submission of Thesis

65. Budget continued….
• Communication
• Refreshment
• Contingency

66. Budget
• Personnel
Description Number Duration in
days
Perdiem Total
Birr
Supervisors
Coordinators
Data collectors
Data entry clerk
Sub-total

67. Research Report

68. Types of Research Reports
1. Thesis
2. Presentations at professional
conferences
– Oral reports
– Poster sessions
Journal articles
• Papers often subjected to peer review

69. Abstracts
Brief description of major features of a study
at the beginning of the journal article
– Old style—single paragraph, about 200 words
– New style—more detailed abstracts with
specific headings

70. Introduction
Describes:
• Central phenomena, concepts, or
variables
• Statement of purpose, research questions
• Review of literature
• Theoretical/conceptual framework
• Study significance, need for study

71. Method section
Quantitative Studies
Describes:
• Research design
• Subjects
• Measures and data collection
• Study procedures

72. Method section continued…
Qualitative Studies
Describes:
• Research tradition
• Study participants
• Setting and context
• Data collection approaches
• Study procedures

73. Result Section
• Function :to objectively present your key
results in an orderly and logical sequence
using
– both illustrative materials (Tables and
Figures)
– and text

74. Result section
Quantitative Studies:
• Descriptive information (e.g., description of
subjects)
• Results of statistical analyses
– Names of statistical tests
– Value of calculated statistic
– Level of statistical significance

75. Result section continued
Qualitative Studies:
• Findings often organized according to
major themes, processes, or categories
identified in the analysis
Almost always includes raw data—quotes
directly from study participants

76. Discussion
Includes:
• Interpretation of the results
• Implications
• Study limitations

77. Discussion
Includes:
• Interpretation of the results
• Implications
• Study limitations

78. Discussion
• gives opportunity to explain the meaning
of your results.
• State the major findings of the Study
• Explain the meaning of the findings and why
the findings are important
• Relate the findings to those of similar studies
• Consider alternative explanations of the
findings

79. Discussion continued
• State the clinical relevance of the
findings
• Acknowledge the study’s limitations
• Make suggestions for further research
• Give the “Take-Home Message” in the
Form of a conclusion

80. Things to Avoid When Writing
the Discussion
• Over interpretation of the Results
• Unwarranted Speculation
• Inflating the Importance of the Findings
• Tangential Issues