Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) is formed in the brain ventricles and circulates through the brain and spinal cord. A lumbar puncture, or spinal tap, is performed to collect a CSF sample for analysis. Routine CSF analysis includes examination of appearance, cell count and differential, glucose, and protein levels. Abnormal results can indicate infections, inflammatory conditions, tumors, or other neurological disorders. Precise evaluation of CSF findings is important for diagnosis.
Bone marrow aspiration & trephine biopsySanjeev Kumar
Bone marrow aspiration & trephine biopsy, Complication of BM Aspiration, Clinical significance, Indication of Bone Marrow Aspiration and Biopsy, Types Of Needles, Site for Bone Marrow Biopsy And Aspiration, types Of Smear for Bone Marrow, Advantages of Bone Marrow Trephine Biopsy
Erythrocyte Sedimentation Rate (ESR), a lecture for medical lab technicians at Baquba Technical Institute, Middle Technical University. All theoretical and practical notes about the test.
Notes about blood hemoglobin estimation, lecture notes to Medical Laboratory Students at Medical Laboratory Technology, Middle Technical University, Baqubah, Iraq
This presentation is focused on diagnostic utility of Red blood cell indices which will be very useful for undergraduate and postgraduate of medical field.
Bone marrow aspiration & trephine biopsySanjeev Kumar
Bone marrow aspiration & trephine biopsy, Complication of BM Aspiration, Clinical significance, Indication of Bone Marrow Aspiration and Biopsy, Types Of Needles, Site for Bone Marrow Biopsy And Aspiration, types Of Smear for Bone Marrow, Advantages of Bone Marrow Trephine Biopsy
Erythrocyte Sedimentation Rate (ESR), a lecture for medical lab technicians at Baquba Technical Institute, Middle Technical University. All theoretical and practical notes about the test.
Notes about blood hemoglobin estimation, lecture notes to Medical Laboratory Students at Medical Laboratory Technology, Middle Technical University, Baqubah, Iraq
This presentation is focused on diagnostic utility of Red blood cell indices which will be very useful for undergraduate and postgraduate of medical field.
CSF:
Derived through ultrafilteration and secretion through choroid plexus, produced at the rate of 500 ml/day.
Provides physical support, collects wastes, circulates nutrients and lubricates the CNS.
Normal CSF volumes:
In Adults: 90 - 150 ml
In Neonates: 10 - 60 ml
Total CSF volume is replaced every 5-7 hours.
COLLECTION
Lumbar puncture, Cisternal puncture, Lateral cervical puncture, Shunts and cannulas
Opening pressure – 90-180 mm H2O
Approximately 15-20 cc fluid collected
LAB
REQUIRED
Opening CSF pressure
Total cell count
Differential cell count
Glucose
Total protein
OPTIONAL
Cultures, Gram stain, AFB, Fungal and bacterial
antigens, Enzymes, PCR, Cytology, Electrophoresis,
VDRL, D-Dimers
CSF - Cerebrospinal fluid examination - from tapping to pathological diagnosisAshish Jawarkar
This is a series of notes on clinical pathology, useful for undergraduate and postgraduate students, as well as practising pathologists. Prepared from standard text books with data in tabular and easily readable format
CLINICAL CONSIDERATIONSNoncommunicating (obstructive) hydrocephalus occurs more frequentlyCSF of ventricles unable to reach subarachnoid spaceProduction of CSF continuesGyri are flattened against inside of skullIf skull is still pliable head may enlarge
One of the most developed cities of India, the city of Chennai is the capital of Tamilnadu and many people from different parts of India come here to earn their bread and butter. Being a metropolitan, the city is filled with towering building and beaches but the sad part as with almost every Indian city
India Clinical Trials Market: Industry Size and Growth Trends [2030] Analyzed...Kumar Satyam
According to TechSci Research report, "India Clinical Trials Market- By Region, Competition, Forecast & Opportunities, 2030F," the India Clinical Trials Market was valued at USD 2.05 billion in 2024 and is projected to grow at a compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of 8.64% through 2030. The market is driven by a variety of factors, making India an attractive destination for pharmaceutical companies and researchers. India's vast and diverse patient population, cost-effective operational environment, and a large pool of skilled medical professionals contribute significantly to the market's growth. Additionally, increasing government support in streamlining regulations and the growing prevalence of lifestyle diseases further propel the clinical trials market.
Growing Prevalence of Lifestyle Diseases
The rising incidence of lifestyle diseases such as diabetes, cardiovascular diseases, and cancer is a major trend driving the clinical trials market in India. These conditions necessitate the development and testing of new treatment methods, creating a robust demand for clinical trials. The increasing burden of these diseases highlights the need for innovative therapies and underscores the importance of India as a key player in global clinical research.
How many patients does case series should have In comparison to case reports.pdfpubrica101
Pubrica’s team of researchers and writers create scientific and medical research articles, which may be important resources for authors and practitioners. Pubrica medical writers assist you in creating and revising the introduction by alerting the reader to gaps in the chosen study subject. Our professionals understand the order in which the hypothesis topic is followed by the broad subject, the issue, and the backdrop.
https://pubrica.com/academy/case-study-or-series/how-many-patients-does-case-series-should-have-in-comparison-to-case-reports/
Leading the Way in Nephrology: Dr. David Greene's Work with Stem Cells for Ki...Dr. David Greene Arizona
As we watch Dr. Greene's continued efforts and research in Arizona, it's clear that stem cell therapy holds a promising key to unlocking new doors in the treatment of kidney disease. With each study and trial, we step closer to a world where kidney disease is no longer a life sentence but a treatable condition, thanks to pioneers like Dr. David Greene.
Antibiotic Stewardship by Anushri Srivastava.pptxAnushriSrivastav
Stewardship is the act of taking good care of something.
Antimicrobial stewardship is a coordinated program that promotes the appropriate use of antimicrobials (including antibiotics), improves patient outcomes, reduces microbial resistance, and decreases the spread of infections caused by multidrug-resistant organisms.
WHO launched the Global Antimicrobial Resistance and Use Surveillance System (GLASS) in 2015 to fill knowledge gaps and inform strategies at all levels.
ACCORDING TO apic.org,
Antimicrobial stewardship is a coordinated program that promotes the appropriate use of antimicrobials (including antibiotics), improves patient outcomes, reduces microbial resistance, and decreases the spread of infections caused by multidrug-resistant organisms.
ACCORDING TO pewtrusts.org,
Antibiotic stewardship refers to efforts in doctors’ offices, hospitals, long term care facilities, and other health care settings to ensure that antibiotics are used only when necessary and appropriate
According to WHO,
Antimicrobial stewardship is a systematic approach to educate and support health care professionals to follow evidence-based guidelines for prescribing and administering antimicrobials
In 1996, John McGowan and Dale Gerding first applied the term antimicrobial stewardship, where they suggested a causal association between antimicrobial agent use and resistance. They also focused on the urgency of large-scale controlled trials of antimicrobial-use regulation employing sophisticated epidemiologic methods, molecular typing, and precise resistance mechanism analysis.
Antimicrobial Stewardship(AMS) refers to the optimal selection, dosing, and duration of antimicrobial treatment resulting in the best clinical outcome with minimal side effects to the patients and minimal impact on subsequent resistance.
According to the 2019 report, in the US, more than 2.8 million antibiotic-resistant infections occur each year, and more than 35000 people die. In addition to this, it also mentioned that 223,900 cases of Clostridoides difficile occurred in 2017, of which 12800 people died. The report did not include viruses or parasites
VISION
Being proactive
Supporting optimal animal and human health
Exploring ways to reduce overall use of antimicrobials
Using the drugs that prevent and treat disease by killing microscopic organisms in a responsible way
GOAL
to prevent the generation and spread of antimicrobial resistance (AMR). Doing so will preserve the effectiveness of these drugs in animals and humans for years to come.
being to preserve human and animal health and the effectiveness of antimicrobial medications.
to implement a multidisciplinary approach in assembling a stewardship team to include an infectious disease physician, a clinical pharmacist with infectious diseases training, infection preventionist, and a close collaboration with the staff in the clinical microbiology laboratory
to prevent antimicrobial overuse, misuse and abuse.
to minimize the developme
CRISPR-Cas9, a revolutionary gene-editing tool, holds immense potential to reshape medicine, agriculture, and our understanding of life. But like any powerful tool, it comes with ethical considerations.
Unveiling CRISPR: This naturally occurring bacterial defense system (crRNA & Cas9 protein) fights viruses. Scientists repurposed it for precise gene editing (correction, deletion, insertion) by targeting specific DNA sequences.
The Promise: CRISPR offers exciting possibilities:
Gene Therapy: Correcting genetic diseases like cystic fibrosis.
Agriculture: Engineering crops resistant to pests and harsh environments.
Research: Studying gene function to unlock new knowledge.
The Peril: Ethical concerns demand attention:
Off-target Effects: Unintended DNA edits can have unforeseen consequences.
Eugenics: Misusing CRISPR for designer babies raises social and ethical questions.
Equity: High costs could limit access to this potentially life-saving technology.
The Path Forward: Responsible development is crucial:
International Collaboration: Clear guidelines are needed for research and human trials.
Public Education: Open discussions ensure informed decisions about CRISPR.
Prioritize Safety and Ethics: Safety and ethical principles must be paramount.
CRISPR offers a powerful tool for a better future, but responsible development and addressing ethical concerns are essential. By prioritizing safety, fostering open dialogue, and ensuring equitable access, we can harness CRISPR's power for the benefit of all. (2998 characters)
CHAPTER 1 SEMESTER V PREVENTIVE-PEDIATRICS.pdfSachin Sharma
This content provides an overview of preventive pediatrics. It defines preventive pediatrics as preventing disease and promoting children's physical, mental, and social well-being to achieve positive health. It discusses antenatal, postnatal, and social preventive pediatrics. It also covers various child health programs like immunization, breastfeeding, ICDS, and the roles of organizations like WHO, UNICEF, and nurses in preventive pediatrics.
Explore our infographic on 'Essential Metrics for Palliative Care Management' which highlights key performance indicators crucial for enhancing the quality and efficiency of palliative care services.
This visual guide breaks down important metrics across four categories: Patient-Centered Metrics, Care Efficiency Metrics, Quality of Life Metrics, and Staff Metrics. Each section is designed to help healthcare professionals monitor and improve care delivery for patients facing serious illnesses. Understand how to implement these metrics in your palliative care practices for better outcomes and higher satisfaction levels.
Navigating Challenges: Mental Health, Legislation, and the Prison System in B...Guillermo Rivera
This conference will delve into the intricate intersections between mental health, legal frameworks, and the prison system in Bolivia. It aims to provide a comprehensive overview of the current challenges faced by mental health professionals working within the legislative and correctional landscapes. Topics of discussion will include the prevalence and impact of mental health issues among the incarcerated population, the effectiveness of existing mental health policies and legislation, and potential reforms to enhance the mental health support system within prisons.
1. Cerebrospinal Fluid
(routine
and microscopy)
MODERATOR : Dr. Ramu Thakur
Speaker: Dr. Gaurav ShelgaonkarSpeaker: Dr. Gaurav Shelgaonkar
Graphic accessed http://www.medem.com/medem/images/jamaarchives/JAMA_MedicalTests_Tests_lev20_LumbarPuncture_JPP_01.jpg, 2006.
MGMMC,Indore
2. The cerebrospinal Fluid [CSF] is a clear, colourless
transparent fluid present in the cerebral ventricles, spinal
canal, and subarachnoid spaces.
CSF - Liquour Cerebrospinalis
3. CEREBROSPINAL FLUID
[FORMATION]
CSF is largely formed by the choroid plexus of the lateral
ventricle and remainder in the third and fourth ventricles.
CSF is a selective ultrafiltrate of plasma.
Small amount of the CSF is also formed from the ependymal
cells lining the ventricles and other brain capillaries.
4.
5. Rate of formation:
About 20 ml/hour ( 0.3 – 0.4 ml/min)
500 ml/day in adults. Turns over 3.7 times a day
Total quantity: 90 - 150 ml in adults
30 - 40 ml within the ventricles
About 110-120 ml in the subarachnoid space [of which
75-80 ml in spinal part and 25-30 ml in the cranial part].
6. CIRCULATION OF CSF
Lateral ventricle
Foramen of Monroe
[Interventricular foramen]
Third ventricle:
Subarachnoid space of Brain and Spinal cord
Fourth ventricle:
Cerebral aqueduct
Foramen of magendie and
formen of Luschka
7. ABSORPTION OF CSF THROUGH
ARACHNOID VILLI
The arachnoid villi are finger like inward projections of the
arachnoid membrane through the walls into venous sinuses.
Villi form arachnoid granulations protruding into the sinuses.
8. CHARACTERISTICS OF CSF
Nature :
Color - Clear, transparent fluid
Specific gravity - 1.004-1.007
Reaction - Alkaline and does not
coagulate
Cells - Adults : 0-5 cells/cumm
Infants : 0-30 cells/cumm
1-4 years : 0-20 cells/cumm
5-18 years : 0-10 cells/cumm
Pressure - 60-180 mm of H2O (adult)
10-100 mm of H2O (newborn)
12. LUMBAR PUNCTURE
A lumbar puncture also called a spinal tap is a
procedure where a sample of cerebrospinal fluid is
taken for examination.
First performed by Quincke in 1891.
13. LUMBAR PUNCTURE PROCEDURE
•Patient usually lie on a bed on side (lateral recumbent
position) with knees pulled up against the chest.
• It may also done with sitting up and leaning forward
on some pillows. Sterilize the area.
• Push a LP needle through the skin and tissues
between two vertebra into the space around the spinal
cord which is filled with CSF.
• CSF leaks back through the needle and is collected in
three tubes.
Generally up to 6-7 ml can be taken from an adult, if
pressure is normal (50-180 mm H2O).
14.
15.
16. LUMBAR PUNCTURE [Complications]
Post lumbar puncture headache
Introduction of infection in the spinal canal
Subdural hematoma
Failure to obtain CSF (dry tap)
Herniation of brain
Subarachnoidal epidermal cyst
17. CONTRA-INDICATIONS for Lumbar Puncture
ABSOLUTE RELATIVE
Local skin infections over
proposed puncture site
Raised intracranial
pressure (ICP); exception
is pseudo-tumor cerebri.
Intracranial mass lesion
(based on lateralizing
neurological findings) with
raised ICT
Uncontrolled bleeding
diathesis
Spinal column deformities
(may require
fluoroscopic assistance)
Lack of patient cooperation
20. Macroscopic ExaminationMacroscopic Examination
Normal CSF appearance is crystal clear and
colourless
Pathological processes can cause fluid to
appear cloudy, turbid, bloody, viscous, or
clotted.
The clarity of the fluid is of little clinical use,
except to provide an immediate indication of
abnormality of the CSF. A very useful point
to remember is that a large number of cells
can be present without affecting the clarity.
22. 1. Traumatic Tap or CNS Hemorrhage
~20% of LPs result in bloody
specimens.
Pink-redred CSF usually indicates the
presence of blood.
It is extremely important to identify
the source of the blood
Graphic accessed URL http://www.thefetus.net/images/article-images/central_nervous_system/subdural_hematoma_files/image17.jpg, 2005.
25. CSF
finding
Traumatic
LP
Subarachnoid
Hemorrhage
Gross
appearance
Blood more in initial
tubes,
Blood clot on
standing
Blood uniform in all
tubes, Blood does not
clot on standing
Centrifugation Clear supernatant Pink or yellow
supernatent
Microscopy Progrresive decrease
in RBC count in later
tubes
RBC count uniform in all
tubes
CSF Pressure Normal Increased
CSF Protein Normal Increased
27. Differentiation on the basis of type of clot
Delicate and fine clot - Tuberculous meningitis.
Large clot - Purulent meningitis
Complete and spontaneous clot - Spinal
constriction.
28. Causative Organisms – Age Wise
0- 6 months - Group B streptococcus, E. coli.
Listeria monocytogens.
6months- 6 years –
Streptococcus pneumonia,
Neisseria meningitidis,
Haemophilus influenzae type-b.
6-60 years - Neisseria meningitidis,
Herpes simplex.
>60 years - Streptococcus pneumoniae ,
Listeria monocytogenes.
30. METHOD( Total leukocyte count)
Properly mix the CSF sample.
Nine drops of CSF is diluted with one drop of
CSF diluting fluid (in the ratio 9: 1)
The counting chamber is covered with a cover
slip.
Charge the counting chamber with fluid and
allowed to stand for 5 min for the cells to settle.
Cells are counted in all the nine squares.
CSF Diluting Fluid: Add 10 ml of glacial acetic acid and 0.2 grams of crystal violet to a
100-ml volumetric flask. Dilute to the mark with distilled water.
31. Calculation: Number of cells counted x 10
9
(as neubauer’s chamber has a depth of 0.1 mm
and total counting area is 9 sq. mm.)
32. Fuch’s rosenthal chamber: Cells are
counted in five large squares.
Calculation = no. of cells counted x 10
5 x 2
(depth is 0.2 mm. and total counting area is
16 sq.mm.)
33. Cell CountsCell Counts
“Normal” adult CSF
0-5 cells/ml
Lymphocytes.
RBC count is of limited use, but can be
used to correct CSF leukocyte counts* &
CSF protein values of a traumatic tap
CSF.
W* = WBCf - WBCb x RBCf
RBCb
http://www.tpub.com/content/medical/14295/img/14295_279_1.jpg
34. Causes of increased cell count :
Meningitis.
Intracranial hemorrhage.
Meningeal infiltration by malignancy.
Multiple sclerosis.
35. DifferentialDifferential
Performed on a stained* smear
made from CSF.
It is recommended that stained
smears be made even when the
total cell count is within normal
limits.
Count 100 cells in consecutive oil-power
fields.
Report percentage of each type of cell
present.
* usually Wright’s stain.
38. Predominant Eosinophils
I. Parasitic and fungal infections.
II.Reaction to foreign material.
Mixed cell pattern
1.Tubercular meningitis.
2.Chronic bacterial meningitis.
39. Cells Observed in CSF
CSF cytoprep, Wright-Giemsa. 1000x
A – PMNs, Lymphocytes; B – Lymphocytes; C – Monocyte.
A
B
C
40. Features of Malignant Cells
Multi-layered formations
LARGE cells
Irregular nuclear membrane
Multi-nucleation
Nuclear hyperchromasia
Unevenly distributed chromatin
Irregularly-sized/shaped nuceloli
Prominent nucleoli
High N:C ratio
Bizarre vacuolization/inclusions
Uneven staining of cytoplasm
Large cells with convoluted nuclei and moderate amounts of basophilic
cytoplasm, intermixed with some small lymphocytes (cytospin
preparation of fresh cerebrospinal fluid, stained with Diff-Quik, original
magnification 3600). (Courtesy of Dr Andrew Schriner, department of
cytopathology, New York-Presbyterian Hospital/Weill Cornell Medical
Center.) URL accessed
http://theaidsreader.consultantlive.com/display/article/1145619/1362837?verify=0, 2009.
41. Chemical Analysis of CSF
Protein(15-45mg/dl)
80% plasma derived
LMW
Transthyretin (prealbumin)
Albumin
Transferrin
IgG – very small amount
20% intrathecal synthesis.
42. Glucose(45-80 mg/dl)
Need to know plasma value
Increased
Hyperglycemia 2/3rd
Traumatic tap OF
Decreased PLASMA
(Hypoglycorrhachia) VALUE
Hypoglycemia
Meningitis (bacterial, tuberculous & fungal)
Tumors(meningeal carcinomatous)
Note: CSF glucose normal in viral
meningitis.
43. Glucose Estimation
Ingredients Blank Standard Test
Glucose
Working
Solution
1.5ml 1.5ml 1.5ml
Distilled
Water
0.02ml - -
Standard - 0.02ml -
Sample
(CSF)
- - 0.02ml
Incubate in water bath for 15mins and then add 1.5ml of
distilled water to each tube.
Pipette in 3 test tubes labelled as Blank,
Standard and Test.
44. CSF glucose levels normalize before protein level
and cell counts during recovery from meningitis,
making it an useful parameter in assessing the
response to the treatment.
45. CSF is added in concentrated solution of phenol,
appearance of cloudiness indicates increased
protein (globulins).
Pandy’s Reagent –
30 gm phenol
500 ml distilled
water.
Qualitative Test - Pandy’s Test
46. Quantitative Test - Proteins
Turbidimetric method:
Principle : In the presence of sulphosalicylic acid and
sodium sulphate, protein yields a uniform turbidity which
absorbs maximum at 520 nm or green filter and is directly
proportional to the concentration of proteins.
Composition:
CSF Protein Reagent - Sulphosalicylic acid-30 gms/lt.
Sodium sulphate-70 gms/lt.
Standard – Albumin fraction-100 mgs/ lt.
47. MANUAL METHOD:
Ingredient Blank Standard Test
CSF Protein
Reagent
1.5 ml 1.5 ml 1.5 ml
Distilled
Water
0.1 ml - -
CSF Protein
Standard
- 0.1 ml -
Sample
(CSF)
- - 0.1 ml
Pipette in 3 test tubes labelled as Blank, Standard and Test.
48. Note :- False elevation of protein occurs
if CSF is contaminated with blood, this
can be corrected by deducing 1 mg/ dl
of protein for every 1000 RBC’s.
49. Causes of Raised CSF Protein
Lysis of contaminated blood from traumatic tap (each
1000 RBC/mm3 raise the CSF protein by 1mg/dl).
Increased Permeability of epithelial membrane(Blood
Brain Barrier) -
CNS Bacterial or fungal Infections(Meningitis)
Cerebral Hemorrhages
Increased production by CNS tissue as in -
Multiple Sclerosis, Neurosyphilis (Increased
production of local immunoglobulin)
Subacute sclerosing panencephalitis (SSPE)
Guillain Barre syndrome.
Obstruction as in cases of – Tumours or abscess.
50. Multiple sclerosis
1. Mononuclear cell pleocytosis.
2. Increased intrathecal production of IgG.
3. IgG index: ratio of IgG and albumin in the CSF to
the ratio of IgG and albumin in the serum.
4. Measurement of oligoclonal band.
5. Paired serum samples studied to exclude
peripheral i.e., non CSF production of oligoclonal
bands.
6. Pleocytosis of >75 cells /microlt.with presence of
neutrophils and protein >1 mg/dl excludes the
diagnosis.
51. Albumin and IgG
Albumin – neither
synthesized, nor
metabolized in CNS.
ALB used to address
blood-brain barrier integrity
Evaluate CSF/serum ALB
index
Index < 9 = normal
9 – 14 minimal
impairment
> 100 = not intact
barrier
IgG sourced from inside
and outside.
CSF IgG index = ratio
IgGCSF/IgGserum X ALB
serum/ALBCSF
Reference range 0.3 –
0.7
> 0.7 = CNS sourced
< 0.3 = compromised
BBB
52. Electrophoresis
Normal = 4 bands
ALB
Transthyretin
Transferrin
b1
t = unique to CSF
Oligoclonal bands ~
multiple sclerosis
Myelin basic protein
Monitoring disease
progression
http://library.med.utah.edu/kw/ms/mml/ms_oligoclonal.jpg
53. Guillan Barre Syndrome
1.Albumino cytological dissociation.
2.A sustained CSF pleocytosis suggestive of an
alternative diagnosis i.e., viral myelitis.
54. Microbiological examintion:
Direct wet mount- candida, crytococcus infection,
amoebic encephalitis.
Indian ink preparation- a drop of CSF and Indian ink
is placed on a slide and covered with cover slip and
observe it under 40x – crytococcus appears as
budding yeast surrounded by unstained capsule.
55. Gram’s Stain-
Smear is made from the sediment and is air dried,
stain it with gram’s stain and observe it under oil
immersion.
Streptococcus pneumococci – Diplococci, gram
positive, lying end to end.
Neisseria meningitides - Diplococci gram negative,
lying side by side.
Haemophilus influenza - coccobacilli gram negative
56. Ziehl- Neelsen stain:
AFB smears are negative in 70% of cases
however florescent auramine stain have better
sensitivity.
Serologic test for Neurosyphilis :
Combination of VDRL test in CSF and FTA-ABS
test in serum is diagnostic.
57. CSF CULTURE- Gold standard
1. Appearance of bacteria on gram stained
smears.
2. Increased proteins or cell count.
3. Inoculated on chocolate agar.
4. Sensitivity -90%.
PCR :- Viral infection of CNS.Viral infection of CNS.
Requires only a drop of CSF.