The document summarizes Nobel Prizes in biochemistry awarded between 2000-2020 in 3-sentence paragraphs. It describes the prizes for discoveries such as conductive polymers, RNA interference, green fluorescent protein, autophagy, circadian rhythms, cancer immunotherapy, sensing oxygen levels, and genome editing. However, the 2020 prizes are noted as not yet published. The document provides motivation statements and brief descriptions of the laureates' work.

1. presented to
Sir Shuja Ur Rehman
Current Trends In Biochemistry

2. Seher Qaiser
Aqsa Mehboob
Ammara Khalil Ul Rehman
Rimsha Mansha
Noble Prize
in biochemistry

3. 1 .2000-2005
2 .2006-2010
3 .2011-2015
4 .2016-2020

4. Noble Prize
Any of six international prizes awarded annually for outstanding work
in physics, chemistry, physiology or medicine, literature, economics, and th
e promotion of peace. The Nobel Prizes, first awarded in 1901, are decided
by members of Swedish learned societies or, in the case of the peace prize,
the Norwegian Norwegian Parliament.
These various annual prizes established by the will of Alfred Nobel for the
encouragement of persons who work for the interests of humanity, called
also Nobel.

5. 01
2000-2005

6. Working:
Plastic material is composed of polymers - very large molecules
that take the form of long chains of smaller molecules. Plastic
usually does not conduct electricity, but at the end of the 1970s
Alan MacDiarmid, Alan Heeger, and Hideki Shirakawa demonstrate
that it is possible to produce conductive polymers.This requires
alternating single and double bonds between carbon atoms in the
chain.
Prize motivation: "For the discovery
and development of conductive polymers.
”
The Noble Prize in chemistry
in 2000.

7. Prize motivation: "For their discoveries concerning
signal transduction in the nervous system."
working:
Eric Kandel studied how memories are stored by these
nerve cells.Eric Kandel found that as the snail learned,
chemical signals changed the structure of the connections
between cells, known as synapses, where the signals are
sent and received.Arvid Carlsson discovered a neurotransmitter
called dopamine in the brain and described its role in our ability
to move.
The Noble Prize in medicine
in 2000.

8. l
Prize motivation: "For their discoveries of
key regulators of the cell cycle."
working:
From the beginning organisms evolve from one cell, which divides and becomes new cells
that in turn divide. Eventually different types of cells are formed with different roles.Through studies o
f seaurchins in the beginning of the 1980s, he discovered proteins that are broken down during
different phases of the cell cycle and that have important functions in its control.
The Noble Prize in medicine
in 2001.

9. working:
At the beginning of an organism's life, the number of cells it
contains increases rapidly. New cells are formed throughout its lifetime but
cells also die in order to maintain a balance in the number of cells in
existence. This process is regulated by genes and is called programmed cell
death.
Prize motivation: "For their discoveries concerning
genetic regulation of organ development and
programmed cell death'.
The Noble Prize in medicine
in 2002.

10. 01 02 03
Prize motivation: "For the discovery of ubiquitin
-mediated protein degradation."
Working:
An important process in our cells is the production of proteins. But proteins
must also be broken down.. When it is time for a protein to be broken down, a ubiquitin
molecule attaches itself to the protein. The ubiquitin molecule serves as a key that enters
a proteasome, a protein complex that divides the protein into smaller pieces.
The Noble Prize in chemistry
in 2004.

11. 01 02
Prize motivation: "For their discoveries of odorant
receptors and the organization of the olfactory
system."
Working:
Together with Richard Axel in 1991, Linda Buck discovered how
hundreds of genes in our DNA code for the odorant sensors located in the
olfactory sensory neurons in our noses. Each receptor is a protein that
changes when an odorant attaches itself to the receptor. This causes an
electric signal to be sent to the brain.
The Noble Prize in medicine
in 2004.

12. Prize motivation: "For their discovery of the bacterium
Helicobacter pylori and its role in gastritis and peptic
ulcer disease."
working:
Gastric ulcers are a common illness, but their cause was long unknown.After
Robin Warren discovered colonies of bacteria at gastric ulcer sites, he was contacted by
his colleague Barry Marshall, who then successfully cultivated the previously unknown
bacteria Helicobacter pylori.Robin Warren and Barry Marshall proved in 1982 that
patients could only be cured if the bacteria were eliminated.
The Noble Prize in medicine
in 2005.

13. 02
2006-2010

14. Working :
An organism's genes are stored inside DNA molecules. From
DNA, genes are transferred to RNA and then converted during protein
formation.Roger Kornberg succeeded in mapping the process by studying
yeast in the first decade of the new millennium. His contributions included
determining the structure of the enzyme active in the process - RNA
polymerase - and creating images of how the RNA molecule is constructed.
Prize motivation: "For his studies of the molecular basis
of eukaryotic transcription."
The Noble Prize in chemistry
in 2006.

15. 01 02
Prize motivation: "For their discovery of RNA interference
- gene silencing by double-stranded RNA."
Working:
RNA has multiple functions. Among these, "messenger RNA"carries
genetic information from DNA to protein formation. RNA is often a single-stranded
spiral, but also exists in double-stranded form. In 1998, Andrew Fire and Craig Mell
o discovered a phenomenon dubbed "RNA interference". In this phenomenon, dou
ble-stranded RNA blocks messenger RNA so that ertain genetic information is not
converted during protein formation .
The Noble Prize in medicine
in 2006.

16. l
Prize motivation: "For their discoveries of principles for introducing
specific gene modifications in mice by the use of embryonic stem
cells."
working:
DNA carries organisms' genomes and also determines their vital processes. The ability to artificially
alter DNA opens the way to both new scientific understanding and new treatment methods for various illnesses.
In 1981 Sir Martin J. Evans managed to cultivate what are referred to as embryonic stem cells from mice. This
achievement opened the way to producing living mice with modified genomes.
The Noble Prize in medicine
in 2007.

17. 01 02 03
Prize motivation: "For their discovery of human
immunodeficiency virus."
Working:
The growth, division, and death of living cells are regulated by their genes. If these
functions are out of balance, tumors can form. One reason for this may be the incorporation
of virus genes into the genes of host cells. Harald zur Hausen demonstrated in 1983 that
cervical cancer in humans is caused by certain types of papilloma viruses (wart viruses), the
genes from which are incorporated into the host cells' DNA. This discovery made it possible
to develop a vaccine against cervical cancer, which had been the second most common
tumor disease in women.
The Noble Prize in medicine
in 2008.

18. l
Prize motivation: "For the discovery and development of the green
fluorescent protein, GFP."
Working:
Some organisms produce what has been named Green Fluorescent Protein (GFP), which emits a
shimmering light. The formation of GFP is regulated by a gene that can be incorporated into the genomes of other
organisms.During the 1990s, Roger Y. Tsien elucidated how GFP produces its shimmering light and succeeded in
varying the color of the light so that different proteins and multiple, simultaneous biological processes could be
tracked.
The Noble Prize in chemistry
in 2008.

19. 01 02 03
Prize motivation: "For studies of the structure
and function of the ribosome"
Working:
An organism's vital functions are managed by large, complex protein molecules
produced in cells' ribosomes. There, genetic information from "messenger RNA" is translated
into chains of amino acids that then build proteins. Using a method known as x-ray
crystallography, Venkatraman Ramakrishnan and other researchers were able to collaborate
to map the structure of ribosomes, made up of hundreds of thousands of atoms, in 2000.
The Noble Prize in chemistry
in 2009.

20. Prize motivation: "For the discovery of how chromosome
are protected by telomeres and the enzyme telomerase.
working:
An organism's genes are stored within DNA molecules, which are found in chromosomes
inside its cells' nuclei. When a cell divides, it is important that its chromosomes are copied in full, and
that they are not damaged. At each end of a chromosome lies a "cap" or telomere, as it is known,
which protects it. After Elizabeth Blackburn discovered that telomeres have a particular DNA, through
experiments conducted on ciliates and yeast, she and Jack Szostak proved in 1982 that the telomeres'
DNA prevents chromosomes from being broken down.
The Noble Prize in medicine
in 2009.

21. Working :
For many people, having children occupies a central place in their
lives, but not everyone can have children in a natural way. A woman's Fallopian
tubes may be blocked or there can be too few eggs or sperm cells. Robert
Edwards saw a solution to this: removing an egg from the woman, allowing it
to be fertilized in a test tube and then replacing it in the woman. He explained
how eggs mature and how sperm is activated, and in cooperation with Patrick
Steptoe, he found a method for removing eggs from the ovaries. In 1978 the
first child was born as a result of in vitro fertilization.
Prize motivation: "For the development of in vitro
fertilization."
The Noble Prize in medicine
in 2010.

22. 03
2011-2015

23. The Noble Prize in medicine in
2011.
Working :
When bacteria, viruses and other microorganisms attack our bodies,
our immune system goes to work. It has two lines of defence, the innate immunity
and the adaptive immunity. Ralph Steinman discovered, in 1973, a new cell type
that he called the dendritic cell. In cell culture experiments he demonstrated that
dendritic cells can activate T-cells, a cell type that has a key role in adaptive
immunity and develops an immunologic memory against many different
substances.
Prize motivation: "For his discovery of the dendritic cell
and its role in adaptive immunity."

24. The Noble Prize in medicine in
2012.
Prize motivation: "For the discovery that mature cells
can be reprogrammed to become pluripotent."
Working :
Our lives begin when a fertilized egg divides and forms new cells that, in
turn, also divide. These cells are identical in the beginning, but become increasingly
varied over time. It was long thought that a mature or specialized cell could not return
to an immature state, but this has now been proven incorrect. In 1962, John Gurdon
removed the nucleus of a fertilized egg cell from a frog and replaced it with the
nucleus of a cell taken from a tadpole's intestine. This modified egg cell grew into a
new frog, proving that the mature cell still contained the genetic information needed
to form all types of cells.

25. The Noble Prize in chemisty in
2012.
Prize motivation: "For studies of G-protein-coupled
receptors."
Working :
Communication between the cells in your body are managed by
substances called hormones. In the 1980s, Brian Kobilka successfully identified
the gene that regulates the formation of the receptor for the hormone adrenalin.
He and Robert Lefkowitz also discovered that the receptor was similar to receptor
located in the eye that capture light. It was later discovered that there is an
entire family of receptors that look and act in similar ways - "G-protein-coupled
receptors". Approximately half of all medications used today make use of this
kind of receptor.

26. The Noble Prize in medicine in
2013.
Working :
The cells inside our bodies produce a host of different molecules that
are sent to specific sites. During transport, many of these molecules are grouped
together in tiny sac-like structures called vesicles. These vesicles help transport
substances to different places inside the cell and send molecules from the cell's
surface as signals to other cells in the body. By studying brain cells from mice, in
the 1990s Thomas Südhof demonstrated how vesicles are held in place, ready to
release signal-bearing molecules at the right moment.
Prize motivation: "For their discoveries of machinery
regulating vesicle traffic,a major transport system in our cells."

27. The Noble Prize in medicine in
2014.
Working :
The awareness of one's location and how to find the way to other
places is crucial for both humans and animals. To understand the ability to orient
ourselves in space, John O'Keefe studied the movements of rats and signals from
nerve cells in the hippocampus, an area located in the center of the brain.
Prize motivation: "For their discoveries of cells that constitute
a positioning system in the brain"

28. The Noble Prize in medicine in
2015.
Working :
A number of serious infectious diseases are caused by parasites
spread by insects.Satoshi Ōmura cultured bacteria, which produce substance
that inhibit the growth of other microorganisms.
Prize motivation: "For their discoveries concerning a novel
therapy against infections caused by roundworm parasites"

29. 04
2016-2020

30. Working :
In the lysosomes of our cells its components are processed for
reuse. The mechanisms of this process were mostly unknown until the early 1990's
when Yoshinori Ohsumi conducted a series of ground breaking experiments with
yeast, where he detected autophagy and identified genes important for the process.
Yoshinori Ohsumi's discoveries laid the foundation for a better understanding of the
ability of cells to manage malnutrition and infections, the causes of certain
hereditary and neurological diseases, and cancer.
Prize motivation: "For his discoveries of mechanisms for
autophagy."
The Noble Prize in medicine in
2016.

31. working:
In our cells an internal clock helps us to adapt our biological
rhythm to the different phases of day and night. Jeffrey Hall, Michael Rosbash
and Michael Young studied fruit flies to figure out how this clock works. In
1984 they managed to identify a gene that encodes a protein that accumulate
during the night but is degraded during the day. They also identified additional
proteins that form part of a self-regulating biological clockwork in the fruit fly
cells.
Prize motivation: "For their discoveries of molecular
mechanisms controlling the circadian rhythm."
The Noble Prize in medicine in
2017.

32. The Noble Prize in medicine in
2018.
Prize motivation: "For their discovery of cancer therapy
by inhibition of negative immune regulation."
Working :
Cancer kills millions of people every year and is one of humanity greatest
health challenges. By stimulating the inherent ability of our immune system to attack
tumor cells Tasuku Honjo and James Allison have established an entirely new principle
for cancer therapy. In 1992, Honjo discovered a protein on immune cells and, after
careful exploration of its function, eventually revealed that it operates as a brake on the
immune system. Therapies based on his discovery proved to be strikingly effective in
the fight against cancer.

33. The Noble Prize in medicine in
2019.
Working:
Animals need oxygen for the conversion of food into useful energy. William
Kaelin, Peter Ratcliffe, and Gregg Semenza discovered how cells can sense and adapt to
changing oxygen availability. During the 1990s they identified a molecular machinery
that regulates the activity of genes in response to varying levels of oxygen.
Prize motivation: "For their discoveries of how cells sense
and adapt to oxygen availability."

34. The Noble Prize in medicine in
2020.
Working:
still not publish.
Prize motivation: "For the discovery of Hepatitis C virus."

35. The Noble Prize in chemistry in
2020.
Prize motivation: "For the development of a method for
genome editing."
Working :
still not publish.

36. References:
 https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/lists/all-nobel-prizes-in-chemistry/
 https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/lists/all-nobel-laureates-in-physiology-or-medicine/