This document provides an overview of the development of policing models in the United States. It discusses the English origins of American policing and how early colonial institutions such as sheriffs, constables, and night watches evolved into modern police forces. It highlights the creation of the London Metropolitan Police in 1829 as establishing the foundation for modern professional policing, with its focus on preventative patrols, visible community presence, and quasi-military command structure. This model then influenced the development of American policing.
The Reform Era By the 1920s, attempts to reform local policing.docxssusera34210
The Reform Era
By the 1920s, attempts to reform local policing and to some degree, state and federal 1960s was most significant period in the development of policing in the United States, because it the foundations for the professionalization of law le definitions. As used here it means an attempt to improve police behavior and performance a code ethics improving selection of police departments. It also means that training, and management professions, would focus on core rather than performing a kaleidoscope of this core strategy would become crime control. coupled For the police Professionalism is discussed in more in Chapter 11 During this period a reform model (also called the professional, bureaucratic, legalistic, quasi- or semi-military model) of policing began to dominate thinking about police work. Essentially, it means that the police-community relationship should be based on law and departmental policy because police (both as organizations and as individuals) should not be unduly influenced by politics or personal considerations when making decisions. One of the most important aspects of the legalistic model is related to the mission of the police. Advocates of this model thought that crime fighting should be the primary purpose of the police. They used this idea to mobilize support for their reforms and to improve the public image of the police (Kelling and Moore 1988). The police, in effect, began to emphasize the most dramatic aspects of their work Uohnson 1981, 105-189). Between about 1920 and the mid-1960s, many police departments changed dramatically in the United States. Political meddling was substantially, but not entirely, replaced by effi cient and centralized management and a commitment to professionalism. This change was the result of European developments in criminalistics, (2) changes in American so and politics, and (3) the growth of the police reform movement.
American society and politics also that the dev elop more emphasis on industrial and consumer goods and rail and automobile transportation improved, more and more people moved to th The change as increasing numbers of Spanish-speaking immigrants and blacks from the rural unskilled, poor, powerless, and in great need south Many of these were services (Johnson 1981, 105-189) The Spanish-speaking and black neighborhoods were by extensive crime began to neighborhoods and troublesome areas in which to Given the fact that beginning with and long history of racist behavior the tension between minority grou the pol ncreased and became an important factor in the numerous urban riots of th century. These riots began in East St. Louis in 1917 and were by 1919 at least seven during World War II, and numerous riots in the 1960s. were major to serious disorders in 1967 alone (National Advisory Commission 1968, 35-206) Although there were many reasons for these riots, a significant factor was the behavior of police officers in minority neighborhoods In the newly establish ...
The Reform Era By the 1920s, attempts to reform local policing.docxssusera34210
The Reform Era
By the 1920s, attempts to reform local policing and to some degree, state and federal 1960s was most significant period in the development of policing in the United States, because it the foundations for the professionalization of law le definitions. As used here it means an attempt to improve police behavior and performance a code ethics improving selection of police departments. It also means that training, and management professions, would focus on core rather than performing a kaleidoscope of this core strategy would become crime control. coupled For the police Professionalism is discussed in more in Chapter 11 During this period a reform model (also called the professional, bureaucratic, legalistic, quasi- or semi-military model) of policing began to dominate thinking about police work. Essentially, it means that the police-community relationship should be based on law and departmental policy because police (both as organizations and as individuals) should not be unduly influenced by politics or personal considerations when making decisions. One of the most important aspects of the legalistic model is related to the mission of the police. Advocates of this model thought that crime fighting should be the primary purpose of the police. They used this idea to mobilize support for their reforms and to improve the public image of the police (Kelling and Moore 1988). The police, in effect, began to emphasize the most dramatic aspects of their work Uohnson 1981, 105-189). Between about 1920 and the mid-1960s, many police departments changed dramatically in the United States. Political meddling was substantially, but not entirely, replaced by effi cient and centralized management and a commitment to professionalism. This change was the result of European developments in criminalistics, (2) changes in American so and politics, and (3) the growth of the police reform movement.
American society and politics also that the dev elop more emphasis on industrial and consumer goods and rail and automobile transportation improved, more and more people moved to th The change as increasing numbers of Spanish-speaking immigrants and blacks from the rural unskilled, poor, powerless, and in great need south Many of these were services (Johnson 1981, 105-189) The Spanish-speaking and black neighborhoods were by extensive crime began to neighborhoods and troublesome areas in which to Given the fact that beginning with and long history of racist behavior the tension between minority grou the pol ncreased and became an important factor in the numerous urban riots of th century. These riots began in East St. Louis in 1917 and were by 1919 at least seven during World War II, and numerous riots in the 1960s. were major to serious disorders in 1967 alone (National Advisory Commission 1968, 35-206) Although there were many reasons for these riots, a significant factor was the behavior of police officers in minority neighborhoods In the newly establish ...
CJUS 500
Presentation: Police (Part 1) Transcript
Slide 1
The role of law enforcement and police is to enforce the law and to provide community assistance.
Policing has had a rich and interesting history.
Vigilantism was represented as groups of residents whom were essentially authorized by the community, to enforce the law.
As vigilantism grew, members became a little bit better organized.
Vigilantes did take the law into their own hands by punishing and killing individuals suspected of crimes.
In the early 1700s, slave patrols represented the first publicly funded city police departments in the United States.
Their objective was to keep slaves from running away.
There were various slave codes in place that prohibited slaves from educating themselves and running away from their owners.
Sir Robert Peel was the first to establish an organized police department in England.
This was in response to the growing crime problem in London, which eventually led to the establishment of The London Metropolitan Police Department in 1829.
Policing developed in England and the United States followed suit shortly thereafter, with departments being increasingly controlled by government.
The United States adopted London's Police Department objectives by stopping crime through preventative patrols (patrolling the streets and keeping general order).
This idea of preventative patrol remains consistent in police activity today.
During the Political era of the 1840s through the1920s, the US began to see an influx of organized police departments.
The police’s role was to control order, provide various social services, and assist those in need.
Notwithstanding however, training was not commonplace.
During the Professional era beginning in the 1920s and extending through the 1970s, policing began to undergo major reform at all levels of government.
The objective was to encourage the police to be free from political influence.
The availability of new technology such as the telephone, also impacted policing.
During this time, the US began to see the implementation of the Uniform Crime Report (UCR), which allowed police departments to provide annual reports on the extent of crime in America.
We also saw the development of the 911 system during this era.
This was an avenue for citizens to begin to report crime more efficiently.
The Community Policing era began in the 1970s and has extended through to today.
Community policing focuses on summoning community members in assisting with the solving of crime.
The objective of community policing is preventative, in that the attempt is to stop crimes before they occur.
This requires that police officers build positive relationships with community members.
Police departments are made up of sworn personnel and non-sworn personnel.
Sworn personnel are known as peace officers, while non-sworn personnel are regarded as civilians.
There are various agencies for law enforcement.
...
Since the 1960s, the national government has made a concerted .docxedgar6wallace88877
Since the 1960s, the national government has made a concerted effort to control the
planning and administration of the criminal justice system. The Lord Chancellor was
concerned with the efficiency and effectiveness of the courts, while the home secretary had
increased authority for law enforcement and the prison service. This development was a
direct result of the government having to deal with crises within various components of
criminal justice. This arrangement, however, was becoming increasingly untenable. Critics
raised several concerns, of which some cited constitutional issues. For example, questions
were raised about the independence of the judiciary, while others focused on the
incompatible responsibilities of the home secretary: policing and maintaining public order
with prisons and protecting civil rights and reforming the criminal law. The ongoing
furtherance of constitutional reform has attempted to rectify some of these problems. In
2007, a new Ministry of Justice was created and given responsibility for the courts,
criminal law, prison and probation, and criminal justice reform. The Home Office had its
focus narrowed to crime and policing, counter-terrorism, and immigration.
Over the course of the past three decades, almost every aspect of the criminal justice
system has been the subject of interest to a government commission, an independent inquiry,
or academic research. This has led to the passage of a significant amount of legislation
directly impacting how the justice system is organized and administered. What happened
in England during the 1980s and early 1990s is strikingly similar to what occurred in the
United States during the 1960s and 1970s. The study of criminal justice has become a
significant issue for the government and has emerged as an important field of study within
England’s system of higher education.
POLICE
The English have prided themselves on initiating a system of policing based at the local
level but also mandated and in some fashion controlled by the central government. This
shared responsibility for policing has existed throughout much of the country’s history.
Prior to the creation of the Metropolitan Police of London in 1829, this tradition of shared
responsibility took four distinct forms.
The tithing was the earliest type of community-organized policing; references are made
to it in Anglo-Saxon dooms. Historians refer to the period before the Norman invasion of
1066 as the Anglo-Saxon era. Dooms were the statutes or ordinances enacted during that
period. The tithing was based on principles of self-help and collective responsibility. Each
tithing consisted of 10 men who were accountable for policing each other. If one of their
number was accused of a crime, they were responsible for producing the defendant before
a local court, and if they failed to surrender the individual, the court could impose a fine
on the other members of the tithing. Supervision of the tithing was a responsibility of th.
military, of necessity, are trained to kill and destroy. That is a.docxannandleola
military, of necessity, are trained to kill and destroy. That is appropriate in war. However, do we want to use military forces to govern or patrol our cities and towns?
We do not know much about the very early history of the police. Policing—maintaining order and dealing with lawbreakers—had always been a private matter. Citizens were responsible for protecting themselves and maintaining an orderly society. Uniformed, organized police departments as we think o£ them today were rare.
Around die fifth century B.C.E., Rome created the first specialized investigative unit, called questors, or "trackers of murder." (Dempsey 203) Around die sixth century B.C.E. in Athens and the third century B.C.E. in Rome, unpaid magistrates (judges), appointed by the citizens, were the only people we would consider law enforcement professionals. The magistrates adjudicated cases, but private citizens arrested offenders and punished them. In most societies, people in towns would group
together and form a watch,
particularly at night, at the
Praetorian Guard , ,
town borders or gates to
Select group of highly qualified ., , . i.j
a ensure that outsiders did
members of the military established ,
not attack the town,
by the Roman emperor Augustus ^ a^out ^e yme Qf
to protect him and his palace. .1 r>
Chnst, the Roman emperor
Vigtles Augustus picked special,
Early Roman fire fighters who also highly qualified members
patrolled Rome's streets to protect of the military to form the
citizens. Praetorian Guard, which
mutual pledge
A form of community self-protection developed by King Alfred the Great in the latter part of the ninth century in England.
could be considered the
first police officers. Their
job was to protect the
palace and the emperor.
At about die same time,
Augustus also established
hue and cry die Praefectus Urbi (Urban
A method developed in early Cohort) to protect the city
England for citizens to summon The Urban Cohort had
assistance from fellow members of both executive and judicial
the community. power. Augustus also estab-
constable
An official assigned to keep the peace in the mutual pledge system in England.
lished the Vigiles of Rome.
The Vigiles began as fire-
fighters and were eventually
also given law enforcement
responsibilities, patrolling
shire-reeve Rome's streets day and
Earty English official placed m night. The Vigiles could be
cnarge of shires (counties) as part considered the first civil
of the system of mirtual pledge; police force designed to
evolved into the modem concept of protect citizens. They were
the sheriff. quite brutal, and our words
Log onto wnm.cengagebrain.com vigilance and vigilante come
- ' to practice your vocabulary with ° m\\
' <\ flash cards and more. from them. (AytO 559).
1O2 Discuss English Policing: Our English Heritage
The American system of law and criminal justice was borrowed from the English. Therefore, we will now concentrate on the English police experience, which is colorful a ...
Trace the evolution of the US police system from the --political-- era.docxgtameka
Trace the evolution of the US police system from the \"political\" era to the present.
Solution
The development of policing in the United States closely followed the development of policing in England. In the early colonies policing took two forms. It was both informal and communal, which is referred to as the Watch, or private for profit policing, which is called The Big Stick.
The modern police organizations shared similar characteristics: (1) they were publicly supported and bureaucratic in form; (2) police officers were full-time employees, not community volunteers or case-by-case fee retainers; (3) departments had permanent and fixed rules and procedures, and employment as a police officers was continuous; (4) police departments were accountable to a central governmental authority.
Modern police forces in the United States emerged as a response to disorder. What constitutes social and public order depends largely on who is defining those terms, and in the cities of 19th century America they were defined by the mercantile interests, who through taxes and political influence supported the development of bureaucratic policing institutions. These economic interests had a greater interest in social control than crime control. Private and for profit policing was too disorganized and too crime specific in form to fulfill these needs. The emerging commercial elites needed a mechanism to insure a stable and orderly work force, a stable and orderly environment for the conduct of business, and the maintenance of what they referred to as the \"collective good\". These mercantile interests also wanted to divest themselves of the cost of protecting their own enterprises, transferring those costs from the private sector to the state.
.
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MODULE 1 HOMEWORK ASSIGNMENT 5Running head MODULE 1 HOMEWORK AS.docxraju957290
MODULE 1 HOMEWORK ASSIGNMENT 5
Running head: MODULE 1 HOMEWORK ASSIGNMENT
MODULE 1 HOMEWORK ASSIGNMENT
Author Note
This paper was prepared for INTRODUCTION TO LAW ENFORCEMENT CRJ 120, MODULE 1 HOMEWORK ASSIGNMENT
PART I: SHORT RESPONSE
Directions: Please answer each of the following questions. Ensure that your responses are at least 1-2 paragraphs in length for each question. You may include examples from the text; however, please include APA citations as necessary. Please visit the Academic Resource Center for a concise guide on APA format.
1. Describe the colonial period’s three legacies to contemporary policing. Then list and discuss two powerful trends in England and America that brought about changes in policing in both countries.
2. List and describe major characteristics of the three eras of policing.
3. Describe August Vollmer's contributions to policing.
4. Discuss how Peel's “principles" of policing are relevant to today's police practices.
5. Explain the 1829 "Metropolitan Police Act," and what it provided to the history of policing.
6. Explain the contributions that were made to professional policing by William Parker.
7. Describe how policing was returned to its roots by the President's Crime Commission.
8. Examine how the struggle for civil rights affected the police-community relationship.
9. Describe the functions of the law enforcement agencies contained within the U.S. Department of Justice.
10. What are the agencies contained with the Department of Homeland Security, including their roles and functions?
11. What is INTERPOL and how does it function?
12. Discuss the Uniform Crime Reports—its methods of collecting data, purpose, and shortcomings.
13. What is the role of the National Crime Information Center (NCIC)? Discuss its purpose and application by law enforcement agencies.
14. This chapter described two “other” federal law enforcement agencies—the CIA and IRS. How would you describe their major roles and functions?
15. Describe the primary functions and organization of state law enforcement agencies.
PART II: JOURNAL ACTIVITY
Review the website of any large law enforcement agency (e.g., a large city police department, large county sheriff's office, state police agency or a large federal law enforcement agency) and write a 200-400 word essay (1-2 pages, 12-point font, double spaced) about the history of the agency and how it has grown to its current level of resources and divisions.
1. The three legacies to contemporary policing where local, republicanism, and crime prevention. This became the framework in which policing is model off of in today’s society. In this time, a colonist formed a local policing in which they then formed republicanism which was supposed to be a form of government. Republicanism asserted that power can be divided, and it relied on local interests to promote the general welfare (Peak 10). Since the population had then double, the came up with pla ...
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4. Copyrighted Material.
Contents
Preface ......................................................................... V
INTRODUCTION ............................................................... VII
CHAPTER 1
POLICING MODEL: UNITED STATES ................................ 1
CHAPTER 2
POLICING MODEL: ENGLAND .......................................... 31
CHAPTER 3
POLICING MODEL: FRANCE ............................................ 47
CHAPTER 4
POLICING MODEL: SWEDEN ........................................... 61
CHAPTER 5
POLICING MODEL: JAPAN ............................................... 75
CHAPTER 6
POLICING MODEL: RUSSIAN FEDERATION ...................... 87
CHAPTER 7
ASEAN POLICE SYSTEM .................................................. 99
A. INDONESIAN POLICE SYSTEM ......................... 99
B. ROYAL MALAYSIAN POLICE ............................. 103
C. SINGAPORE POLICE SYSTEM ...........................
114
D. THAI POLICE FORCE ........................................ 118
Chapter 8
PHILIPPINES AND INTERNATIONAL POLICING ................. 123
A. INTERNATIONAL CRIMINAL
ORGANIZATION of POLICE (INTERPOL) ............. 123
B. ASEAN NATIONAL POLICE (ASEANAPOL) .......... 35
1
References .................................................................. 141
5. Copyrighted Material.
Policing Model : United States
CHAPTER 1
POLICING MODEL: UNITED STATES1
INTRODUCTION
The history of the police is extremely relevant to understanding
the police today. The idea that the police are resistant to change is a
myth. In fact, American policing has changed tremendously, even in
the last twenty years. The study of history helps us understand how
and why these changes occur. It can illuminate the social and political
forces affecting the police, as well as the dynamics of planned reform.
Many current problems have long histories. Corruption, for example,
is deeply rooted in police history, and it is useful to understand its
origins and why it has been so difficult to eliminate. Some current
problems, on the other hand, are the result of yesterday’s “reform.”
The patrol car was hailed as a great advance because it allowed
efficient patrol coverage, but it isolated officers from the public
and contributed to police community relations problems. Other
reforms have succeeded. Recent controls over police use of deadly
force have cut the number of citizens shot and killed by the police
in half. It is useful to analyze why some reforms succeed, why
some problems resist elimination, and why other reforms fail.
THE ENGLISH HERITAGE
American policing is a product of its English heritage. The
English colonists brought with them the criminal justice system of
their country. This included English common law; the high value
placed on individual rights, the court system, forms of punishment,
and law enforcement institutions.
1
Walker, Samuel. The Police in America: An Introduction, (Second Edition:
United States of America: McGraw Hill, Inc., 1992).
1
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General Characteristics
The English heritage contributed three enduring features to
American policing. The first is a tradition of limited police authority. The
American legal tradition seeks to protect individual liberty by limiting
government authority. Continental European countries, by contrast,
give their law enforcement agencies much broader powers. German
citizens, for example, are required to carry identity cards and report
changes of address to police authorities.
The second feature inherited from England is a tradition
of local control of law enforcement agencies. European countries,
by contrast, have centralized, national police forces. Local control
contributes to the third feature, namely, a highly decentralized and
fragmented system of law enforcement. The United States is unique
in having an estimated 20,000 separate law enforcement agencies,
subject only to minimal coordination and very little national control or
regulation.
Institutions
Formal law enforcement agencies emerged in England in the
thirteenth century. The constable assumed primary responsibility for
keeping the peace. An elected official of the manor or county parish,
the constable was also the local government executive. The Statute of
Winchester in 1285 added several important new elements. The “watch
and ward” required all men in a given town to serve on the night watch
to guard against fires, crimes, and suspicious persons. The “hue and
cry” made all citizens responsible for pursuing fugitives from justice.
Finally, the Statute of Winchester required all males to maintain
weapons in their homes for use in protecting the public peace.
Between the thirteenth and nineteenth centuries, the English
law enforcement tradition developed in an unsystematic manner.
New institutions were created and old ones changed. The sheriff
(originally “shire reeve”) appeared, from whom the American sheriff is
descended. The justice of the peace emerged in the fourteenth century
as an important element of the local system of justice. Much of the
responsibility for law enforcement, however, remained in the hands of
private individuals. Crime victims had to pursue offenders on their own.
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CREATION OF THE MODERN POLICE: LONDON, 1829
By the early nineteenth century, the old system of law
enforcement began to collapse as London grew into a large industrial
city, with problems of poverty, public disorder and crime. The 1780
Gordon riots between Irish immigrants and local English residents
triggered a long debate over how to provide better public safety.
Parliament debated the question for nearly fifty years, finally creating
the London Metropolitan Police in 1829. The London police eventually
became the model for American law enforcement. The father of the
London police was Sir Robert Peel, from whom the term ‘Bobbies’
originated.
The London police introduced three new elements to modern
policing. These are the following: a new mission, strategy, and
organizational structure.
The mission was crime prevention, reflecting the utilitarian
idea that it was better to prevent crime than to respond after the fact.
Crime prevention, or deterrence, was to be achieved through a strategy
of preventive patrol. Officers would maintain a visible presence in the
community by continuously patrolling fixed “beats.” Peel borrowed
the organizational structure of the London police from the military,
including uniforms, rank designations, and, most important, the
authoritarian system of command and discipline. This quasi-militia
style prevails in American police administration to this day.
The continual presence of the police in the community was
another distinct feature of modern policing. It reflects the general
growth of government regulation in all aspects of social and economic
life. In a comparative study of the development of policing around the
world, David Bayley argues that the essential features of the modern
police are that they are “public, specialized, and professional.” They are
public in the sense that they transfer responsibility for public safety to
government agencies. They are specialized in the sense that they have
a distinct mission of law enforcement and crime prevention. Originally,
they are professional in the sense that they are fulltime, paid employees.
Bayley points out that the characteristics of modern policing did not
appear all at once. Even though the year 1829 is usually cited as the
origin of modern day policing, in reality the London model represented
a consolidation of features that had been developing for centuries.2
2
Dempsey, John and Frost, Linda. Introduction to Policing, (Sixth Edition:
United States of America: Cengage Learning, 2012). Page 9.
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LAW ENFORCEMENT IN COLONIAL AMERICA
The first English colonists in America created law enforcement
institutions as soon as they established organized communities. These
early English institutions, however, eventually evolved and acquired
distinctive American features.
LAW ENFORCEMENT INSTITUTIONS
The principal law enforcement institutions in colonial
America were the sheriff, the constable, the watch, and the slave patrol.3
Appointed by the colonial governor, the sheriff was the
chief local government official, with many responsibilities: collecting
taxes, conducting elections, maintaining bridges and roads, and so
on. Criminal law enforcement was only a part of the sheriff’s role.
The constable also had some criminal law enforcement
responsibilities in colonial towns and cities. Initially an elective
position, the constable gradually evolved into a semi-professional
appointed office, in Boston and several other cities, the office
of constable became a desirable and often lucrative position.
The watch most nearly resembled the modern-day police,
Members of the watch patrolled the city to guard against fires,
crime, and disorder. Originally, it was strictly a night time activity;
gradually, the larger cities created day watches, Boston created
a watch in 1634. Following the English tradition, service on the
watch was a collective responsibility, with all adult males required
to serve. Over the years, increasing numbers of men tried to avoid
duty, either by outright evasion or by paying others to serve in their
place. Eventually, the watch evolved into a paid professional position.
The slave patrol was a distinctly American form of law
enforcement, it was created in the Southern states to guard against
slave revolts and capture runaway slaves. In some respects, the
slave patrols were the first modern police forces in this country. The
Charleston (South Carolina) slave patrol, with about 100 officers in
1837, was possibly the country’s largest police force at that time.
THE FIRST MODERN AMERICAN POLICE
Modern police forces were established in the United States
about ten years after the creation of the London police. As in England, the
old system of law enforcement broke under the impact of urbanization,
industrialization, and immigration. Beginning in the 1830s, a wave
of riots struck American cities. Disorder became a more serious and
3
Ibid, Page 11.
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more frequent problem, Boston had major riots in 1834, 1835, and
1837. In 1838, Abraham Lincoln—then a member of the Illinois state
legislature-warned of the “increasing disregard for law which pervades
the country.” Many riots were clashes between different ethnic groups:
Irish or German immigrants against native-born English Protestants.
Other riots were economic in nature. During economic crises, for
example, angry depositors often stormed and destroyed banks. Disputes
over moral questions also resulted in mass violence. In several cases,
people objecting to new medical practices attacked hospitals. Finally,
racial violence grew in the years before the Civil War, with proslavery
whites attacking abolitionists and free black citizens in Northern cities.
Despite the breakdown in law and order, Americans moved
very slowly in creating new police forces. New York City did not create
a new police force until 1845, eleven years after the first outbreak
of riots. Philadelphia followed a more erratic course. Between 1833
and 1854, in the face of recurring riots the city wrestled with the
problem of police reform before finally creating a consolidated, citywide
police force on the London model. These delays reflected deep public
uncertainty about modern police methods. For many Americans, police
officers dispersed throughout the community brought to mind the
hated British colonial army. Others were afraid that rival politicians
would fight for control of the police department to their own partisan
advantage—a fear that proved to be correct. Finally, many people
were reluctant to raise the taxes necessary to pay for a large police
force. This conflict between the desire for greater protection and the
reluctance to pay for it remained a long tradition in American policing.
Many of the early American police departments were little
more than expanded versions of the existing watch system. The Boston
police department began with only nine officers in 1838. The first
American police officers did not wear uniforms; they were identified only
by a distinctive hat and badge. Nor did they carry firearms. Weapons
did not become standard police equipment until the late nineteenth
century, as community crime and violence rose to more serious levels.
From the London model, Americans borrowed the mission
of crime prevention, the strategy of visible patrol over fixed beats, and
some elements of the quasi-military organizational structure. The
most important difference was in the nature of the political control
over police departments. The United States was a far more democratic
country than Britain. American voters—only white males with
property until the latter part of the century-exercised direct control
over all government agencies. (In London, by contrast, voters had no
direct control over the new police force.) As a result, American police
departments were immersed in local politics, a situation that led to many
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serious problems. The commissioners of the London police, freed from
political influence, were able to maintain high personnel standards.
AMERICAN POLICING IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY
Personnel Standards: Personnel standards, for all
practical purposes, did not exist; Officers were selected entirely
on the basis of their political connections. In New York City, a
$300 payment to the Tammany Hall political machine was the only
requirement for appointment to the force. Lack of intelligence, poor
health, and a criminal record were no barriers to employment.
Recruits were handed a badge, a baton, and a copy of the
department rules (if one existed), and were sent out on patrol duty.
Only a few departments offered any formal pre-service training to new
officers. Cincinnati created a police academy in 1888, but it lasted only
a few years. New York City established a School of Pistol Practice in
1895, but offered no training in any other aspect of policing until 1909.
Yet an investigation of the New York police academy in 1913 found
that no tests were given and all recruits were automatically passed.
The first textbook on police administration did not appear until 1909.
Police officers had no job security and could be fired at will.
In some instances, almost the entire police force was dismissed after
an election. Nonetheless, it was an attractive job because salaries were
generally higher than those for most blue collar jobs. In 1880 officers
in most big cities earned $900 a year, compared with $450 for factory
workers.
Jobs on the police force were a major form of political
patronage, and the composition of departments reflected the ethnic
and religious makeup of the cities. When politicians of English and
Protestant background controlled a city, these ethnic groups dominated
the police department. Discrimination against recent immigrants was
common. Irish-Americans were discriminated against until they won
political power. The appointment of Barney McGinniskin, the first
Irish-American police officer in Boston, created a major political crisis
in 1851. German-Americans were strong in Cleveland, Cincinnati,
Milwaukee, and St. Louis. Other groups fought for their share of
patronage appointments. After the Civil War, blacks were appointed as
officers in northern cities where the Republicans were in power.
Patrol Work: Police patrol was hopelessly inefficient. The
lack of communications systems made it impossible to respond to
crime and disorder. Officers patrolled on foot and were spread very
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thin. In Chicago beats were three and four miles long. In many cities
entire areas were not patrolled at all.
Supervision was extremely weak. Officers easily evaded
duty and spent much of their time in saloons and barber shops.
Rain, snow, and extremely hot weather were powerful incentives for
officers to avoid patrolling. Sergeants also patrolled on foot and found
it nearly impossible to keep track of the officers under their command.
The first primitive communications system involved a
network of call boxes through which patrol officers could call in to the
station house. Officers devised ways of sabotaging the system. The first
boxes could be taken out of service by leaving the receiver off the hook.
Some systems did not indicate the location of the call box, and officers
simply lied about where they were.
Without an effective communications system, citizens could
not contact the police. In the event of a crime or disturbance, a citizen
had to personally locate a police officer. Even if one could be found,
the officer had to walk to the scene. Officers had no efficient way of
summoning help in the case of major disturbances.
The Citizen’s View of Policing: In later years, a nostalgic
image developed of the nineteenth-century foot patrol officer, He
was seen as a friendly person who maintained close relations with
neighborhood residents. If his methods were often rough, he was at
least effective in maintaining order. This view has little if any basis
in fact. It is doubtful that the first American police officers had close
relations with people on their beats. Officers were few in number,
personnel turnover was rapid, and population movement was even
greater than it is today. Police officers frequently used physical force,
and there is no evidence that it helped to control disorder.
The truth is that nineteenth-century police officers enjoyed
little citizen respect and faced much open hostility. Citizens regarded
them as political hacks rather than as public servants. Juvenile
gangs made a sport of throwing rocks at the police or taunting
them. People who were arrested often fought back (about 80% of
all arrests involved public drunkenness). Discipline was virtually
nonexistent, and excessive use of force became commonplace.
In a provocative study of police activity in London and
New York City, Wilbur Miller analyzes the reasons that policing in
the two cities developed in such different directions. He argues that
in London a high level of mutual respect emerged between citizens
and police. Although many citizens were initially hostile to the new
police, they came to respect officers because of their civil conduct.
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Police restraint, in turn, was the result of high personnel standards
and strict supervision. Over the long run, increasing public respect
reinforced police civility. In the United States, by contrast, hostility
rather than restraint became the rule. Public disrespect was typically
greeted by police brutality, which went unpunished. Continued use of
force by the police only encouraged more public hostility. Ultimately,
this vicious circle led to a complete lack of public respect for police
officers and a lack of professionalism in American policing.
Citizen violence in the United States also led to greater
use of police firearms. As late as 1880 the police in Brooklyn
(then an independent city of 500,000 people) were unarmed. In
some cities weapons were optional or carried at the discretion
of a sergeant. Firearms did not become standard equipment for
police officers until after the Civil War. The police adopted firearms
mainly in response to the rising level of violence around them.
THE ORIGINS OF POLICE PROFESSIONALISM: THE TWENTIETH
CENTURY
American policing underwent a dramatic change ¡n
the twentieth century. There were to principal forces for change.
First, a movement to establish professional standards in policing,
which appeared at the turn of the century, eventually succeeded
in raising the quality of policing. Second, the introduction
of modern communications technology in the middle of the
century transformed both police work and police administration.
THE PROFESSIONALIZATION MOVEMENT
Around the turn of the century, a new generation of leaders
launched an organized effort to professionalize the police. Police
reform was part of a much broader movement in the United States
between 1900 and 1917. Progressivism, as it was known, attacked
economic abuses (by regulating big business), social welfare abuses
(by seeking child labor laws), local government corruption and many
other problems.
The two most prominent leaders of the professionalization
movement were Richard Sylvester and August Vollmer. Sylvester
was superintendent of the District of Columbia police from 1898 to
1915 and president of the International Association of Chiefs of Police
(IACP) from 1901 to 1915. He made the IACP the national voice of