War is a source of great concern to society. Its destructive potential is much, and it is unlikely to be eliminated. War is destructive, but it is a means to achieve lasting peace. Thus, it is part of societal evolution. To this end, Karl Von Clausewitz wrote on the philosophy of war. Therefore, this study systematically explored the concept of war, Clausewitz paradigm of war, the contemporary Clausewitz warfare and the anti Clausewitz perspective of war. The study was based on the qualitative method. The major sources of data collection were books, lecture notes, journals and internet materials. Data analysis was done through content analysis. The study concluded that Clausewitzs approach to war is dialectical. On war, he used polarities to rationalise a subject of great depth and breadth. Clausewitz consistently presents an observation with its opposite. The theory was set against practice moral forces are compared with physical force. Clausewitz can be separated from other military scholars by the wholeness’ of his approach and the reality he brings to the discussion of war. There was an attack, and there was a defense. Clausewitz constructed a beautiful pendulum in explaining the phenomenon and philosophy of War. Eyina, Nkatomba N | Dabo Ann | Osazuwa, Joseph Ambrose "Conceptualisation of War: Clausewitzian and Anti-Clausewitzian Perspectives" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-5 | Issue-2 , February 2021, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd38375.pdf Paper Url: https://www.ijtsrd.com/humanities-and-the-arts/political-science/38375/conceptualisation-of-war-clausewitzian-and-anticlausewitzian-perspectives/eyina-nkatomba-n
Carl von Clausewitz was a Prussian military strategist born in 1780. He served in the Prussian and Russian armies against Napoleon. He is most famous for his book "On War" published after his death, which analyzed the political and moral aspects of war. He believed that war is a continuation of politics and developed theories of "absolute war" and the role of the state in limiting war to achieve political goals. His ideas on the nature of war and the relationship between war and politics have been highly influential in military and international relations theory.
Clausewitz's concept of the trinity of war - comprising the emotional element of the population, the rational element of political objectives, and the element of chance and military skill - remains relevant for understanding modern war according to the author. While technology and new actors like non-state groups have changed warfare, wars still involve rational goals, popular support, and military decision-making. The author argues Clausewitz helps analyze how the nature of war links to its social and political implications, and his concepts of friction and the possibility of absolute war still apply despite new weapons like nuclear arms. Therefore, On War remains useful for comprehending wars in the 21st century.
This document discusses the nature of war and conflict from theoretical perspectives. It examines Clausewitz's theory that war is an extension of politics and is influenced by the interaction between passion, chance and reason. The document also looks at Jomini's approach to understanding war through universal principles and strategies to achieve victory. Finally, it explores different approaches to analyzing and understanding conflict, including examining the sources of discontent, phases of escalation, and how conflicts can transform into more constructive relations or end in violence.
The document discusses balance of power theory, a realist international relations theory. According to the theory, national security is strengthened when military power is distributed so that no single state can dominate others. If one state becomes stronger, it may attack weaker neighbors, prompting threatened states to form defensive coalitions. When faced with an external threat, states can counter through balancing, bandwagoning, buck-passing, or bloodletting. Balancing involves increasing one's own military capabilities or forming alliances to counter a rising power. Bandwagoning means aligning with the stronger power, while buck-passing passes responsibility for countering the threat to another state. Bloodletting causes rivals to engage in prolonged conflict while remaining neutral.
The Chief Defects of the Collective security systemshahidgajiawala
The document discusses the chief defects of the collective security system established by the League of Nations. It identifies five main defects: 1) neutrals are assumed to either support or oppose peace, limiting their independence; 2) it allows self-defense which reduces the need for collective security; 3) the Cold War made collective security less effective as big powers prioritized their own interests; 4) small states should have more influence but big powers were reluctant to act against their interests; 5) not all nations were able or willing to oppose aggression, and it was difficult to clearly identify aggressors. The collective security system is considered by some to be unworkable and dangerous as it could turn any war into a world war.
The Geneva Conventions regulate acceptable behavior during war and armed conflicts, prohibiting torture, rape, genocide, and other crimes against humanity. They also require humane treatment of prisoners of war and protection of civilians. A civil war is fought within a country between groups wanting control of the government. Guerrilla warfare uses small, lightly armed militia units rather than professional armies to topple governments, often with popular support. While guerrillas fight governments, terrorists target civilians and military to create social and political crises. Total wars aim to destroy the enemy's social fabric through mass civilian casualties, while limited wars are fought between armies for political objectives without widespread destruction.
This document discusses the evolution of strategic studies from a traditional military focus to a broader conception of security. It defines strategy as how goals are achieved under uncertain conditions. Traditional strategy referred to military operations, but after World Wars I and II, security grew to encompass all state resources and interests. The Cold War saw proxy wars and an arms race as core powers pursued security. 9/11 created new threats like terrorism that require non-military strategies. Strategic studies now considers a broader range of factors, including human nature, international anarchy, and ethics, compared to realism's narrow focus on conflict and force.
This document provides an overview of key strategic thinkers and their contributions to strategic thought, including:
1. Kautilya and Sun Tzu emphasized indirect and deceptive approaches to warfare, exploiting weaknesses and achieving victory with minimal engagement.
2. Machiavelli stressed the importance of strong military forces under the ruler's control and the use of deception. He also saw military preparedness as important for defense and stability.
3. Jomini focused on concentrating forces at decisive points and maneuvering to engage enemy fractions.
4. Clausewitz viewed war as continuation of policy and emphasized popular support for war as well as concentrating maximum forces at decisive engagements. Technological aspects of war were not his primary
Carl von Clausewitz was a Prussian military strategist born in 1780. He served in the Prussian and Russian armies against Napoleon. He is most famous for his book "On War" published after his death, which analyzed the political and moral aspects of war. He believed that war is a continuation of politics and developed theories of "absolute war" and the role of the state in limiting war to achieve political goals. His ideas on the nature of war and the relationship between war and politics have been highly influential in military and international relations theory.
Clausewitz's concept of the trinity of war - comprising the emotional element of the population, the rational element of political objectives, and the element of chance and military skill - remains relevant for understanding modern war according to the author. While technology and new actors like non-state groups have changed warfare, wars still involve rational goals, popular support, and military decision-making. The author argues Clausewitz helps analyze how the nature of war links to its social and political implications, and his concepts of friction and the possibility of absolute war still apply despite new weapons like nuclear arms. Therefore, On War remains useful for comprehending wars in the 21st century.
This document discusses the nature of war and conflict from theoretical perspectives. It examines Clausewitz's theory that war is an extension of politics and is influenced by the interaction between passion, chance and reason. The document also looks at Jomini's approach to understanding war through universal principles and strategies to achieve victory. Finally, it explores different approaches to analyzing and understanding conflict, including examining the sources of discontent, phases of escalation, and how conflicts can transform into more constructive relations or end in violence.
The document discusses balance of power theory, a realist international relations theory. According to the theory, national security is strengthened when military power is distributed so that no single state can dominate others. If one state becomes stronger, it may attack weaker neighbors, prompting threatened states to form defensive coalitions. When faced with an external threat, states can counter through balancing, bandwagoning, buck-passing, or bloodletting. Balancing involves increasing one's own military capabilities or forming alliances to counter a rising power. Bandwagoning means aligning with the stronger power, while buck-passing passes responsibility for countering the threat to another state. Bloodletting causes rivals to engage in prolonged conflict while remaining neutral.
The Chief Defects of the Collective security systemshahidgajiawala
The document discusses the chief defects of the collective security system established by the League of Nations. It identifies five main defects: 1) neutrals are assumed to either support or oppose peace, limiting their independence; 2) it allows self-defense which reduces the need for collective security; 3) the Cold War made collective security less effective as big powers prioritized their own interests; 4) small states should have more influence but big powers were reluctant to act against their interests; 5) not all nations were able or willing to oppose aggression, and it was difficult to clearly identify aggressors. The collective security system is considered by some to be unworkable and dangerous as it could turn any war into a world war.
The Geneva Conventions regulate acceptable behavior during war and armed conflicts, prohibiting torture, rape, genocide, and other crimes against humanity. They also require humane treatment of prisoners of war and protection of civilians. A civil war is fought within a country between groups wanting control of the government. Guerrilla warfare uses small, lightly armed militia units rather than professional armies to topple governments, often with popular support. While guerrillas fight governments, terrorists target civilians and military to create social and political crises. Total wars aim to destroy the enemy's social fabric through mass civilian casualties, while limited wars are fought between armies for political objectives without widespread destruction.
This document discusses the evolution of strategic studies from a traditional military focus to a broader conception of security. It defines strategy as how goals are achieved under uncertain conditions. Traditional strategy referred to military operations, but after World Wars I and II, security grew to encompass all state resources and interests. The Cold War saw proxy wars and an arms race as core powers pursued security. 9/11 created new threats like terrorism that require non-military strategies. Strategic studies now considers a broader range of factors, including human nature, international anarchy, and ethics, compared to realism's narrow focus on conflict and force.
This document provides an overview of key strategic thinkers and their contributions to strategic thought, including:
1. Kautilya and Sun Tzu emphasized indirect and deceptive approaches to warfare, exploiting weaknesses and achieving victory with minimal engagement.
2. Machiavelli stressed the importance of strong military forces under the ruler's control and the use of deception. He also saw military preparedness as important for defense and stability.
3. Jomini focused on concentrating forces at decisive points and maneuvering to engage enemy fractions.
4. Clausewitz viewed war as continuation of policy and emphasized popular support for war as well as concentrating maximum forces at decisive engagements. Technological aspects of war were not his primary
Future challenges to international securityParas Bhutto
The document outlines several structural challenges to international security, including terrorism, cyberterrorism, nuclear proliferation, China's rise, the crisis in the Middle East, corruption, and climate change. It provides details on each challenge, such as how terrorism is difficult to define but has been an effective tactic, how cyberterrorism allows terrorists to wage war in cyberspace, and how climate change will cause global instability and pressure on resources. The conclusion states that the current rapid rate of change outpaces human and state abilities to cope, putting pressure on nation states and potentially fueling issues like terrorism.
1. The document discusses the business of war and how some see it as a profitable enterprise, making billions selling arms and military equipment.
2. It provides statistics on government spending on wars and details how much top contractors profited from the Iraq war, with Halliburton making over $17 billion.
3. While the arms trade provides profits for some, the document argues that the money spent on wars would be better used to help people through initiatives like providing food and water.
strategic studies and international relationsTallat Satti
This document discusses the history and development of security studies as a sub-discipline of international relations. It covers the key assumptions and paradigms of security studies, including the realist, rationalist, and revolutionary traditions. The document then outlines the periodization of security studies, covering developments from the inter-war period through post-Cold War debates around conceptualizing security. Key topics discussed include the rise of nuclear weapons and deterrence theory, declines in security studies during détente, and expanding notions of security to include human and environmental dimensions.
This document provides a summary and analysis of the 2008 South Ossetia war between Georgia and Russia. It outlines the historical background between pre-Soviet, Soviet times and the 1990s. It presents hypotheses for the causes of the war and analyzes factors such as military power, nationalism, and the political and economic strengths of Georgia and Russia. It also discusses research gaps and concludes that the war was due to sphere of influence politics and tensions when the timing was right for conflict.
The document discusses Tanzania's national interests and economic policies. It outlines Tanzania's economic reforms from the 1980s onward which aimed to liberalize the economy and pursue market-led growth. Tanzania achieved macroeconomic stability and attracted foreign investment through these reforms. Globalization and economic interdependence increased the importance of economic diplomacy to promote trade, investment, and development financing. Tanzania's foreign policy pursues economic objectives while preserving political independence and sovereignty in engaging internationally on issues like trade negotiations and debt relief.
International Relations: Constructivism pt1Timothy Lim
Constructivism rejects a purely materialist view of international relations that focuses only on how the distribution of power shapes state behavior. Instead, constructivists argue that social factors like shared ideas, norms, and perceptions play an equally important role in shaping the international system and state interests and identities. The international system is not a fixed structure defined by material forces, but rather is socially constructed and can change as shared understandings between states change. For example, the end of the Cold War showed how states can redefine their interests and identities, transforming anarchy from a culture of "enemies" to "friends" through altered social interactions and understandings between them.
The document discusses various causes of war at different levels of analysis, from the individual to the international system level. At the individual level, human nature and psychology are examined, including innate aggression and the decision-making processes of leaders. At the unit level, factors like domestic politics, nationalism, regime type and economic systems are considered. The system level focuses on the distribution of power between states and the security dilemma. Causes of interstate and intrastate wars are also analyzed. Strategies for managing intrastate wars include power-sharing agreements, federalism, consociationalism and foreign intervention.
Colonization disrupted the balance of power in Africa by favoring smaller tribes over larger ones, creating resentment and opportunities for revenge. When colonization ended, majority tribes sought to regain power and mass murder ensued as new governments eliminated rivals, leading to genocides like in Rwanda and Uganda where hundreds of thousands were killed. Colonization set the stage for cycles of genocide in post-colonial Africa by upsetting traditional tribal hierarchies and power structures.
This document discusses key questions about war and security, including the causes and justifications of war. It examines the security dilemma concept that states' efforts to increase their own security can paradoxically make others feel less secure and more likely to prepare for conflict. The document also explores different levels of analysis for explaining war, including characteristics of individual leaders, domestic politics and societal factors, and the structure of the international system. It outlines historical trends in warfare and different types of wars. Approaches for managing international security from both liberal and realist perspectives are also summarized.
This document provides an overview of realism and liberalism as major international relations theories. It discusses key thinkers and principles of political realism such as Hans Morgenthau, E.H. Carr, and Reinhold Niebuhr. Realism focuses on the state as the key actor and priorities of survival and self-help under conditions of anarchy. It also discusses structural realism and the differences between defensive and offensive structural realism. The document then discusses liberalism, highlighting Immanuel Kant's idea of a federation of free states and Richard Cobden's views on free trade promoting peace. It provides a four-fold definition of liberalism and discusses how its principles can be applied to international relations.
Kenneth Waltz examines theories of international politics and approaches to construct a theory. He discusses reductionist theories that explain outcomes through internal forces and systemic approaches that emphasize how the international system structure shapes state behavior and outcomes. Waltz defines political structures as the arrangement of units within a system and how anarchy and the distribution of capabilities form the international system structure. States act to ensure their survival within the anarchic system.
International political economy (IPE) analyzes the interplay between politics and economics in world affairs. IPE provides benefits in understanding issues that cannot be analyzed solely through international politics or economics, such as international trade, finance, development issues, and the role of multinational corporations. However, IPE also encounters problems, as states and markets approach issues differently using different frameworks. The rise of IPE in international relations was driven by increasing economic interdependence and issues between states in the postwar period.
The League of Nations was formed after World War I to promote international cooperation and prevent future wars. It lacked the support of major powers like the US and Germany. While it successfully resolved some minor conflicts, it failed to deter Japanese and Italian aggression in the 1930s due to its inability to enforce sanctions without full membership. This ultimately led to its irrelevance and replacement by the United Nations after World War II.
This document provides an introduction to a course on international organizations. It defines international organizations as bodies that promote voluntary cooperation between member states. There are two main types: intergovernmental organizations and international non-governmental organizations. The goal of the course is for students to develop a theoretical and practical understanding of international organizations and the global problems they address. Key topics that will be covered include the history and theories of international organizations, the United Nations system, regional organizations, and how international organizations address issues like security, economic development, and the environment. The course will assess students through exams, papers, presentations and participation.
The document provides a timeline and details about the formation and workings of the League of Nations following World War 1. It describes how Woodrow Wilson proposed the League as part of the 14 Points to end the war. Major figures like Wilson, Clemenceau, Lloyd George and Orlando attended the 1919 Paris Peace Conference and helped establish the League through the Treaty of Versailles. The League aimed to promote international cooperation and prevent future wars but struggled due to lack of support from countries like the US. It lasted from 1920 to 1946 before being dissolved.
This document provides an overview of international relations theory, including concepts of security in the international arena. It discusses traditional security approaches focused on the state and military concerns, as well as more modern human security approaches. It also outlines several theoretical perspectives in international relations like realism, liberalism, constructivism, and compares realism and liberalism. Key concepts covered include the multi-sum security principle, women in international security, and the UNDP human security proposal.
This was one of my most recent powerpoint presentation. I worked in a small group with 2 other partners. The presentation lasted 1 hour followed by a group discussion.
This document provides definitions and explanations of key terms related to the concept of war. It begins by defining war as an armed conflict between two or more opposing entities aimed at achieving a geopolitical goal. Various types of war are described, including civil wars and proxy wars. Motivations for war are discussed, including imperialism, misperceptions between sides, and three universal reasons according to the Talmud: economic reasons, power/pride/personal reasons, and ideology/religion. Economic theories for the causes of war are also outlined, suggesting wars can arise from pursuit of markets and resources. The document serves as an introductory chapter establishing definitions and concepts to understand the discussion of war that will follow.
Victory Amongst People - Mills- Richards - Ewen McLayEwen McLay
The document summarizes and reviews the book "Victory Among People – Lessons from Countering Insurgency and Stabilising Fragile States". It makes the following key points:
1) The book provides a rich starting point for studying insurgencies and is a must-read for counterinsurgents.
2) It examines regional case studies of 16 counterinsurgency campaigns across different continents and decades. Common themes that emerge can inform how to counter insurgencies.
3) The authors have extensive first-hand operational experience, giving credibility to the analysis and recommendations in the book.
Future challenges to international securityParas Bhutto
The document outlines several structural challenges to international security, including terrorism, cyberterrorism, nuclear proliferation, China's rise, the crisis in the Middle East, corruption, and climate change. It provides details on each challenge, such as how terrorism is difficult to define but has been an effective tactic, how cyberterrorism allows terrorists to wage war in cyberspace, and how climate change will cause global instability and pressure on resources. The conclusion states that the current rapid rate of change outpaces human and state abilities to cope, putting pressure on nation states and potentially fueling issues like terrorism.
1. The document discusses the business of war and how some see it as a profitable enterprise, making billions selling arms and military equipment.
2. It provides statistics on government spending on wars and details how much top contractors profited from the Iraq war, with Halliburton making over $17 billion.
3. While the arms trade provides profits for some, the document argues that the money spent on wars would be better used to help people through initiatives like providing food and water.
strategic studies and international relationsTallat Satti
This document discusses the history and development of security studies as a sub-discipline of international relations. It covers the key assumptions and paradigms of security studies, including the realist, rationalist, and revolutionary traditions. The document then outlines the periodization of security studies, covering developments from the inter-war period through post-Cold War debates around conceptualizing security. Key topics discussed include the rise of nuclear weapons and deterrence theory, declines in security studies during détente, and expanding notions of security to include human and environmental dimensions.
This document provides a summary and analysis of the 2008 South Ossetia war between Georgia and Russia. It outlines the historical background between pre-Soviet, Soviet times and the 1990s. It presents hypotheses for the causes of the war and analyzes factors such as military power, nationalism, and the political and economic strengths of Georgia and Russia. It also discusses research gaps and concludes that the war was due to sphere of influence politics and tensions when the timing was right for conflict.
The document discusses Tanzania's national interests and economic policies. It outlines Tanzania's economic reforms from the 1980s onward which aimed to liberalize the economy and pursue market-led growth. Tanzania achieved macroeconomic stability and attracted foreign investment through these reforms. Globalization and economic interdependence increased the importance of economic diplomacy to promote trade, investment, and development financing. Tanzania's foreign policy pursues economic objectives while preserving political independence and sovereignty in engaging internationally on issues like trade negotiations and debt relief.
International Relations: Constructivism pt1Timothy Lim
Constructivism rejects a purely materialist view of international relations that focuses only on how the distribution of power shapes state behavior. Instead, constructivists argue that social factors like shared ideas, norms, and perceptions play an equally important role in shaping the international system and state interests and identities. The international system is not a fixed structure defined by material forces, but rather is socially constructed and can change as shared understandings between states change. For example, the end of the Cold War showed how states can redefine their interests and identities, transforming anarchy from a culture of "enemies" to "friends" through altered social interactions and understandings between them.
The document discusses various causes of war at different levels of analysis, from the individual to the international system level. At the individual level, human nature and psychology are examined, including innate aggression and the decision-making processes of leaders. At the unit level, factors like domestic politics, nationalism, regime type and economic systems are considered. The system level focuses on the distribution of power between states and the security dilemma. Causes of interstate and intrastate wars are also analyzed. Strategies for managing intrastate wars include power-sharing agreements, federalism, consociationalism and foreign intervention.
Colonization disrupted the balance of power in Africa by favoring smaller tribes over larger ones, creating resentment and opportunities for revenge. When colonization ended, majority tribes sought to regain power and mass murder ensued as new governments eliminated rivals, leading to genocides like in Rwanda and Uganda where hundreds of thousands were killed. Colonization set the stage for cycles of genocide in post-colonial Africa by upsetting traditional tribal hierarchies and power structures.
This document discusses key questions about war and security, including the causes and justifications of war. It examines the security dilemma concept that states' efforts to increase their own security can paradoxically make others feel less secure and more likely to prepare for conflict. The document also explores different levels of analysis for explaining war, including characteristics of individual leaders, domestic politics and societal factors, and the structure of the international system. It outlines historical trends in warfare and different types of wars. Approaches for managing international security from both liberal and realist perspectives are also summarized.
This document provides an overview of realism and liberalism as major international relations theories. It discusses key thinkers and principles of political realism such as Hans Morgenthau, E.H. Carr, and Reinhold Niebuhr. Realism focuses on the state as the key actor and priorities of survival and self-help under conditions of anarchy. It also discusses structural realism and the differences between defensive and offensive structural realism. The document then discusses liberalism, highlighting Immanuel Kant's idea of a federation of free states and Richard Cobden's views on free trade promoting peace. It provides a four-fold definition of liberalism and discusses how its principles can be applied to international relations.
Kenneth Waltz examines theories of international politics and approaches to construct a theory. He discusses reductionist theories that explain outcomes through internal forces and systemic approaches that emphasize how the international system structure shapes state behavior and outcomes. Waltz defines political structures as the arrangement of units within a system and how anarchy and the distribution of capabilities form the international system structure. States act to ensure their survival within the anarchic system.
International political economy (IPE) analyzes the interplay between politics and economics in world affairs. IPE provides benefits in understanding issues that cannot be analyzed solely through international politics or economics, such as international trade, finance, development issues, and the role of multinational corporations. However, IPE also encounters problems, as states and markets approach issues differently using different frameworks. The rise of IPE in international relations was driven by increasing economic interdependence and issues between states in the postwar period.
The League of Nations was formed after World War I to promote international cooperation and prevent future wars. It lacked the support of major powers like the US and Germany. While it successfully resolved some minor conflicts, it failed to deter Japanese and Italian aggression in the 1930s due to its inability to enforce sanctions without full membership. This ultimately led to its irrelevance and replacement by the United Nations after World War II.
This document provides an introduction to a course on international organizations. It defines international organizations as bodies that promote voluntary cooperation between member states. There are two main types: intergovernmental organizations and international non-governmental organizations. The goal of the course is for students to develop a theoretical and practical understanding of international organizations and the global problems they address. Key topics that will be covered include the history and theories of international organizations, the United Nations system, regional organizations, and how international organizations address issues like security, economic development, and the environment. The course will assess students through exams, papers, presentations and participation.
The document provides a timeline and details about the formation and workings of the League of Nations following World War 1. It describes how Woodrow Wilson proposed the League as part of the 14 Points to end the war. Major figures like Wilson, Clemenceau, Lloyd George and Orlando attended the 1919 Paris Peace Conference and helped establish the League through the Treaty of Versailles. The League aimed to promote international cooperation and prevent future wars but struggled due to lack of support from countries like the US. It lasted from 1920 to 1946 before being dissolved.
This document provides an overview of international relations theory, including concepts of security in the international arena. It discusses traditional security approaches focused on the state and military concerns, as well as more modern human security approaches. It also outlines several theoretical perspectives in international relations like realism, liberalism, constructivism, and compares realism and liberalism. Key concepts covered include the multi-sum security principle, women in international security, and the UNDP human security proposal.
This was one of my most recent powerpoint presentation. I worked in a small group with 2 other partners. The presentation lasted 1 hour followed by a group discussion.
This document provides definitions and explanations of key terms related to the concept of war. It begins by defining war as an armed conflict between two or more opposing entities aimed at achieving a geopolitical goal. Various types of war are described, including civil wars and proxy wars. Motivations for war are discussed, including imperialism, misperceptions between sides, and three universal reasons according to the Talmud: economic reasons, power/pride/personal reasons, and ideology/religion. Economic theories for the causes of war are also outlined, suggesting wars can arise from pursuit of markets and resources. The document serves as an introductory chapter establishing definitions and concepts to understand the discussion of war that will follow.
Victory Amongst People - Mills- Richards - Ewen McLayEwen McLay
The document summarizes and reviews the book "Victory Among People – Lessons from Countering Insurgency and Stabilising Fragile States". It makes the following key points:
1) The book provides a rich starting point for studying insurgencies and is a must-read for counterinsurgents.
2) It examines regional case studies of 16 counterinsurgency campaigns across different continents and decades. Common themes that emerge can inform how to counter insurgencies.
3) The authors have extensive first-hand operational experience, giving credibility to the analysis and recommendations in the book.
The Origins of War in Neorealist TheoryAuthor(s) Kenneth N..docxcarlz4
The Origins of War in Neorealist Theory
Author(s): Kenneth N. Waltz
Source: Journal of Interdisciplinary History, Vol. 18, No. 4, The Origin and Prevention of
Major Wars (Spring, 1988), pp. 615-628
Published by: The MIT Press
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/204817
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Journal of Interdisciplinary History, xvIII:4 (Spring 1988), 615-628.
Kenneth N. Waltz
The Origins of War in Neorealist Theory Like
most historians, many students of international politics have been
skeptical about the possibility of creating a theory that might help
one to understand and explain the international events that interest
us. Thus Morgenthau, foremost among traditional realists, was
fond of repeating Blaise Pascal's remark that "the history of the
world would have been different had Cleopatra's nose been a bit
shorter" and then asking "How do you systemize that?"1 His
appreciation of the role of the accidental and the occurrence of
the unexpected in politics dampened his theoretical ambition.
The response of neorealists is that, although difficulties
abound, some of the obstacles that seem most daunting lie in
misapprehensions about theory. Theory obviously cannot explain
the accidental or account for unexpected events; it deals in regu-
larities and repetitions and is possible only if these can be identi-
fied. A further difficulty is found in the failure of realists to
conceive of international politics as a distinct domain about which
theories can be fashioned. Morgenthau, f.
This paper is a critical review of the theory of just war. The paper
attempts to explain what Just-War Theory is. An overview of the history of Just War Tradition is given. There are some cited assumptions and approaches of Just-War Theory. The paper also gives some strengths and weaknesses of Just-War. The paper also gives some strengths and weaknesses of Just-War. The paper concludes with the fact that Just War Theory provides balances that must be taken into consideration when there is any necessitated war that results from inevitable conflicts. Furthermore, the paper concludes that the strengths of the theory should be built on when there is such war.
This document presents three propositions on the phenomenology of war:
1) War presents a surplus of being over knowing - it constantly unmakes certainties and exceeds conceptual capture.
2) War forces the unmaking and remaking of social and political meaning in unpredictable ways by interrupting subjective continuities.
3) War is a generative force because it confronts those who experience it with creating meaning in the aftermath, opening space for possibility and contestation over the postwar order. Phenomenology can provide critique of reactionary views that elevate violence and the immediacy of war.
This document discusses the topic of war. It begins by providing definitions of war and different types of wars such as civil war, conventional warfare, blitzkrieg, total war, and guerrilla war. It then examines theories for why wars occur, focusing on three levels of analysis: human nature, characteristics of states, and structural/systemic pressures. Next, it explores Clausewitz's view of war as a continuation of politics by other means. The document concludes by discussing debates around whether modern wars represent a shift from "old" wars to "new" wars in the post-Cold War era.
Running head HISTORY OF WAR1HISTORY OF WAR5History .docxjeanettehully
Running head: HISTORY OF WAR
1
HISTORY OF WAR
5
History of War
Student’s Name
University
History of Wars
War is a period with armed conflict, like mercenaries, rebels, and armies, among countries, governments, communities, and unofficial militant groups. Utilizing regular and irregular armed forces, this is generally defined by brutal violence, violence, destruction as well as mortality. Warfare relates to activities and features of war styles and wars in particular. Barta (2008) stated that war is warfare that is not confined to solely legitimate targets and, therefore, can lead to huge suffering and deaths of civilians or any other non-combatants. In history, the use of war has acquired control over regions through people, governments, or political groups. The earliest records of ancient warfare belong to Site 117 of a Mesolithic Cemetery that is estimated to be about 14,000 years of age. About 45% of a skeleton showing signs of horrific death there. The fundamental truth of Australian history has always been one people's conquest of a state, as well as one people's enslavement, with merciless destructive nature, of others. The reported impacts of this attack are just as apparent because they are horrible (Barta, 2008). Of the African race who have lived in a world as "Aborigines," "from the start," and have created diverse dialects, cultures or social groups on more than 50,000 years to tribal society, just minority groups survived the first century of contact to white settlers (Veracini, 2011). Therefore, this essay explores how the historical conquest eco in the modern world, French philosopher Montesquieu's statement of an empire founded by war, must maintain itself by war as well as whether the colonial frontier is remembered as genocide and not war (McNiven, 2017).
An example of the modern conquest is the Iraq invasion by the United States of America. Fifteen years earlier, Iraq had been cast into the darkness among the most devastating wars in contemporary history initiated by the US government under George W. Bush (Tuathail, 2003). President Bush reassured Iraqis with his infamous address declaring the beginning of "Operation Iraqi Freedom" that "that day of their freedom was near." However, as a consequence of such military action, rather than being a bastion for freedom and democracy within the country, Iraq was destroyed as millions of Iraqis were exposed to horrors that few of us on this planet had ever encountered or thought. According to the Hinnebusch (2007), the country had experienced ravaged by war as well as converted to wars zone starting from north to south and also from east to west, as competing terrorist groups, foreign forces and political groups compete for leadership at the cost of the Iraqi citizens (Tuathail, 2003). The Iraq invasion had worldwide effects, far from impacting; only Iraqis-which was horrible enough. The absolute failure by the American attempt to promote a system of democracy in Iraq has emp ...
Winter 2011-12 1Beyond Vom Kriege The Character and.docxadolphoyonker
Winter 2011-12 1
Beyond Vom Kriege: The
Character and Conduct of
Modern War
R. D. HookeR, JR.
This article was first published in the Summer 2005 issue of Parameters.
“You may not be interested in war . . . but war is interested in you.”
— Leon Trotsky
It is the tragedy of history that man cannot free himself from war. Indeed, far more than by the development of art or literature or trade or political
institutions, the history of man has been determined by the wars he has fought.
Time and again, advanced and cultured societies have been laid low by more
primitive and virile enemies with superior military institutions and a stronger
will to fight. The end of the Cold War, the rise of globalization, the spread of
democracy, and the advent of a new millennium raised hopes that mankind
might move beyond the catastrophic wars that shaped the 20th century. Those
hopes were dashed by Somalia and Rwanda and Bosnia, by the Sudan and the
Congo and Kosovo, by Chechnya and Afghanistan and Iraq. Understanding
war, not as we would like it but as it is, remains the central question of interna-
tional politics. And for the most primal of reasons: War isn’t going anywhere.
Political and military leaders are notoriously averse to theory, but if
there is a theorist about war who matters, it remains Carl von Clausewitz,
whose Vom Kriege (“On War”) has shaped Western views about war since the
middle of the 19th century. While it goes too far to say, as John Keegan has,
that Clausewitz “influenced every statesman and soldier interested in war for
the past 100 years”—most never actually read or grasped him—Clausewitz
endures, not because he is universally understood or accepted but because he is
so often right about first principles.1 Much of what he wrote about the conduct
of war in the pre-industrial era, about marches and magazines and the “war of
Colonel Richard D. Hooker, Jr., commands the XVIII Airborne Corps Combat
Support Brigade (“Dragon Brigade”) now deployed to Iraq. He commanded an infan-
try battalion in the 82d Airborne Division and has served as Special Assistant to the
Chairman of the Joint Chiefs, with the Office of the Chief of Staff of the Army, as Aide
de Camp to the Secretary of the Army, and with the National Security Council. Colonel
Hooker holds an M.S. in national security studies from the National Defense University
and M.A. and Ph.D. degrees from the University of Virginia in international relations.
R. D. Hooker, Jr.
2 Parameters
posts,” fits best with his own time. But his insights about the nature of war itself
remain uniquely and enduringly prescient.
Clausewitz described war as “nothing more than a duel on a larger scale
. . . an act of force to compel the enemy to do our will.”2 Today, “war” is used to
mean very different things in very different contexts, from the war on poverty
to the war on drugs to the war on terror.
ASSIGNMENT 08A01 Introduction to AccountingPart A (20 points).docxjane3dyson92312
ASSIGNMENT 08
A01 Introduction to Accounting
Part A (20 points)
Prepare in proper form journal entries for the following transactions. Omit explanations.
October
2Owner made a cash investment into the company $5,000
8Bought supplies on account $100.
10Paid salaries, $700
15Paid for supplies purchased on October 8
21Received company telephone bill, to be paid later, $30
Part B (5 points each for a possible total of 50 points)
Record the following selected transactions for January in a two-column journal, identifying each entry by letter:
(a) Earned $7,000 fees; customer will pay later.
(b) Purchased equipment for $45,000, paying $20,000 in cash and the remainder on credit
(c) Paid $3,000 for rent for January.
(d) Purchased $2,500 of supplies on account.
(e) A. Allen $1,000 investment in the company.
(f) Received $7,000 in cash for fees earned previously.
(g) Paid $1,200 to creditors on account.
(h) Paid wages of $6,250.
(i) Received $7,150 from customers on account.
(j) A. Allen withdrawal of $1,750.
Part C
(1) (10 points) From the following items in the income statement columns of the worksheet of Friend's Tutoring at December 31, prepare the closing entries without explanation, assuming that a $1,000 withdrawal was made during the period.
Income Statement
AccountDebitCredit
Tutoring Fees3,450
Wages Expense700
Rent Expense600
Supplies Expense450
Insurance Expense250_____
2,0003,450
Net Income1,450_____
$3,450$3,450
(2) (5 points each for a possible total of 20 points) A summary of selected ledger accounts appear below for S. Ball for the current calendar year.
Answer the following questions.
a. What was the total amount of withdrawals for the year?
b. What was the net income?
c. What was the total revenue?
d. What were the total expenses?
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International relations: One world, many theories.
Walt, Stephen M.
Foreign Policy. Spring98, Issue 110, p29. 17p. 1 Chart.
Article
INTERNATIONAL relations
REALISM
LIBERALISM
Discusses the theoretical traditions in the study of international relations.
Evolution of realist theory; Challenges of liberal theories against realist
theories; Explanation offered by Marxism on international conflict.
INSET: Waiting for Mr. X.
5946
0015-7228
10.2307/1149275
382407
International Security & Counter Terrorism Reference Center
INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS: ONE WORLD, MANY THEORIES
Why should policymakers and practitioners care about the scholarly study of international affairs? Those who
conduct foreign policy often dismiss academic theorists (frequently, one must admit, with good reason), but
there is an inescapable link between the abstract world of theory and the real world of policy. We nee.
Why is war so central to the academic study of International Politics?FRANCISCO RUIZ
The human being, as a social animal has always been in the middle of a behaviorist crossroad. Cooperation and conflict have always been the two main options humans have had when socializing with other individuals. In the V century B.C., Thucydides had already studied conflict among individuals in its most extended and destructive form writing about the Peloponnesian war between Sparta and Athens. In the modern age, from Thomas Hobbes to Hans Morgenthau, we can see that war and its causes have been and continue to be one of the most important issues for the social sciences academia (Baldwin: 1979, p. 161). But, why war? Destruction, violence or competition seem to captivate the human being the same way fire does. Fire is the singularity of a chemical reaction that is only produced under certain exceptional conditions in nature. It needs fuel, a means to propagate and detonating. Fire has certain similarities with war. It is exceptional1, but because of its magnitude and power to transform the environment, its capacity attract the humans being’s attention is practically inevitable and even more so today, with the dramatic increase of the destructive ability of weapons.
All students are required to respond to other student posts.docxwrite12
This document summarizes key parts of The Holocaust Reader published by Gigliotti and Lang. It discusses the Functionalism vs Intentionalism debate on whether the Holocaust was intended from the start. It analyzes chapters arguing both sides, including Hitler's Reichstag speech blaming Jews, the Wannsee Conference minutes discussing Jewish emigration, and Berel Lang arguing the Holocaust's intention based on coordinated actions. It also summarizes the debate between Broszat and Friedlander on contextualizing the Holocaust and not diminishing its evil nature. The document finds Robert Jackson's argument for a fair Nuremberg trial most illuminating as it established international law and morality.
This document discusses different approaches to international relations theory. It begins by providing historical context on the emergence of international relations as an academic discipline after World War I. It then outlines some of the major theoretical approaches that developed, including realism, liberalism, and Marxism. A key focus is classical realism as developed by Hans Morgenthau. Morgenthau argued that international politics is defined by the struggle for power between states. The document also examines other classical realist concepts like the balance of power, the relationship between interests and justice, and the importance of international society and order. It provides an overview of how classical realism views these different elements of international relations.
This document outlines the syllabus for an introductory international relations course. It covers 14 topics over the semester, including introductions to different theories of IR like realism, liberalism, and Marxism. It also covers specific issue areas like security, diplomacy, globalization, and terrorism. The course will include a midterm and final exam. The document provides background on the field of IR, noting it emerged in the early 20th century and draws from other disciplines like history, political science, and economics. It discusses key concepts like the state, actors, and topics within the field of IR.
Jack Oughton - Science Challenges The Nation State.docJack Oughton
The document discusses how nuclear weapons have profoundly impacted politics and international relations. It argues that science's development of nuclear weapons disrupted the balance of power between nation states and introduced the threat of mutually assured destruction. This existential threat caused countries to engage in arms races, proxy wars, and develop strategies of deterrence and nonproliferation during the Cold War. The document expresses concerns that nuclear proliferation to additional states and non-state actors could undermine deterrence and increase the likelihood of nuclear conflict or terrorism in the modern era.
War and peace are two powerful forces that have been shaping civilizations. Every nation has gone through various degrees of conflicts. In this paper, the author asks what history lessons can be used to educate the public and policy makers on conflict prevention. If we were to avoid repeating the mistakes and wars of the past, the author believes new innovative approaches are needed for solving old problems of conflicts within a nation and between nations. Alongside current steps to promote social order, the psychology of war and peace must be adequately looked into and utilized in forming the needed policies.
Humanitarian Intervention and Just War
Author(s): Mona Fixdal and Dan Smith
Source: Mershon International Studies Review , Nov., 1998, Vol. 42, No. 2 (Nov., 1998),
pp. 283-312
Published by: Wiley on behalf of The International Studies Association
Stable URL: https://www.jstor.org/stable/254418
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Mershon International Studies Review (1998) 42, 283-312
Humanitarian Intervention and Just War*
MONA FIXDAL
Department of Political Science, University of Oslo
DAN SMITH
International Peace Research Institute, Oslo
Humanitarian intervention is one of the primary international security
problems of today. As an object analysis, it sits at the intersection of the
realist and idealist traditions in the study of international relations.
Despite its high profile, debate on humanitarian intervention is unsatis-
factory; participants talk past one another and most discussion is devoid
of ethical concepts. In particular, there is a striking absence of explicit
reference to the Just War tradition. Only scholars of international law
have explicitly and systematically examined normative issues, but their
focus seems too narrow. The result is a series of what appear to be arbi-
trary judgments about when humanitarian intervention is justified
combined with an often fundamental misunderstanding of the interna-
tional system. This essay presents a sketch of the Just War tradition's main
concepts and argues that it is both possible and advantageous to resort to
them in discussing and evaluating humanitarian intervention. The article
then applies these concepts to the recent debate on humanitarian inter-
vention and shows that almost all of the concerns raised in this
scholarship fit within the Just War framework. The essay focuses on the
criteria from the Just War tradition that deal with when to resort to the
use of armed force.
It would be impossible for the world to be happy ... [if] the innocent were not
allowed to teach the guilty a lesson (Vitoria 1557[1991]:298).
Humanitarian intervention has become one of the most debated topics in interna-
tional politics today. It is among a group of problems-ci ...
Graham, Stephen. "When life itself is war: On the urbanization of military an...Stephen Graham
It is now well established that both the ‘war on terror’ and its offshoots have been conspicuously marked by overwhelmingly urban discourses, materialities and practices. Deliberately transdisciplinary, synthetical and polemical in scope, this article seeks to demonstrate that new ideologies of permanent and boundless war are radically intensifying the militarization of urban life in the contemporary period. The article delineates the ways in which contemporary processes of militarization — which surround what I label the ‘new military urbanism’ — raise fundamental questions for critical urban scholarship because of the ways in which they work to normalize the permanent targeting of everyday urban sites, circulations and populations. Focusing primarily on US security and military doctrine, culture and technology, this article exploresthenewmilitaryurbanism’sfiveinterrelatedfoundationsindetail,namely:the urbanization of military and security doctrine; the links between militarized control technologies and digitized urban life; the cultural performances of militarized media consumption; the emerging urban political economies of the ‘security’ industries; and the new state spaces of violence. Following the elaboration of each of these themes, the article concludes by identifying ways forward for critical urban research in exposing and confronting the normalization of the new military urbanism.
‘Six Sigma Technique’ A Journey Through its Implementationijtsrd
The manufacturing industries all over the world are facing tough challenges for growth, development and sustainability in today’s competitive environment. They have to achieve apex position by adapting with the global competitive environment by delivering goods and services at low cost, prime quality and better price to increase wealth and consumer satisfaction. Cost Management ensures profit, growth and sustainability of the business with implementation of Continuous Improvement Technique like Six Sigma. This leads to optimize Business performance. The method drives for customer satisfaction, low variation, reduction in waste and cycle time resulting into a competitive advantage over other industries which did not implement it. The main objective of this paper ‘Six Sigma Technique A Journey Through Its Implementation’ is to conceptualize the effectiveness of Six Sigma Technique through the journey of its implementation. Aditi Sunilkumar Ghosalkar "‘Six Sigma Technique’: A Journey Through its Implementation" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-8 | Issue-1 , February 2024, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd64546.pdf Paper Url: https://www.ijtsrd.com/other-scientific-research-area/other/64546/‘six-sigma-technique’-a-journey-through-its-implementation/aditi-sunilkumar-ghosalkar
Edge Computing in Space Enhancing Data Processing and Communication for Space...ijtsrd
Edge computing, a paradigm that involves processing data closer to its source, has gained significant attention for its potential to revolutionize data processing and communication in space missions. With the increasing complexity and data volume generated by modern space missions, traditional centralized computing approaches face challenges related to latency, bandwidth, and security. Edge computing in space, involving on board processing and analysis of data, offers promising solutions to these challenges. This paper explores the concept of edge computing in space, its benefits, applications, and future prospects in enhancing space missions. Manish Verma "Edge Computing in Space: Enhancing Data Processing and Communication for Space Missions" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-8 | Issue-1 , February 2024, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd64541.pdf Paper Url: https://www.ijtsrd.com/computer-science/artificial-intelligence/64541/edge-computing-in-space-enhancing-data-processing-and-communication-for-space-missions/manish-verma
Dynamics of Communal Politics in 21st Century India Challenges and Prospectsijtsrd
Communal politics in India has evolved through centuries, weaving a complex tapestry shaped by historical legacies, colonial influences, and contemporary socio political transformations. This research comprehensively examines the dynamics of communal politics in 21st century India, emphasizing its historical roots, socio political dynamics, economic implications, challenges, and prospects for mitigation. The historical perspective unravels the intricate interplay of religious identities and power dynamics from ancient civilizations to the impact of colonial rule, providing insights into the evolution of communalism. The socio political dynamics section delves into the contemporary manifestations, exploring the roles of identity politics, socio economic disparities, and globalization. The economic implications section highlights how communal politics intersects with economic issues, perpetuating disparities and influencing resource allocation. Challenges posed by communal politics are scrutinized, revealing multifaceted issues ranging from social fragmentation to threats against democratic values. The prospects for mitigation present a multifaceted approach, incorporating policy interventions, community engagement, and educational initiatives. The paper conducts a comparative analysis with international examples, identifying common patterns such as identity politics and economic disparities. It also examines unique challenges, emphasizing Indias diverse religious landscape, historical legacy, and secular framework. Lessons for effective strategies are drawn from international experiences, offering insights into inclusive policies, interfaith dialogue, media regulation, and global cooperation. By scrutinizing historical epochs, contemporary dynamics, economic implications, and international comparisons, this research provides a comprehensive understanding of communal politics in India. The proposed strategies for mitigation underscore the importance of a holistic approach to foster social harmony, inclusivity, and democratic values. Rose Hossain "Dynamics of Communal Politics in 21st Century India: Challenges and Prospects" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-8 | Issue-1 , February 2024, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd64528.pdf Paper Url: https://www.ijtsrd.com/humanities-and-the-arts/history/64528/dynamics-of-communal-politics-in-21st-century-india-challenges-and-prospects/rose-hossain
Assess Perspective and Knowledge of Healthcare Providers Towards Elehealth in...ijtsrd
Background and Objective Telehealth has become a well known tool for the delivery of health care in Saudi Arabia, and the perspective and knowledge of healthcare providers are influential in the implementation, adoption and advancement of the method. This systematic review was conducted to examine the current literature base regarding telehealth and the related healthcare professional perspective and knowledge in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. Materials and Methods This systematic review was conducted by searching 7 databases including, MEDLINE, CINHAL, Web of Science, Scopus, PubMed, PsycINFO, and ProQuest Central. Studies on healthcare practitioners telehealth knowledge and perspectives published in English in Saudi Arabia from 2000 to 2023 were included. Boland directed this comprehensive review. The researchers examined each connected study using the AXIS tool, which evaluates cross sectional systematic reviews. Narrative synthesis was used to summarise and convey the data. Results Out of 1840 search results, 10 studies were included. Positive outlook and limited knowledge among providers were seen across trials. Healthcare professionals like telehealth for its ability to improve quality, access, and delivery, save time and money, and be successful. Age, gender, occupation, and work experience also affect health workers knowledge. In Saudi Arabia, healthcare professionals face inadequate expert assistance, patient privacy, internet connection concerns, lack of training courses, lack of telehealth understanding, and high costs while performing telemedicine. Conclusions Healthcare practitioners telehealth perceptions and knowledge were examined in this systematic study. Its collection of concerned experts different personal attitudes and expertise would help enhance telehealths implementation in Saudi Arabia, develop its healthcare delivery alternative, and eliminate frequent problems. Badriah Mousa I Mulayhi | Dr. Jomin George | Judy Jenkins "Assess Perspective and Knowledge of Healthcare Providers Towards Elehealth in Saudi Arabia: A Systematic Review" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-8 | Issue-1 , February 2024, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd64535.pdf Paper Url: https://www.ijtsrd.com/medicine/other/64535/assess-perspective-and-knowledge-of-healthcare-providers-towards-elehealth-in-saudi-arabia-a-systematic-review/badriah-mousa-i-mulayhi
The Impact of Digital Media on the Decentralization of Power and the Erosion ...ijtsrd
The impact of digital media on the distribution of power and the weakening of traditional gatekeepers has gained considerable attention in recent years. The adoption of digital technologies and the internet has resulted in declining influence and power for traditional gatekeepers such as publishing houses and news organizations. Simultaneously, digital media has facilitated the emergence of new voices and players in the media industry. Digital medias impact on power decentralization and gatekeeper erosion is visible in several ways. One significant aspect is the democratization of information, which enables anyone with an internet connection to publish and share content globally, leading to citizen journalism and bypassing traditional gatekeepers. Another aspect is the disruption of conventional media industry business models, as traditional organizations struggle to adjust to the decrease in advertising revenue and the rise of digital platforms. Alternative business models, such as subscription models and crowdfunding, have become more prevalent, leading to the emergence of new players. Overall, the impact of digital media on the distribution of power and the weakening of traditional gatekeepers has brought about significant changes in the media landscape and the way information is shared. Further research is required to fully comprehend the implications of these changes and their impact on society. Dr. Kusum Lata "The Impact of Digital Media on the Decentralization of Power and the Erosion of Traditional Gatekeepers" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-8 | Issue-1 , February 2024, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd64544.pdf Paper Url: https://www.ijtsrd.com/humanities-and-the-arts/political-science/64544/the-impact-of-digital-media-on-the-decentralization-of-power-and-the-erosion-of-traditional-gatekeepers/dr-kusum-lata
Online Voices, Offline Impact Ambedkars Ideals and Socio Political Inclusion ...ijtsrd
This research investigates the nexus between online discussions on Dr. B.R. Ambedkars ideals and their impact on social inclusion among college students in Gurugram, Haryana. Surveying 240 students from 12 government colleges, findings indicate that 65 actively engage in online discussions, with 80 demonstrating moderate to high awareness of Ambedkars ideals. Statistically significant correlations reveal that higher online engagement correlates with increased awareness p 0.05 and perceived social inclusion. Variations across colleges and a notable effect of college type on perceived social inclusion highlight the influence of contextual factors. Furthermore, the intersectional analysis underscores nuanced differences based on gender, caste, and socio economic status. Dr. Kusum Lata "Online Voices, Offline Impact: Ambedkar's Ideals and Socio-Political Inclusion - A Study of Gurugram District" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-8 | Issue-1 , February 2024, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd64543.pdf Paper Url: https://www.ijtsrd.com/humanities-and-the-arts/political-science/64543/online-voices-offline-impact-ambedkars-ideals-and-sociopolitical-inclusion--a-study-of-gurugram-district/dr-kusum-lata
Problems and Challenges of Agro Entreprenurship A Studyijtsrd
Noting calls for contextualizing Agro entrepreneurs problems and challenges of the agro entrepreneurs and for greater attention to the Role of entrepreneurs in agro entrepreneurship research, we conduct a systematic literature review of extent research in agriculture entrepreneurship to overcome the study objectives of complications of agro entrepreneurs through various factors, Development of agriculture products is a key factor for the overall economic growth of agro entrepreneurs Agro Entrepreneurs produces firsthand large scale employment, utilizes the labor and natural resources, This research outlines the problems of Weather and Soil Erosions, Market price fluctuation, stimulates labor cost problems, reduces concentration of Price volatility, Dependency on Intermediaries, induces Limited Bargaining Power, and Storage and Transportation Costs. This paper mainly devoted to highlight Problems and challenges faced for the sustainable of Agro Entrepreneurs in India. Vinay Prasad B "Problems and Challenges of Agro Entreprenurship - A Study" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-8 | Issue-1 , February 2024, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd64540.pdf Paper Url: https://www.ijtsrd.com/other-scientific-research-area/other/64540/problems-and-challenges-of-agro-entreprenurship--a-study/vinay-prasad-b
Comparative Analysis of Total Corporate Disclosure of Selected IT Companies o...ijtsrd
Disclosure is a process through which a business enterprise communicates with external parties. A corporate disclosure is communication of financial and non financial information of the activities of a business enterprise to the interested entities. Corporate disclosure is done through publishing annual reports. So corporate disclosure through annual reports plays a vital role in the life of all the companies and provides valuable information to investors. The basic objectives of corporate disclosure is to give a true and fair view of companies to the parties related either directly or indirectly like owner, government, creditors, shareholders etc. in the companies act, provisions have been made about mandatory and voluntary disclosure. The IT sector in India is rapidly growing, the trend to invest in the IT sector is rising and employment opportunities in IT sectors are also increasing. Therefore the IT sector is expected to have fair, full and adequate disclosure of all information. Unfair and incomplete disclosure may adversely affect the entire economy. A research study on disclosure practices of IT companies could play an important role in this regard. Hence, the present research study has been done to study and review comparative analysis of total corporate disclosure of selected IT companies of India and to put forward overall findings and suggestions with a view to increase disclosure score of these companies. The researcher hopes that the present research study will be helpful to all selected Companies for improving level of corporate disclosure through annual reports as well as the government, creditors, investors, all business organizations and upcoming researcher for comparative analyses of level of corporate disclosure with special reference to selected IT companies. Dr. Vaibhavi D. Thaker "Comparative Analysis of Total Corporate Disclosure of Selected IT Companies of India" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-8 | Issue-1 , February 2024, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd64539.pdf Paper Url: https://www.ijtsrd.com/other-scientific-research-area/other/64539/comparative-analysis-of-total-corporate-disclosure-of-selected-it-companies-of-india/dr-vaibhavi-d-thaker
The Impact of Educational Background and Professional Training on Human Right...ijtsrd
This study investigated the impact of educational background and professional training on human rights awareness among secondary school teachers in the Marathwada region of Maharashtra, India. The key findings reveal that higher levels of education, particularly a master’s degree, and fields of study related to education, humanities, or social sciences are associated with greater human rights awareness among teachers. Additionally, both pre service teacher training and in service professional development programs focused on human rights education significantly enhance teacher’s knowledge, skills, and competencies in promoting human rights principles in their classrooms. Baig Ameer Bee Mirza Abdul Aziz | Dr. Syed Azaz Ali Amjad Ali "The Impact of Educational Background and Professional Training on Human Rights Awareness among Secondary School Teachers" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-8 | Issue-1 , February 2024, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd64529.pdf Paper Url: https://www.ijtsrd.com/humanities-and-the-arts/education/64529/the-impact-of-educational-background-and-professional-training-on-human-rights-awareness-among-secondary-school-teachers/baig-ameer-bee-mirza-abdul-aziz
A Study on the Effective Teaching Learning Process in English Curriculum at t...ijtsrd
“One Language sets you in a corridor for life. Two languages open every door along the way” Frank Smith English as a foreign language or as a second language has been ruling in India since the period of Lord Macaulay. But the question is how much we teach or learn English properly in our culture. Is there any scope to use English as a language rather than a subject How much we learn or teach English without any interference of mother language specially in the classroom teaching learning scenario in West Bengal By considering all these issues the researcher has attempted in this article to focus on the effective teaching learning process comparing to other traditional strategies in the field of English curriculum at the secondary level to investigate whether they fulfill the present teaching learning requirements or not by examining the validity of the present curriculum of English. The purpose of this study is to focus on the effectiveness of the systematic, scientific, sequential and logical transaction of the course between the teachers and the learners in the perspective of the 5Es programme that is engage, explore, explain, extend and evaluate. Sanchali Mondal | Santinath Sarkar "A Study on the Effective Teaching Learning Process in English Curriculum at the Secondary Level of West Bengal" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-8 | Issue-1 , February 2024, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd62412.pdf Paper Url: https://www.ijtsrd.com/humanities-and-the-arts/education/62412/a-study-on-the-effective-teaching-learning-process-in-english-curriculum-at-the-secondary-level-of-west-bengal/sanchali-mondal
The Role of Mentoring and Its Influence on the Effectiveness of the Teaching ...ijtsrd
This paper reports on a study which was conducted to investigate the role of mentoring and its influence on the effectiveness of the teaching of Physics in secondary schools in the South West Region of Cameroon. The study adopted the convergent parallel mixed methods design, focusing on respondents in secondary schools in the South West Region of Cameroon. Both quantitative and qualitative data were collected, analysed separately, and the results were compared to see if the findings confirm or disconfirm each other. The quantitative analysis found that majority of the respondents 72 of Physics teachers affirmed that they had more experienced colleagues as mentors to help build their confidence, improve their teaching, and help them improve their effectiveness and efficiency in guiding learners’ achievements. Only 28 of the respondents disagreed with these statements. With majority respondents 72 agreeing with the statements, it implies that in most secondary schools, experienced Physics teachers act as mentors to build teachers’ confidence in teaching and improving students’ learning. The interview qualitative data analysis summarized how secondary school Principals use meetings with mentors and mentees to promote mentorship in the school milieu. This has helped strengthen teachers’ classroom practices in secondary schools in the South West Region of Cameroon. With the results confirming each other, the study recommends that mentoring should focus on helping teachers employ social interactions and instructional practices feedback and clarity in teaching that have direct measurable impact on students’ learning achievements. Andrew Ngeim Sumba | Frederick Ebot Ashu | Peter Agborbechem Tambi "The Role of Mentoring and Its Influence on the Effectiveness of the Teaching of Physics in Secondary Schools in the South West Region of Cameroon" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-8 | Issue-1 , February 2024, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd64524.pdf Paper Url: https://www.ijtsrd.com/management/management-development/64524/the-role-of-mentoring-and-its-influence-on-the-effectiveness-of-the-teaching-of-physics-in-secondary-schools-in-the-south-west-region-of-cameroon/andrew-ngeim-sumba
Design Simulation and Hardware Construction of an Arduino Microcontroller Bas...ijtsrd
This study primarily focuses on the design of a high side buck converter using an Arduino microcontroller. The converter is specifically intended for use in DC DC applications, particularly in standalone solar PV systems where the PV output voltage exceeds the load or battery voltage. To evaluate the performance of the converter, simulation experiments are conducted using Proteus Software. These simulations provide insights into the input and output voltages, currents, powers, and efficiency under different state of charge SoC conditions of a 12V,70Ah rechargeable lead acid battery. Additionally, the hardware design of the converter is implemented, and practical data is collected through operation, monitoring, and recording. By comparing the simulation results with the practical results, the efficiency and performance of the designed converter are assessed. The findings indicate that while the buck converter is suitable for practical use in standalone PV systems, its efficiency is compromised due to a lower output current. Chan Myae Aung | Dr. Ei Mon "Design Simulation and Hardware Construction of an Arduino-Microcontroller Based DC-DC High-Side Buck Converter for Standalone PV System" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-8 | Issue-1 , February 2024, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd64518.pdf Paper Url: https://www.ijtsrd.com/engineering/mechanical-engineering/64518/design-simulation-and-hardware-construction-of-an-arduinomicrocontroller-based-dcdc-highside-buck-converter-for-standalone-pv-system/chan-myae-aung
Sustainable Energy by Paul A. Adekunte | Matthew N. O. Sadiku | Janet O. Sadikuijtsrd
Energy becomes sustainable if it meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. Some of the definitions of sustainable energy include the considerations of environmental aspects such as greenhouse gas emissions, social, and economic aspects such as energy poverty. Generally far more sustainable than fossil fuel are renewable energy sources such as wind, hydroelectric power, solar, and geothermal energy sources. Worthy of note is that some renewable energy projects, like the clearing of forests to produce biofuels, can cause severe environmental damage. The sustainability of nuclear power which is a low carbon source is highly debated because of concerns about radioactive waste, nuclear proliferation, and accidents. The switching from coal to natural gas has environmental benefits, including a lower climate impact, but could lead to delay in switching to more sustainable options. “Carbon capture and storage” can be built into power plants to remove the carbon dioxide CO2 emissions, but this technology is expensive and has rarely been implemented. Leading non renewable energy sources around the world is fossil fuels, coal, petroleum, and natural gas. Nuclear energy is usually considered another non renewable energy source, although nuclear energy itself is a renewable energy source, but the material used in nuclear power plants is not. The paper addresses the issue of sustainable energy, its attendant benefits to the future generation, and humanity in general. Paul A. Adekunte | Matthew N. O. Sadiku | Janet O. Sadiku "Sustainable Energy" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-8 | Issue-1 , February 2024, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd64534.pdf Paper Url: https://www.ijtsrd.com/engineering/electrical-engineering/64534/sustainable-energy/paul-a-adekunte
Concepts for Sudan Survey Act Implementations Executive Regulations and Stand...ijtsrd
This paper aims to outline the executive regulations, survey standards, and specifications required for the implementation of the Sudan Survey Act, and for regulating and organizing all surveying work activities in Sudan. The act has been discussed for more than 5 years. The Land Survey Act was initiated by the Sudan Survey Authority and all official legislations were headed by the Sudan Ministry of Justice till it was issued in 2022. The paper presents conceptual guidelines to be used for the Survey Act implementation and to regulate the survey work practice, standardizing the field surveys, processing, quality control, procedures, and the processes related to survey work carried out by the stakeholders and relevant authorities in Sudan. The conceptual guidelines are meant to improve the quality and harmonization of geospatial data and to aid decision making processes as well as geospatial information systems. The established comprehensive executive regulations will govern and regulate the implementation of the Sudan Survey Geomatics Act in all surveying and mapping practices undertaken by the Sudan Survey Authority SSA and state local survey departments for public or private sector organizations. The targeted standards and specifications include the reference frame, projection, coordinate systems, and the guidelines and specifications that must be followed in the field of survey work, processes, and mapping products. In the last few decades, there has been a growing awareness of the importance of geomatics activities and measurements on the Earths surface in space and time, together with observing and mapping the changes. In such cases, data must be captured promptly, standardized, and obtained with more accuracy and specified in much detail. The paper will also highlight the current situation in Sudan, the degree to which survey standards are used, the problems encountered, and the errors that arise from not using the standards and survey specifications. Kamal A. A. Sami "Concepts for Sudan Survey Act Implementations - Executive Regulations and Standards" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-8 | Issue-1 , February 2024, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd63484.pdf Paper Url: https://www.ijtsrd.com/engineering/civil-engineering/63484/concepts-for-sudan-survey-act-implementations--executive-regulations-and-standards/kamal-a-a-sami
Towards the Implementation of the Sudan Interpolated Geoid Model Khartoum Sta...ijtsrd
The discussions between ellipsoid and geoid have invoked many researchers during the recent decades, especially during the GNSS technology era, which had witnessed a great deal of development but still geoid undulation requires more investigations. To figure out a solution for Sudans local geoid, this research has tried to intake the possibility of determining the geoid model by following two approaches, gravimetric and geometrical geoid model determination, by making use of GNSS leveling benchmarks at Khartoum state. The Benchmarks are well distributed in the study area, in which, the horizontal coordinates and the height above the ellipsoid have been observed by GNSS while orthometric heights were carried out using precise leveling. The Global Geopotential Model GGM represented in EGM2008 has been exploited to figure out the geoid undulation at the benchmarks in the study area. This is followed by a fitting process, that has been done to suit the geoid undulation data which has been computed using GNSS leveling data and geoid undulation inspired by the EGM2008. Two geoid surfaces were created after the fitting process to ensure that they are identical and both of them could be counted for getting the same geoid undulation with an acceptable accuracy. In this respect, statistical operation played an important role in ensuring the consistency and integrity of the model by applying cross validation techniques splitting the data into training and testing datasets for building the geoid model and testing its eligibility. The geometrical solution for geoid undulation computation has been utilized by applying straightforward equations that facilitate the calculation of the geoid undulation directly through applying statistical techniques for the GNSS leveling data of the study area to get the common equation parameters values that could be utilized to calculate geoid undulation of any position in the study area within the claimed accuracy. Both systems were checked and proved eligible to be used within the study area with acceptable accuracy which may contribute to solving the geoid undulation problem in the Khartoum area, and be further generalized to determine the geoid model over the entire country, and this could be considered in the future, for regional and continental geoid model. Ahmed M. A. Mohammed. | Kamal A. A. Sami "Towards the Implementation of the Sudan Interpolated Geoid Model (Khartoum State Case Study)" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-8 | Issue-1 , February 2024, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd63483.pdf Paper Url: https://www.ijtsrd.com/engineering/civil-engineering/63483/towards-the-implementation-of-the-sudan-interpolated-geoid-model-khartoum-state-case-study/ahmed-m-a-mohammed
Activating Geospatial Information for Sudans Sustainable Investment Mapijtsrd
Sudan is witnessing an acceleration in the processes of development and transformation in the performance of government institutions to raise the productivity and investment efficiency of the government sector. The development plans and investment opportunities have focused on achieving national goals in various sectors. This paper aims to illuminate the path to the future and provide geospatial data and information to develop the investment climate and environment for all sized businesses, and to bridge the development gap between the Sudan states. The Sudan Survey Authority SSA is the main advisor to the Sudan Government in conducting surveying, mappings, designing, and developing systems related to geospatial data and information. In recent years, SSA made a strategic partnership with the Ministry of Investment to activate Geospatial Information for Sudans Sustainable Investment and in particular, for the preparation and implementation of the Sudan investment map, based on the directives and objectives of the Ministry of Investment MI in Sudan. This paper comes within the framework of activating the efforts of the Ministry of Investment to develop technical investment services by applying techniques adopted by the Ministry and its strategic partners for advancing investment processes in the country. Kamal A. A. Sami "Activating Geospatial Information for Sudan's Sustainable Investment Map" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-8 | Issue-1 , February 2024, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd63482.pdf Paper Url: https://www.ijtsrd.com/engineering/information-technology/63482/activating-geospatial-information-for-sudans-sustainable-investment-map/kamal-a-a-sami
Educational Unity Embracing Diversity for a Stronger Societyijtsrd
In a rapidly changing global landscape, the importance of education as a unifying force cannot be overstated. This paper explores the crucial role of educational unity in fostering a stronger and more inclusive society through the embrace of diversity. By examining the benefits of diverse learning environments, the paper aims to highlight the positive impact on societal strength. The discussion encompasses various dimensions, from curriculum design to classroom dynamics, and emphasizes the need for educational institutions to become catalysts for unity in diversity. It highlights the need for a paradigm shift in educational policies, curricula, and pedagogical approaches to ensure that they are reflective of the diverse fabric of society. This paper also addresses the challenges associated with implementing inclusive educational practices and offers practical strategies for overcoming barriers. It advocates for collaborative efforts between educational institutions, policymakers, and communities to create a supportive ecosystem that promotes diversity and unity. Mr. Amit Adhikari | Madhumita Teli | Gopal Adhikari "Educational Unity: Embracing Diversity for a Stronger Society" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-8 | Issue-1 , February 2024, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd64525.pdf Paper Url: https://www.ijtsrd.com/humanities-and-the-arts/education/64525/educational-unity-embracing-diversity-for-a-stronger-society/mr-amit-adhikari
Integration of Indian Indigenous Knowledge System in Management Prospects and...ijtsrd
The diversity of indigenous knowledge systems in India is vast and can vary significantly between different communities and regions. Preserving and respecting these knowledge systems is crucial for maintaining cultural heritage, promoting sustainable practices, and fostering cross cultural understanding. In this paper, an overview of the prospects and challenges associated with incorporating Indian indigenous knowledge into management is explored. It is found that IIKS helps in management in many areas like sustainable development, tourism, food security, natural resource management, cultural preservation and innovation, etc. However, IIKS integration with management faces some challenges in the form of a lack of documentation, cultural sensitivity, language barriers legal framework, etc. Savita Lathwal "Integration of Indian Indigenous Knowledge System in Management: Prospects and Challenges" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-8 | Issue-1 , February 2024, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd63500.pdf Paper Url: https://www.ijtsrd.com/management/accounting-and-finance/63500/integration-of-indian-indigenous-knowledge-system-in-management-prospects-and-challenges/savita-lathwal
DeepMask Transforming Face Mask Identification for Better Pandemic Control in...ijtsrd
The COVID 19 pandemic has highlighted the crucial need of preventive measures, with widespread use of face masks being a key method for slowing the viruss spread. This research investigates face mask identification using deep learning as a technological solution to be reducing the risk of coronavirus transmission. The proposed method uses state of the art convolutional neural networks CNNs and transfer learning to automatically recognize persons who are not wearing masks in a variety of circumstances. We discuss how this strategy improves public health and safety by providing an efficient manner of enforcing mask wearing standards. The report also discusses the obstacles, ethical concerns, and prospective applications of face mask detection systems in the ongoing fight against the pandemic. Dilip Kumar Sharma | Aaditya Yadav "DeepMask: Transforming Face Mask Identification for Better Pandemic Control in the COVID-19 Era" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-8 | Issue-1 , February 2024, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd64522.pdf Paper Url: https://www.ijtsrd.com/engineering/electronics-and-communication-engineering/64522/deepmask-transforming-face-mask-identification-for-better-pandemic-control-in-the-covid19-era/dilip-kumar-sharma
Streamlining Data Collection eCRF Design and Machine Learningijtsrd
Efficient and accurate data collection is paramount in clinical trials, and the design of Electronic Case Report Forms eCRFs plays a pivotal role in streamlining this process. This paper explores the integration of machine learning techniques in the design and implementation of eCRFs to enhance data collection efficiency. We delve into the synergies between eCRF design principles and machine learning algorithms, aiming to optimize data quality, reduce errors, and expedite the overall data collection process. The application of machine learning in eCRF design brings forth innovative approaches to data validation, anomaly detection, and real time adaptability. This paper discusses the benefits, challenges, and future prospects of leveraging machine learning in eCRF design for streamlined and advanced data collection in clinical trials. Dhanalakshmi D | Vijaya Lakshmi Kannareddy "Streamlining Data Collection: eCRF Design and Machine Learning" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-8 | Issue-1 , February 2024, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd63515.pdf Paper Url: https://www.ijtsrd.com/biological-science/biotechnology/63515/streamlining-data-collection-ecrf-design-and-machine-learning/dhanalakshmi-d
Gender and Mental Health - Counselling and Family Therapy Applications and In...PsychoTech Services
A proprietary approach developed by bringing together the best of learning theories from Psychology, design principles from the world of visualization, and pedagogical methods from over a decade of training experience, that enables you to: Learn better, faster!
CapTechTalks Webinar Slides June 2024 Donovan Wright.pptxCapitolTechU
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A Visual Guide to 1 Samuel | A Tale of Two HeartsSteve Thomason
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A business may deal with both sales and purchases occasionally. They buy things from vendors and then sell them to their customers. Such dealings can be confusing at times. Because multiple clients may inquire about the same product at the same time, after purchasing those products, customers must be assigned to them. Odoo has a tool called Reception Report that can be used to complete this assignment. By enabling this, a reception report comes automatically after confirming a receipt, from which we can assign products to orders.
Elevate Your Nonprofit's Online Presence_ A Guide to Effective SEO Strategies...TechSoup
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2. International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (IJTSRD) @ www.ijtsrd.com eISSN: 2456-6470
@ IJTSRD | Unique Paper ID – IJTSRD38375 | Volume – 5 | Issue – 2 | January-February 2021 Page 292
perspectives of war, contemporary Clausewitzian and anti-
Clausewitzian perspectives of war.
Objectives of the Study
The objectives of this study are:
1. To examine the Clausewitzian perspectives of war
2. To examine the anti-Clausewitzian perspectives of war
3. To examine the contemporary Clausewitzian
perspectives of war
Research Methodology
This is basically a library and descriptive research. Therefore,
thestudyreliessolelyonsecondarysourcesforthegenerationof
data. The methods or instruments employed in collecting data
andinformationforthestudyismainlysecondarysourcewhich
include,publishedmaterials,governmentrecords,annualreport
or agencies, daily newspapers, textbooks, libraries, dairies,
seminar papers, internet research and official publications of
government. All the data generated were intensively cross
checkedandthoroughlysubjectedtocontentanalysis.According
to Okafor (2017, p. 114), raw data have no meaning until they
are analyzed. In other words, it is analysis that impact meaning
todata.Inviewofthis,thedatainthisworkwasanalyzedinline
with the objectives of the study.
Literature Review
The reviewed of related literature is based on the
documentation of Von Clausewitz theory of war. The first
section focused on Von Clausewitz's biography, his
conception of war, anti-Clausewitzian perspectives and
contemporary perspectives of war.
Conceptualising War
The concept of war has various interpretations, just like
some concepts in social sciences. Despite these variances, it
has a unique attribute, which is a species in the genus of
violence; more specifically, it is collective, direct, manifest,
personal, intentional, organized, institutionalized,
instrumental, sanctioned, and sometimes ritualized and
regulated, violence (Johan, 2018). In principle, according to
international law, conflict may only take place within
independent political entities, states
Johan (2018) defines war as a social and political
phenomenon. It is a way of addressing conflicts within the
highest order political entity units. Many of those who have
been dealing with war as a socio-political problem have
often taken as their essential assumption that there is a
profound distinction between domestic disputes and
regional conflicts that arise in the state of chaos. Wars have
been seen as specifically affecting state agencies, such as the
foreign offices and the armed forces. Because war is placed
in an international sense, states' existence and death could
be at the stake of war (Aron, 1966).
There is a general understanding of conflict as inter-state
phenomena has been held by many students, regardless of
their professional experience as political theorists,
historians, sociologists, psychologists or military observers.
The School of Political Realism maintains that nation-states
can only realise their national interests by showing their
ability to combat and use wars at different degrees of
magnitude as a national policy tool to accomplish valid ends
(Lider, 1977). Sorel (1912) defined war as a “political act by
means of which states, unable to adjust a dispute regarding
their obligations, rights or interests, resort to armedforce to
decide which is the stronger and may therefore impose its
will on the other”.
Kallen (1939) appears to prefer a political concept of war as
he writes “war may be described as an armed struggle
between two or more sovereign entities using coordinated
military forces in pursuit of particular goals.” He adds that
this organisation of the contending armed forces stretches
back behind the battle lines. Kallen (1939) in Johan (2018)
criticises von Clausewitz' concept of war as "an act of
aggression in order to cause the adversary to do what we
wish" as being overly general and indefinite. He says that
"this term can also refer to most of what is called harmony,
especially in sport, business and finance. It could relate to
someone's act of aggression if it arises. As confined to war,
this refers to pre-Napoleonic and pre-industrial periodsand
intentions, when war was seen as a business, and a
gentleman's game". There are several drawbacks to this
concept. It acknowledges conflict within a nation such as
civil war, militant war, racial war, and religious war.
Johnson (1935) quoted in Johan (2018) describes war as a
"violent struggle between demographicgroupsconceived as
organic units, such as races or tribes, states or lesser
territorial unit; religious or political parties, economic
classes." According to Bernard (1944), this concept can be
regarded as roughly sociological because it does not restrict
violent conflict to political units but encompasses any form
of population entity capable of resorting to arms as a means
of resolving disputes. The concept might be too vague
because it does not define the length of the dispute or the
extent of the opposing parties. As it stands, this description
may involve protests. Russell's (1916), quoted in Johan
(2018), described war as a "conflict between two parties,
one of which tries to destroy and maim as many of the other
groups as necessary in order to obtain what it wishes" is
much more common and uncritically inclusive. Russell
points forth the purpose over which men are battling as
"generally strength or money." Wallace (1968) considers
war to be the "the act of using deadly weapons by citizens of
one community against members ofanother"(citedinJohan,
2018). It is carried out by qualified people employed in
teams headed by a different policy-making group and
assisted in numerous forms by non-combatants."
Deutsch and Senghaas (1971) cited in Johan (2018) defined
war as an operation involving large-scale orchestrated
action, planned and sustained by the compulsion and
authority of the state and its government and aimed toward
another state or quasi-state, i.e. a reasonably comparable
political entity." Barringer (1972) finds war tobea "possible
form of political action intended to address an unresolved
conflict of interest successfully and favourably. In this way,
war is just one of the procedures for dispute, some being
peace, conciliation, consultation, arbitration and
adjudication. It is merely a basic subset of a broader
collection of all types of war, encompassingall socially(ifnot
legally) recognised circumstances in which armed conflicts
of substantial magnitude are undertaken ona systemicbasis
by armed forces of two or more political groups,
organisations, countries, governments or states. Bernard
(1944) described war as:
A constant confrontation against or between
collectivities of some sort capable of arming and
3. International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (IJTSRD) @ www.ijtsrd.com eISSN: 2456-6470
@ IJTSRD | Unique Paper ID – IJTSRD38375 | Volume – 5 | Issue – 2 | January-February 2021 Page 293
organising themselves for a brutal fight fought by
military forces on the land (or naval units on the
water) and assisted by civilian or incompletely
militarised communities on the back of the combat
zones constituted for the pursuit of certain
reasonably well-defended ones (p.34).
Gahia (2008, p.186) sees war as “always form of political
struggle”. A political struggle is a contest for power. This
preposition is conformitywiththeviewofClausewitz(which
is the crux of this study) that war is an act of violence
intended to compel our opponents to fulfil WILL as a part of
the continuation of political intercourse. “War is organised
combat between armed groups in a struggle for power”
(Gahia, 2008, p.186). The above definition sees war as a
means of achieving political objectives. This seems to
correlate with the view of Clausewitz in his book On War.
The next heading will explore the biography of Carl Von
Clausewitz, a renounce scholar in military and strategic
studies.
Who is Clausewitz?
To provide context, it is necessary to explore Von
Clausewitz's biography and the reality of warfare during his
time. Carl Von Clausewitz was born on June 1, 1780, in Burg,
which was close to Magdeburg (Prussia). Clausewitz’sfather
was a lieutenant in the Prussian army of Frederick theGreat.
Like his father, Clausewitz became a military man. When
Clausewitz was thirteen, he received his “baptism by fire”
during the campaign against the French armies. In addition
to being a soldier, Clausewitz was also very interested in
educating himselfinmanydifferentsubjectareas.Clausewitz
was accepted into the military school in Berlin: an
accomplishment for the times. Clausewitz dedicated his life
to thinking, practising and fighting war.
From his start at the War Academy, Clausewitz rose through
the Prussian ranks, eventually becoming Chief of Staff.
Clausewitz grew up and participated in a period of
significant change in European warfare. The war against the
French in 1793 was the war of the First Coalition, which
sought the destructionofthe revolutionaryregimeinFrance.
Howard (2013) comments on this periodofClausewitz’slife:
“during the following decade, in a Brandenburggarrisonand
then as a student at the Berlin War Academy, he observed
the new dynamism of the French nation and of her military
tool as it developed, became institutionalised, and extended
its power across Europe.” Clausewitz lived through a
significant change in warfare, which was reflected in his
thinking and writing. This development shapedandordered
his war’s philosophy. The elites in Prussia and the elites in
other European countries, were concerned withtheidealsof
the French revolution. At its core, the French revolution
emphasised the overthrow of Europe's social order and the
people's role and their relationship with the government.
The French Revolution represented a shift in the
understanding of the role of the people in society. In this
post-revolutionary world, the social contract of the ancient
régime, emphasised by the monarch's sovereignty as the
emissary of God, was now replaced by the people's
sovereignty. In military terms, Napoleon represented a
revolution in military affairs (RMA) produced by the levee
enemas (conscription), and the decisive battle (massive
climactic battles that ended conflict).
Against this backdrop of changes in warfare, Clausewitz
began to develop his unique theory of warfare. Clausewitz
can be separated from other military scholars by the
‘wholeness’ of his approach and the reality he brings to the
discussion of war. “Clausewitz insisted that any meaningful
theory should be able to accommodate all elements
pertaining to its subject.” This is in stark contrast to other
military scholars of the time, such as Bulow and Jomini, who
focused exclusively on formulas and fixed rules for warfare
(Dimitriu, 2018). For example, Jomini believed that certain
scientific principles governed the conduct of war. Chief
among these were the lines of operations and the focus on
the decisive point. According to Jomini theseprincipleswere
unchanging and reflected the proper form of war. In 1818,
Clausewitz was given the directorship of the War College in
Berlin and promoted to the rank of Major-General. For the
next twelve years, Clausewitz dedicated himself to what
would eventually become On War. In 1830, Clausewitz was
recalled into service as an artillery commander. Later that
year, when the spectre of a new European war appeared on
the horizon, Clausewitz was appointed Chief of Staff of the
Prussian army. During the Polish rebellion suppression,
Clausewitz’s army attempted to create a quarantine to
suppress the cholera epidemic.
Unfortunately, Clausewitz contracted and later died of
cholera. Clausewitz never fully finished his work, and it was
left to his wife to organise his papers and publish the book.
When Clausewitz began On War, he expressed his desire to
write a book that would deal with the major elements of
strategy. This indicates a very narrow focus, but for
Clausewitz, strategy entailstheentiretythatiswar,including
political, organisational, and tactical concerns. In a note
written in 1818, Clausewitz reveals a desire to “write a book
that would not be forgotten after two or three years,’ and so
he set about to theorise war, provide strategy and tactical
advice and argue the consequences of war. Simpson posits
and defends a simple dichotomy in war types. Hoffman
(2013) defines conventional war and the “Clausewitzian
paradigm” as wars fought to “establish military conditions
for a political solution.” The author contends that in such
wars, the military operates as a “domain” and
indirectly creates the necessary conditions for political
results. This is contrasted with conflicts in which military
forces are employed to “directly seek political, asopposedto
military outcomes.”
On War is divided into eight books; the books and a short description provided are found in Table1
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@ IJTSRD | Unique Paper ID – IJTSRD38375 | Volume – 5 | Issue – 2 | January-February 2021 Page 294
Book One: “On the Nature of War” Describes war and its nature, including:
what war is, moral forces in war,
uncertainty in war and friction from the
point of view of the soldier. It is in this
The book that Clausewitz first discusses the
“reasons for war.”
Book Two: “On the Theory of War” Discusses Clausewitz’s theory of war
, including an analysis of war as neither a
science nor an art. He provides historical
examples of war and outlines his analytical approach.
Book Three: “On Strategy in General” An in depth analysis of strategy including discussion of: force, concentration
offorces, time, space and the impact of moral
factors on strategy. His years as a military leader helped to inform this
chapter.
Book Four: “The Engagement” Examines the main aspect of war, fighting, focusing on strategy and tactics.
Book Five: “Military Forces” Discusses the troops and underlines the specialness of war and the character
of man
needed.
Book Six: “Defense” Describes and analyses the relationship
between attack and defence with a focus upon defence in war. Book Seven:
“The Attack” Similar to Book Six except
Book Seven: “The Attack” Similar to Book Six except with a focus upon the attack or offensive in battle.
Book Eight: “War Plans” Examines absolute and real war as well the character of total war, limited
war, offensive war and defensive war. It represents the conclusion of the book
and is both a summary and a cautionary tale for future politicians and
soldiers. This book, along with books five and six, discuss the “conduct of
war”
Source: Shephard, (2007).
On War is not the usual strategy and tactics’ handbook ofthe
time. Clausewitz wanted his readers to understand the
nature of war and all its horrors, the specialness of the
troops needed, theleadershiprequiredofGeneralsand,most
importantly, the connectionbetweenthe political decisionto
engage in war, the conduct of war and the consequences.
There are many interesting ideas in On War. However,
specifically relevant to this article is the “on war” variables
(that is, the political objectives of war - either submission,
overthrow, or concessions) and the conductofwarvariables
offensive/defensive war and limited/unlimited war). These
variables are the key variables for comparison with modern
wars because they represent the logic of decisions to go to
war and the objectives to be achieved, which Clausewitz
explained represented the true nature of warfare.
Clausewitz Perspective of War
War involves a lot of actions and weapons between or
among warring countries. Clausewitz is famous primarily as
a military theorist who examined war dialecticsbasedon his
participation in the Napoleonic war. Hisprinciplebook isON
WAR, which is a significant work on the philosophy of war.
He tried to reach a fuller understanding of the nature of war
by exploring his subject dialectically, an approach popular
among 19thcentury German philosophers.'First,heassumes
that the object of war is political-to impose one's Will on the
enemy. He then logically constructs a thesis regarding
"absolute" war-that is, war as a pure act of physical force
abstracted from other variables(suchasinternational lawor
scarce resources) that might limit it but are theoretically
external to the concept of war itself. In this abstract sense,
the aim of warfare is purely military-to disarm the enemy,
rendering him powerless to resist the victor's will.
Clausewitz deduces the"pure,"unencumberedinteractionof
military forces, leading inevitably through escalation to
extremes of Will and effort. Into this "logical fantasy,"
however, steps reality.' War neitherbreaksoutnorproceeds
in isolation from external variables. For example, necessary
resources (forces, material, etc.) may be unavailable or take
excessive time to mobilise or develop. Allies may not
cooperate. Physical barriers(vastdistances,mountains,seas,
etc.) may impede efforts to concentrate military power in
space and time. "Culminating points" may be reached and
action suspended.' Information and intelligence may be
deficient or misused. Resolve and morale may be weak.
Leaders may be daring, indecisive, or foolhardy. Chance
interferes. "Friction" complicates planning and retards
action.' Treaties, international law, or custom may
circumscribe options. All of these and other variables act to
limit the conduct of warfare, which creates an antithesis to
the theoretical gravitation of war toward absolute violence.
Thus, according to Clausewitz, War has a dual nature and is
pulled by opposing escalation and limitation tendencies.
Given this duality, the degree of effortthatshouldbemade in
war becomes a matter of judgment that requires a constant
assessment of the probabilities of success in the light of
known circumstances. Since success or failure can be
measured only with respect to the political object-the
original motive for the war-political policy must be the
state's supreme consideration in judging what military
objective to pursue and what level of effort to mount for its
achievement. This leads logically to Clausewitz's famous
dictum that war is "a true political instrument, a
continuation of political activity by other means”(Shephard,
2007, p.86).
With the addition of this third dimension-the subordination
of war to policy-to his earlier construct of a duality of war,
Clausewitz refines his concept by concluding that "as a total
phenomenon its dominant tendencies always make war a
remarkable trinity" (Shephard, 2007, p.86). The first
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tendency of war-its intrinsic tendency-is toward unlimited
violence and enmity. The second is the play of chance that
real individuals and circumstancesinterject(theuncertainty
so generated must be managed by the commander and his
army in the planning and conduct of battle). The third is the
subjection of war to rational direction by the political
leadership of thegovernmentsengaged.Eachwarfindssome
point of balance among these variable tendencies, "like an
object suspended between three magnets” (Shephard,2007,
p.86).
To Clausewitz, war is nothing but a duel on an extensive
scale. War is the realm of uncertainty. If we would conceive
as a unit the countless number of duels which make up a
war, we shall do so best by supposing to ourselves two
wrestlers. Each strives by physical force to compel the other
to submit to his Will; his first object is to throw his
adversary, and thus to render him incapable of further
resistance. It is also an act of force to compel our enemy to
do our WILL. War is different from other activitiesbecauseit
employs violence and bloodshed (Bhandwaj, 2017).
Political Objective: The reason to go to war always lies in
some political situation, and the occasion is always due to
some political object. Politics thus determine both the
military objective to be reached and the amount of effort it
requires. War is nothing but the continuation of policy by
other means. Clausewitz explains thatwarisfoughtforthree
reasons:
Concessions: When a state seeks concessions, they seek to
obtain limited objectives from another state by
strengthening their bargaining position in relation to their
enemy.
Submission: When a state seeks submission, they impose
their Will upon their enemy, thereby forcing them to accept
their terms.
Overthrow: This is related to submission in that when one
state is replacing the ruling regime, they are forcing them
into submission. The difference is that submission can be
related to minor objectives as well as those of conquest and
overthrow. Overthrow is unique in that one state is
destroying the sovereignty of the other state.
Offensive War: According to Clausewitz,themainfeature of
an offensive battle is the out-flanking or bypassing of the
defender⎯that is, taking the initiative. In modern terms, it
means to strike first. Defensive wars are a reaction to an
attack. The object of offensive attack is the enemy's
subjugation and the destruction on their Will to resist.
Defensive War: This type of war is about preservation. It is
a negative form (negative suggests you do nothing) ofaction
aimed at destroying enough of the enemy’s power to force
them to renounce their intentions. Every single act of
resistance is directed to that act alone, and that is what
makes our policy negative
Clausewitzian Typologies of War
Clausewitz divided the War into two: Absolute WarandReal
War
Absolute War
Absolute War demands an instantaneous and maximum
discharge of violence to overpower the enemy completely.
He also says that there is no logical limit to the application of
force in this act of violence. This is term as “absolute war”.
Violence, he says, is the means. The ultimate object is the
‘compulsory submission of the enemy to our will’ and, in
order to achieve this, the enemy must be disarmed. He then
goes on to explain why this must lead to the extreme use of
violence.
The overthrow of the enemy is the natural end of the
act of war, and that if we would keep within the
strictly philosophical limits of theidea,therecanbeno
other in reality. As this idea must apply to both
belligerent parties, it must follow that there can be
no suspension in the military act, and peace cannot
take place until one or other of the parties concerned
is overthrown (Kaldor, 2010, p.4).
Clausewitz’s notion of absolute war, I would argue, explains
why he is so preoccupied with the suspension of the act of
war and with a defensive war. Indeed, a whole section of
Book I, Chapter I is devoted to the problem of suspending
War. The logic of absolute war suggests that war should be
concentrated in a single blow – a point that Clausewitz,
(1997) makes repeatedly:
A suspension of the act of warfare, strictly speaking,
is in contradiction with the nature of the thing:
because two armies, being incompatible elements,
should destroy one another unremittingly,justasfire
and water can never put themselves in equilibrium,
but act and react upon one another, until one quite
disappears. What would besaidoftwowrestlerswho
remained clasped round each other for hours
without making a movement? (Kaldor, 2010, p.4).
Yet, he acknowledges, most wars involve waiting around;
‘standing still’ is the norm. Much of his explanation has to do
with the timidity and imperfection of human perception. He
describes 18th-centurywars as‘shrivelled-up’‘half-and-half’
affairs; this is partly explained by the failure to mobilise
national power, which only becamepossibleaftertheFrench
Revolution.
Absolute war means total obliterationofthe enemy.Violence
does not stop anywhere. Force is instantaneously applied
until the enemy is decimated. But is such a war possible? If
such a war is not possible why it is not possible? What are
those things that constraints war from becoming absolute
war? From becoming total annihilating? This what he
described as an absolute war. If the war is unchecked, it will
go on and on and destroy the entire enemy, which is not the
aim of war. Total destroy is not the aim of war. Total
destruction through a nuclear bomb is not the aim of war.
Thus, absolute war is also known as war in theory or
absolute war. Absolute war is waged withall availableforces
and resources without interruption until one side can
impose its will on the other. Absolute war can become
uncontrollable because of the situational dilemma. The
dilemma is that, if I refrain from using extreme methods in
war, my enemy may gain advantages by using extreme
methods. This compels me to use maximum force, andthisis
what leads to absolute war. Since war aim is to disarm the
enemy, the opponent continues to fight until a total
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subjugation of the opponent is achieved. The complete
defeat of the enemy characterises this type of war through
the destruction of their centre of gravity (the hub of all
power) and their will to resist. As war is an act of force to
compel our enemy to do our Will, absolute war demands
your enemy's complete submission, whereby you impose
your will on them. It often involves the annexation of
territory, forced “colonisation” of people and surrender of
sovereign control of state decision making
Absolute War is Irrational
Absolute war is guided by its inherent dynamics and
momentum. It tends to move up the escalation ladders and
use all available means to defeat the enemy. Its extreme and
instantaneous nature doesnotpermitthepolitical processto
come in between. Therefore, it is irrational and apolitical.
Such an absolute war can only happen in theory or onpaper.
For instance, this kind of war is the detonation of the atomic
bomb in Japan. The absolute war was prevented during the
Cold War era because of the level of sanity. This is called
nuclear doctrine (Mutual Assured Destruction, MAD). This
kind of war entails total destruction. But the total aim is to
impose your WILL on your enemy. So if your enemy is
annihilated, who will you impose your Will on? That is the
logic behind the absolute war. It did not also allow any
constraint such as politics to come in. This propels scholars
to ask these yelling questions; is absolute war possible.Ifno,
then, why this kind of war does not happen in reality?
Why absolute war does not occur in reality?
Clausewitz gives the following explanation to the above
questions:
1. War is never an isolated act; It is not self-contained. It
does not occur in a political vacuum and enemies are
completely unfamiliar with each other.
2. War is never confined to a single decisive act. So a state
does not have to use all its forces. Thus, sufficient forces
are deployed for the immediate operational
requirement.
3. All available forces could never realistically be
concentrated in one place at one time.
4. No victory is final and the vanquished will generally see
the situation as a temporary setback and seek
restitution through political process. War happen when
negotiation and diplomacy failed. The two enemies are
familiar with each other. War does not involves the use
absolute force.
The aim of war is limited especially in the choice of weapons
used. Absolute war required absolute forces in one place in
the war. War has limited aim to be achieved with limited
forces.
Limited War
Since absolute war is not possible in the environment which
we are living, therefore, there is a real war; a war which
happen in the environment which imposea lotofconstraints
on the entire conduct of war. He also said the aim of waristo
impose your WILL on your enemy. Example,isIraqiwar. The
US told Saddam Hussein to dismantle his nuclear arsenal.
But Saddam Hussein did not agree. Then, the US launched it
weapons and force him to accept their WILL. They invaded
the country, and Saddam Hussein went to hiding in his
palace. So, primarily, every war purpose is to impose your
WILL on the enemy to make him do what we want him to do
(Bhandwaj, 2017). The aim of war is toimposeyour WILL on
the enemy.
Somewhere in Clausewitz logic implies the existence and
logic of limited war. In this context, limited war is war
combine with politics is no longer maximum discharges of
violence, “an act of violence pushed to its utmost bounds”. It
is an event that can range from the overwhelming use of
force to minor engagements“. from wars of extermination
down to simple armed observations. War happens in a
limited context. War is an act of policy. Political calculation
introduced rational calculation. War must be done base on
the cost-benefit analysis
Effects of Politics on the War
Politics constrains the absoluteness of war. The transition
from absolute to real war is achieved by introducing the
political objectives of war. To Clausewitz, limited war is not
an instantaneous discharge of violencebecauseitisconfined
to time and space, the opportunity for political exigencies to
prevail. This window of opportunity actually providesspace
for politics to play its part and guide it. Politics stops the
animalistic instinct to destroy the entire earth. The real war
is rational and logical (Bhandwaj, 2017).
The Real War Objectives is not Irrational and Apolitical
1. In a real war, the military objective is determined by
politics.
2. Political authorities determined the level of reciprocity
or response from the opponent.
3. Political authority determined and the amount of
resources it requires. Against this backdrop, David
Easton defined politics as an authoritative allocation of
values (resources). Both parties are rational actors in
the battles. Thus, they prevent total annihilation. India
and Pakistan fought four war wars under real war.
War is an Act of Policy
The policy sets both the context for the war and shapes how
it is fought. Political calculations introduced the rational
calculations of end and means, costandbenefitsanalysisand
determined the investment that a protagonist is prepared to
invest to achieve its political ends, to enhance national
interest. Politics regulate the animalistic instinct in human
being. It is essential to constraints war from going to
absolute. War is the continuation of politics by other means.
This is one significant contribution Clausewitz made in
politics and military strategies.
War is Continuation of Politics by Other Means
The political objective is the goal; war is the means of
reaching it. War is subordinate to politics, but it is an
integrated part of the policy of “a continuation of political
intercourse on with other means. Although political
elements restrict war, Clausewitz states that sometimes
more compelling and inspiring political motives or the
higher the potential stakes, the more violent the conflict can
be. War is subordinate to politics. Politics moderate the
escalation of war. Politicsdeterminethepurposeof war. War
is not merely an act of policy but a true political instrument,
a continuation of political intercourse, carried on with other
means” (Clausewitz, 2007, p.28). Is war not just another
expression of their thoughts, another form of speech or
writing?
Friction, Constraints that make Absolute War Limited
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Its political objectives determine the context and nature of
the conflict. Clausewitz introduces inherent constrain in the
discharges of absolute war, thus, making limited war in
reality more likely. He groups these elements under the
heading of “friction”. Countless minor incidents- this kind
you can never really foresee- combine to lower the general
performance level. So that one always falls short of the
intended goal. Friction meansthoseobstaclesthathinder the
conduct of war, for instance, communication network,
weather, health of the field commander and so on
(Bhandwaj, 2017).
Friction or Chance
Friction is described as the frictionofhumanfrailty;physical
exertion; the effects of tiredness or exhaustion on the body
and its ability to think; danger, which makes explicit acts of
judgment more difficulty; uncertainty
Poor communication or physical phenomenon such as
weather may constrain the pace of military operation.
Finally, Clausewitz emphasises the element of chance in
making war the gamble it can be and its frequent relianceon
the luck and guesswork; as he positsnootherhumanactivity
is so continuously bound up with chance” The net effects is
to render what looks achievable and good in theory,
practically difficult. Chance makes war a gamble.
Suspension of Military Action
However, extreme and absolute the conflict's political
objectives, unless ‘an enterprising martial spirit is in
command, inactivity will be the rule and progress the
exception. War cannot be fought continuously. There is a
break in the conduct of war because:
A. Both sides have an incentive to take offensives action
simultaneously
B. Both sides being constrained by a desire to wait for a
better moment before action
C. Poor intelligence, imperfect knowledge of the situation
The Trinitarian Analysis of War
Having specified the cogent determinant that established
why absolute war does notoccurinreality.Clausewitz builds
on the argument by introducing the conceptual framework
that underpinned how real war actual fought. In proposing
the trinity structure of the study of war, he established the
most critical elements that in a partially infinite series of the
element of permutation reflect each war's unique character.
In arguing that war is more than a chameleon that merely
changes colour to match the surroundings but otherwise
remains identical. Clausewitzsaysthatwayisa phenomenon
that, depending on the conditions, can actually take on
radically different forms. The basic sources of change in
those categories of forces; Irrational force (emotion, that is,
primordial violence, hatredandenmity);Non-rational forces
(forces not the product of human thought or intent, such as
“friction, and the play of chance probability”), the rational
Force (war’s subordinate to reason” as an instrument of
policy) (Bhandwaj, 2017).
The trinity is more than a true chameleon that slightly
adapts its characteristic to the given case. As a total
phenomenon, its dominant tendencies always make war a
remarkably trinity-composedofprimordial violence,hatred,
and enmity- which are to be regarded as a blind natural
forces; of the play of chance andprobabilitywithinwhichthe
creative spirit is free to roam; and of its elements of
subordination, as an instrument of policy, which makes it
subject to reason alone. Absolute war has three things
(Trinity of War) Violence, hatred, and enmity. Each nation's
behavior and its capacity to wages war depends on three
groups of factors: the People, Military and the Government.
Government
People Military
Source: Bhandwaj (2017).
The military, whose effectiveness is a friction of the quality
of other commanders and the factors of probability and
chance. The government states the political objectives and
subjects the process to reason. The interactionofthesethree
components: Passion, Chance and Reason determines the
way a country or actor prosecute a particular war at a
particular time and in a particular context
Moderating the War
In reality, friction, chance, difficultyconcentratingmaximum
force at a decisive point, the impacts of moral forces, poor
intelligence, and inactivity modify the execution of the war
and result in an imperfect variant of the absolute model.
These factors inherentmoderatetheinstantaneousnatureof
absolute war, permitting time for political expedients to
intervene and for a rational calculus to be applied; in doing
so real or limited, war becomes a political process.
Reason: Clausewitz tells us that the conduct of war
(strategy, and so on) should be a continuation of rational
calculation and policy and that war inevitablyoriginatesand
exists within the chaotic, unpredictable realmofpolitics.Itis
intertwined with politics. He liking war to a pendulum; thus,
war swing between passion, chance and reasons.
Contemporary Clausewitzian Perspectives of War
Now that the variables have been applied to the wars
mentioned by Clausewitz in On War, it is necessary to
categorise the modern era's wars according to the same
criteria. It will then be possible to draw a conclusion about
the importance of On War in the modern era of warfare.
While the variables for analysing modern conflict stay the
same(that is, the reasons for war remain concession,
submission or overthrow and the conduct of war variables
are offensive/defensive and limited/total war) there are
contemporary differences that should be made clear so as
not to cause confusion during the comparison of
contemporary warfare and the wars of Clausewitz. In
Clausewitz’s time there was no international system that
dealt with the ‘legality’ of warfare. Since the time of
Clausewitz, the rules of warfare have been codified. The
international community has recognised that wars of
aggression are no longer acceptable in the international
arena. After World War II, the international community
founded the United Nations. The preamble of the U.N.
Charter says:
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We the peoples of the united nations determined to
save succeeding generationsfromthescourgeofwar,
which twice in our lifetime has brought untold
sorrow to mankind, and to reaffirm faith in
fundamental human rights, in the dignity and worth
of the human person, in the equal rights of men and
women and of nations large and small, and to
establish conditions under which justice and respect
for the obligations arising from treaties and other
sources of international law can be maintained, and
to promote social progress and better standards of
life in larger freedom, and for these ends to practice
tolerance and live togetherinpeace withoneanother
as good neighbours, and to unite our strength to
maintain international peace and security, and to
ensure, by the acceptance of principles and the
institution of methods, that armed force shall not be
used, save in the common interest, and to employ
international machinery for the promotion of the
economic and social advancement of all peoples
(Fergusson, 2013, p.76).
The U.N. Charter placed limits on the use of force, clearly
stating that war was now illegal except in three
circumstances:
1. Threats to international peace and security,
2. Breaches of peace and
3. Self-defence against aggression.
In the case of the first two circumstances, action against
belligerents would require authorisation from the Security
Council (Fergusson, 2013,p.76). The third reason for war,
self-defence, does not require Security Council approval asit
is recognised as an inherent right of states. This change in
internationally accepted norms and laws that govern
international conflict reflect the classification of offensive
and defensive wars in the contemporary era. The conduct of
modern wars is classified as either offensive or defensive
according to the criteria set forth in On War and by current
international law. For example, any state that threatens
international peace and security, breaches the peace, or
engages in armed aggression is conducting an offensive war
(Fergusson, 2013, p.76). On the other hand, any state that is
authorised by the Security Council, or is repelling an act of
aggression is conducting a defensive war. These distinctions
will become clearer in the table below. The other variables
are unaffected by contemporary distinction. The political
reasons for war have always varied, but have been
coherently reflected by concessions, submission, and
overthrow categories. Similarly, whether a war is total or
limited remains a reflection of the political objectives and is,
accordingly, unchanged from generation to generation. For
example, the ferocity of total warfare may indeed increase
over time due to the technological and societal changes that
have occurred over time (for example, RMA). Total war is
now so destructive because it involves the use of nuclear
weapons. However, even with these changes, the character
of war remains the same.
Case Study Comparison
The application of the variables gleaned from On War has
shown that the modern era wars share some of the same
characteristics as those of the modern era. This does not
mean that all of On War is universally valid, nor does itmean
that Clausewitz is without fault or criticism. Instead, this
comparison shows that, at the bare minimum, Clausewitz is
still relevant in the grand scheme of contemporary strategic
thought. An analysis of the results of the data reveals the
following similarities and differences between the wars of
Clausewitz’s time and the modern era:
The following table classifies the nine wars analysed
according to the variables:
Clausewitzian Interstate Wars
Reason for War Conduct of War
War Date Instigator
Political Objectives:
Concessions or
Submission or Overthrow
Offensive or
Defensive war
Limited or Total
War
War of
Austrian 1740- 1748 Prussia
Concessions:
Conquest and
annexation of Silesia
Offensive Limited
Seven
Years’ War
1756-
1763
Prussia
Concessions:
Acquisition of
Austrian territory
Offensive Total/Limited War
War of the
First
Coalition
1792-
1797
Habsburg Empire
Submission:
Overthrow of
French Republic
Offensive Total
War Dates Instigator Reasons for War Conduct of War
Napoleonic
1803-
1815
France
Submission:
Overthrow and
creation of French Empire
Offensive Total
Source: Fergusson, (2013, p.76).
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Modern Interstate Conflicts 1990 – 2012.
Reasons for War Conduct of the War
War Dates
Instigators
perspective
Major
objective
today
Major
objective in
Clausewitzian terms
(Submission, concession
or overthrow)
Offensive or
Defensive
Limited or
Total War
Gulf War
1990-
1991
US
Expel Iraq
from Kuwait
Submission Defensive Limited
Bosnian
Independence
1992-
1995
US-NATO
End armed
conflict
Concessions Defensive Limited
Azerbaijan-
Armenia
1993-
1994
Armenia
Territorial
Acquisition
Concession Offensive Limited
Ecuador-Peru 1995 Ecuador
Removing
Peruvian patrols
from disputed
areas
Concession Offensive Limited
Eritrea-
Ethiopia
1998-
1999
Eritrea
Invasion of
Disputed territory
Concession Offensive Limited
Kosovo 1999 US-NATO End violence Concession Offensive Limited
Pakistan-India 1999 Pakistan
Pakistani
intrusion into
Kashmir
Concession Offensive Limited
Invasion
Afghanistan
2001-
2014
US – NATO
Coalition
Expel Osama
bin Laden and
Taliban
Submission Defensive Total
Invasion Iraq
2003-
2011
US
(Coalition of
the willing)
Expel Saddam
Hussein and
destroy WMD
Overthrow Offensive Total
Source: Fergusson, (2013, p.76).
These tables then allow within time period comparisons and between time period comparisons. A review of the results
suggests that half of Clausewitz’s wars have concession as a political objective while the other half is submissions. If we
compare the dominant characteristics of modern wars, they too are mainly concessions. This means that the initial review
suggests that Clausewitz’s wars and modern wars do share at least some similarities. Therefore, On War may still have merit
today? In terms of the conduct of war, many of the Clausewitzian wars were offensive as are many of the modern variants.
However, the wars' conduct is mixed; while Clausewitzian wars were aimed for total war,today’sare(mercifully)limited.This
suggests that Clausewitz’s discussions of the nature of war, may, in fact, be of limited applicability to today’s wars.
Anti-Clausewitzian Perspectives of War
The first group of critics tends to reject Clausewitz based on
temporal and/or logic arguments. This group is exemplified
by Liddell Hart and John Keegan, both of whom are
renowned experts in the field of war studies. John Keegan
believes that Clausewitz’s theory is inherently flawed due to
Clausewitz’s limited ability to understand war outsideof the
context of the old, European state system. In A History of
Warfare, Keegan argues that Clausewitz was mistaken in his
beliefs about the reasons for war, specificallythedeclaration
that war is a continuation of politics. Liddell Hart, on the
other hand, blamed Clausewitz for the catastrophe that was
embedded in WWI and WW2, believing that it was
Clausewitz’s teachings thatwere responsibleforthefocuson
the offensive and the brutal war of attrition that was fought
attempting to make war in reality reflect Clausewitz’swar in
theory. Hart, therefore, criticises Clausewitz for his ideas
about the conduct of war. John Keegan is a renowned
military scholar and has published many books on strategy
and warfare. Keegan analyses the phenomenon of warfare,
seeking to gain an understanding of the causes andnature of
warfare. For Keegan,warisaninherentlycultural institution.
In his book, A History of Warfare (1993), Keegan begins by
questioning one of the central theses of Clausewitzian
thought; the idea of war as a continuation of politicsbyother
means. According to Keegan, war is definitely not the
continuation of politics by othermeans.Keeganbelievesthat
Clausewitz is talking about Western European political
interactions in his analysis of war as a political tool. Keegan
analyses warfare by beginning with the question of whether
violence and therefore, the organised violence that is
warfare, is inherent to the human condition rather than a
concerted tool of statecraft decided on by stateleadership to
achieve national interests. Keegan decides that he cannot
prove this. After much debate, Keegan decides that war is a
cultural phenomenon that can eventually be untaught. Even
if Keegan’s thesis is correct, that war is a cultural
phenomenon, it does not follow that Clausewitz’ theorem is
incorrect (Moody,1979). To the contrary,itwouldseemthat,
in fact, Clausewitz and Keegan do agree on this point. For
Clausewitz, the relationship between politics and strategy,
and thus the relationship between politics and war, is about
the nature of culture and society, but for different ends, a
point Keegan ignores or assumes as irrelevant. Keegan
believes that warfare is a fundamentally human institution
based on cultural experiences,andthatClausewitz’sanalysis
of war is superficial and lacking in perspective.
On the opening page of A History of Warfare, Keegan directly
challenges Clausewitz by intentionally using the header,
“What is War?” Keegan chooses to begin his analysis by
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saying what war is not; “War IS NOT THE continuation of
policy by other means. The world would be a simpler place
to understand if this dictum of Clausewitz’s were true”
(Emphasis in original). Keegan argues that Clausewitz is too
naïve in suggesting that decision-makers can turn on andoff
war. Keegan believes that war is more than politics, it is a
part of our nature. Man is a war-making animal. He would
conduct war whether or not specifically directed. Keegan,
therefore, is more Hobbesian than a 21st-century war
scholar. It is interesting to note that Clausewitzexplainsfirst
and foremost that, “war is thus an act of force to compel our
enemy to do our will." In other words, Keegan believes that
war is inherent in human nature, whereas Clausewitz
believes that war is a means to an end. Keegan thinks that
Clausewitz’s theory of warfare is incomplete because he is a
man of his times. Accordingly, Clausewitz is merely a
reflection of the European state system of which he was a
member:
Clausewitz’s thought is incomplete. It implies the
existence of states, of state interests and of rational
calculation about how they may be achieved.Yetwar
antedates the state, diplomacy and strategy by many
millennia. Warfare is almost as old as man himself,
and reaches into the most secret places of thehuman
heart, places where self dissolves rational purpose,
where pride reigns, where emotion is paramount,
where instinct is king. Man is a political
animal….Clausewitz went no further than to say that
a political animal is a war-makinganimal (Fergusson,
2013, p.76).
Keegan is proposing that war is more than rational actions.
War cannot be controlled because it is about emotions and
man’s apparent animalistic nature. Clausewitz actually
agrees with Keegan about this point,discussingthesefactors
on the second page of On War. Not only does Clausewitz
discuss the ‘passionate’ causes of war, but also he points out
that the circumstances, institutions and so forth are
determining factors in the conflict.
Keegan and Hart (1861) impression of Clausewitz was
affected by what they saw as ‘Clausewitz’ in WWI. For
Keegan, politics was not to be found in the practices of WWI.
Keegan and Hart both believed that Clausewitz’s theory
provided for military domination over policy. Military
leaders assumed absolute control over policy driving their
nations towards victory for the sake of victory itself. As a
further critique of the political nature of war, Keegan argues
that WWI approached absolute war due to the separation of
war from politics. The problem with this view is that
Clausewitz clearly states that the absolute war's theoretical
abstraction is never achievable due to the limiting factors
that are extended upon war by the political realm. With this
understanding, it becomes clear that WWI could not have
been an absolute war because it is not achievable - absolute
war is a theory only. With this in mind, it is important to
reflect upon what Keegan said about WWI and absolute war
or what Keegan refers to as ‘true war:
In the First World War ‘real war’ and ‘true war’
rapidly became indistinguishable; the moderating
influences which Clausewitz, as a dispassionate
observer of military phenomena, had declared
always operated to bring a war’s potential nature
and actual purpose into adjustment dwindled into
invisibility…The war’s political objects were
forgotten, political restraints were
overwhelmed…politics even in the liberal
democracies was rapidly reduced to a mere
justification of bigger battles…Politics played nopart
in the conduct of the First World War worth
mentioning (Fergusson, 2013, p.76).
Absolute war, in theory, is war without any limits. As
destructive as WWI was, it was nota war without limits. No
one disputes WWI was a horrible, bloody war, but it was not
absolute war - violence without purpose, without political
goals, without restraint, especially political restraint. For
Keegan to argue that there were no political objectivesinthe
war is faulty logic. The fact that the states' objectivesinWWI
changed throughout the course of the warsuggestslimits(in
multiple forms for example, the number of fighting men,
whether, new weapons) necessitate changes to battle plans.
If there were no limits, there would be no need to change
battle plans.
Hart (1961) criticism is also rooted in a belief that
Clausewitz’s theory is flawed. Hart criticised Clausewitz as
being responsible for German militarism. Hart was also
deeply affected by WWI's destruction, as he was a
participant who saw, firsthand, the destruction and carnage
of the Great War. This led him to be overly critical of
Clausewitz, blaming him for the brutality of the war. Hart
famously derided Clausewitz as the Mahdi of Mass.Hart,like
Keegan, believes that Clausewitz’s theory excuses military
domination over policy. In his two books, Strategy (1957),
and Thoughts on War (1954), Hart claims that Clausewitz is
mistaken in his declaration that ‘strategy is the use of the
engagement for the purpose of the war’:
One defect of this definition is that it intrudes on the
sphere of policy, or the higher conduct of the war,
which must necessarily be the responsibility of the
government and not of the military leaders it
employs as its agents in the executive control of
operations. Another defect is that it narrows the
meaning of ‘strategy’ to the pure utilisation of battle,
thus conveying the idea that battle is the only means
to the strategically end (Fergusson, 2013, p.76).
Hart criticises Clausewitz on the grounds that he believes
that Clausewitz’s theory allows for the intrusion by military
strategists into a political matter, which are solely the
jurisdiction of politicians. Hart offers a differentdefinition of
strategy; “the art of distributingandapplyingmilitarymeans
to fulfill the ends of the policy.” Hart suggests that military
commanders exercise too much control over policy. The
problem is that similar to Keegan. He does notrealisethat he
and Clausewitz share many of the same points. Clausewitz
explains that strategy is used for the purpose of the war,
which implies that Clausewitz recognises the military's
subordination to political goals war is a tool of policy.
Clausewitz argues throughout On War that every war is a
reflection of its political reality. Hart was also extremely
critical of Clausewitz because he believes that Clausewitz
was the advocate ofannihilationandslaughter.Hartbelieved
that Clausewitz was the expositor of Napoleon. According to
Hart, it was Clausewitz that had attempted to codify the
‘Napoleonic spirit’:
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How arose this conception that the national goal in
war could be attained only by mass destruction, and
how did it gain so firm a hold on military thought?
The decisive influence was exerted not by Napoleon
himself, though his practical example of the
beneficent results of ‘absolute war’ was its
inspiration, but by his great German expositor, Carl
Von Clausewitz. He was, in the years succeeding
Waterloo, analysed, codified, and deified the
Napoleonic method (Fergusson, 2013, p.76).
Paradoxically, Hart actuallyunderstood that Clausewitzwas
not an advocate of slaughter and annihilation battle. Yet,
Hart blames Clausewitz’s writing style, which he believes
does not allow for most readers to understand Clausewitz’s
true ideas:
Unfortunately, his qualifications cameonlaterpages,
and were conveyed in philosophical language that
befogged the plain soldier, essentially concrete
minded. Such readers grasped the obvious
implications of the leading phrases and lost sight of
what followed owing to distance and obscurity…not
one reader in a hundred was likely to follow the
subtlety of his logic, or to preserve a true balance
amid such philosophical jugglery.Buteveryonecould
catch such ringing phrases as ‘we have only one
means in war, the battle. ‘Only great generals can
produce great results.’ ‘Let us not hear of generals
who conquer without (Fergusson, 2013, p.76).
An Appraisal of Clausewitz Theory of War
The notion of total war, the inner tendency of war to lead to
extremes, which we consider to be the cornerstone of
Clausewitz 's theory, is no longer important. War was
essentially about the 'urge to settle' for Clausewitz, which
was achieved by fighting, that is, by fighting between two
warring parties, and that implied the need for speed and
concentration; the suspension of belligerent action and the
dispersion of armies, of course, took place, but in terms of
deviations from the inner nature of war, it was explained.
Today's wars are inconclusive, long-lasting, and seem to
have spread, as opposed to the European wars of the 19th
and 20th centuries. My argument is that this is because the
inner essence of these wars is different. In this sense, the
analysis of these wars by Clausewitz can be deeply counter-
productive in the development of successful international
strategies for both the effort to end these wars and the role
of the military powers. On the otherhand,thereissomething
in Clausewitz 's argument that can help us think of alternate
war approaches.
In the literal sense coming after Clausewitz, the sentence
may be assumed to be post-Clausewitz. It builds on
Clausewitz'smethodological approach:thedialecticbetween
the ideal and the real, and the need to integrate experience,
empirical study and theory. It also accepts that, depending
on how they are perceived, Clausewitz's significant
suggestions, including the Trinitarian conceptionofwarasa
cause, a chance and an emotion; the primacy of politics or
politics; and the instrumentalisation of war, remain very
important. In particular, some of Clausewitz's realistic
visions, such as his rumors of the essence of military genius,
the notion of the center of gravity or the dependency on
moral forces, play a significant role in contemporary
international military operationsincrisiszones.Butperhaps
most importantly, in comparison to what has gone before,
the 'new wars' of the 21st century can onlybedescribed, and
our understanding of what has gone before,dependsheavily
on what we learn from reading “On War”.
Finally, this study states unequivocally that Clausewitz
would recognise the interstate wars ofthemodern era asthe
same phenomenon that he wrote about in On War. On the
other hand, Clausewitz is still relevant to the study of
modern interstate warfare. The military technological
advancements that characterise the contemporary military
may be unrecognisable to Clausewitz, but Clausewitz would
still recognise the reasons for war and the conduct of war.
Conclusion
This article explored whether or not Carl von Clausewitz’s
theory of war is still relevant to moderninterstatewars.This
article specifically analysed the question of whether or not
Clausewitz’s arguments for the reasons for war, and its
conduct, are still applicable in a modern context. In other
words, if Clausewitz were alive today, would he recognise
the interstate wars of the modern era, and the decisions
made to engage in war? This question is critical to
contemporary strategicstudiesbecauseClausewitz’swork is
at the center of other debates,specificallytheRMAdebate, as
well as being a focal point for military study - especially by
US forces. Clausewitz wrote On War more than 200 years
ago, yet it remains the subject of numerous papers, books,
and debates within the academic and military communities.
This alone would suggest that thereissomeintrinsicvalueto
On War. Even the most casual reader of military history and
strategic studies would seem to be inclined to conclude that
there must be something useful in OnWarthathasallowedit
to remain a staple of military education in the 21st century.
Clausewitz was both a soldier and a philosopher. On War
was unique becauseClausewitzreflectedonboththe reasons
for war and the conduct of war. This was a novel approachto
a study of the phenomenon of war as other analyses of war
were focused exclusively upon one or the other. Clausewitz
was a man of the 18th century Western European state
system and, accordingly, was a reflection of his times.
Clausewitz was different because he was able to realise that
his theory of warfare needed to transcend his time period if
it was truly to be a study of the nature of warfare.
Clausewitz explained that war's universal natureisreflected
through these key characteristics: war is an act to force the
enemy to do one’s will, achieved by bringing the maximum
amount of force upon the enemy. War, in reality, limits the
exertion of force through several factors. Thus political
considerations become the driving force behind war; these
political factors are a reflection of the trinity (violence,
chance, and rationality), which arealsorelatedtothepeople,
military and government. Finally, the political act of
achieving submission can also be achieved without the
physical defeat of the enemy via a psychological or moral
defeat.
Based on Clausewitz theory of war, it was possible to
distinguish key variables that could be used to make a
comparison between war, as explained in On War, and the
wars of the modern era- the reasons for war andtheconduct
of war. The “On war” variable identified was the political
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objective of war (submission, concessionoroverthrow).The
conduct of war variables is offensive or defensive war and
limited or unlimited war. For in-depth analysis of wars, this
study compared Clausewitz’s wars to modern interstate
wars between 1990 and 2019.Clausewitz's approach to war
is dialectical. On war, he uses polarities to rationalise a
subject of great depth and breadth. Clausewitz consistently
presents an observation with its opposite. Theory is set
against the practice; moral forces are compared with
physical force. Clausewitz can be separated from other
military scholars by the ‘wholeness’ of his approach and the
reality he brings to the discussion of war. There is attacked,
and there is defense. Clausewitz constructed a beautiful
pendulum in explaining the phenomenon and philosophy of
war.
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