Coagulation and flocculation processes are used to separate suspended solids from water by overcoming the forces that stabilize the particles and allow them to collide and grow into larger flocs. Coagulation involves adding chemicals to neutralize particle charges so they can stick together. Flocculation then gently mixes the water to encourage the microflocs formed in coagulation to collide and bond into larger macroflocs that are easy to remove. Conventional treatment plants separate coagulation, flocculation, and sedimentation into distinct stages, while other designs combine some or all of the processes in single units. Careful consideration of water characteristics and treatment goals is needed to select the appropriate coagulant and unit processes.
The document discusses coagulation and flocculation processes used to separate suspended solids from water. [1] Coagulation involves adding chemicals to neutralize particles' surface charges so they can stick together, while flocculation gently mixes particles to form larger clumps called flocs that are easy to remove. [2] Proper coagulant selection, dosing, mixing speeds and durations are important for the processes to work effectively. [3] Conventional treatment plants separate coagulation, flocculation and sedimentation stages while some combined units incorporate these steps within one unit.
Coagulation and flocculation are water treatment processes used to remove suspended particles from water. Suspended particles have a negative charge that causes them to repel each other, so coagulants with an opposite charge are added to neutralize this and allow particles to stick together. Coagulation involves rapid mixing to disperse coagulants while flocculation involves gentle mixing to encourage particle collisions and growth of flocs. Incomplete coagulation or flocculation will negatively impact downstream sedimentation and filtration steps. The choice of coagulant depends on factors like the particles to be removed and water chemistry. Common coagulants include inorganic salts like alum and polymers.
This document provides an overview of various unit operations involved in chemical engineering related to water treatment processes. It discusses concepts like coagulation, flocculation, sedimentation, decantation, and different types of coagulants. Coagulation involves neutralizing particle charges so they can stick together to form microflocs. Flocculation increases particle size further to form visible flocs. Sedimentation and decantation are processes that separate solids from liquid using gravity. Common inorganic coagulants include alum and iron salts.
This document summarizes a presentation on flotation processes for wastewater treatment. It discusses how flotation works to separate solids from water by decreasing density. It also describes the components of a flotation system and challenges like rising sludge and bulking sludge. The author argues that using a high rate dissolved air flotation unit before sedimentation can help address these issues and improve effluent quality and plant efficiency compared to conventional activated sludge alone.
Sludge thickening and stabilization processes Natthu Shrirame
Sludge treatment processes aim to reduce water content, volume, and pathogens while improving stability. Key processes include thickening to increase solids content before downstream treatment, alkaline stabilization using lime to raise pH and eliminate pathogens, and anaerobic digestion to biologically reduce organic matter through hydrolysis, acidogenesis, and methanogenesis. Thickening methods include gravity settling, flotation, centrifugation, belt filters, and drums. Stabilization prevents odor and further degradation, while aerobic or anaerobic digestion further reduces solids before final disposal or reuse.
The activated sludge process treats wastewater by mixing it with oxygen and microorganisms in tanks. This allows microbes to break down organic matter, producing new cells, carbon dioxide, and water. The microbes are then removed from the treated water through settling. Oxidation ponds and ditches also use microbes and oxygen to treat wastewater, but do so in large, shallow ponds or ditches, utilizing sunlight, algae, and bacteria to purify the water over longer detention times. Both processes effectively reduce organic matter, but ponds require more land and can have odor issues while ditches are more compact and energy efficient.
This document provides information about coagulation and flocculation processes used in water treatment. It discusses how coagulants are used to remove very fine suspended particles by neutralizing their electrical charges. The processes involve rapid mixing of coagulants, followed by slow mixing or flocculation to form larger floc particles that are then removed by sedimentation. Common coagulants used are aluminum and iron salts. Jar tests are described as a way to determine the optimum pH and coagulant dose for effective treatment.
chemical industries: water treatment flocculation tankDimaJawhar
Introduction:
If river or lake water is not treated or sterilized beforehand, it is barely clean enough
for human consumption. To make groundwater suitable for drinking, it frequently
requires some sort of treatment. Preserving the community's health is the main goal of
water treatment. Naturally, chemicals and dangerous microbes must not be present in
potable water. The water should have almost little turbidity, be a transparent hue, and
have no flavor or odor that is undesirable. Water used for household purposes shouldn't
be caustic or leave unsightly stains and buildup on plumbing fittings.
Figure 1: water treatment process flow diagram.
Regarding Figure 1 For the purpose of cleaning sewage, water, and industrial wastes,
one crucial step is the development of suspended floes, which may be effectively
separated from the solution by settling or filtering. We refer to this process as
coagulation or flocculation. up to 1920, sanitation engineers had little knowledge of the
nature of the process and often confused it with mixing, which refers to the act of
releasing coagulating chemicals in a liquid to aid in the solution's creation. Since then,
it has been discovered that flocculation is a physical process that needs time and mild
disturbance. However, there hasn't been much advancement in the scientific
understanding of the underlying principles and their application to design.
water treatment: flocculation process
Page | 4
Coagulation and flocculation
flocculation involves adding a chemical coagulant to water, for the particles
to create bigger, easier-to-separate clumps.
suspended particles cannot be eliminated. Smaller and lighter particles settle out more
slowly in some cases not at all, whereas larger and heavier particles settle out more
quickly. For this reason, coagulation—a chemical process—usually occurs before it
reaches the sedimentation stage. To combine the non-settling particles into bigger,
heavier masses of solids known as floc, chemicals (coagulants) are introduced to the
water. The (coagulants) are added to the water to make the non-settling particles
together into bigger, heavier masses of solids called floc. Aluminum sulfate (alum) is a
commonly used coagulant for water purification and deep sanitizing Other chemicals,
such as ferric sulfate or sodium aluminate are also be used.
Figure 2: A coagulant is used to minimize electric charges on the particles, to make it
easier to form the particles into clumps. However, it is not enough to settle the particles
out of solution.
water treatment: flocculation process
Page | 5
Oil emulsions will float to the top while suspended particles will sink to the bottom.
The removal of these contaminants during filtration will depend on how they precipitate
out of solution.
Any flocculated particles in the treated water can now be filtered out in the scenario
depicted above in Figure 2. These flocculated particles have now settled to the bottom
of the sedimentation chamber.
These particles ne
The document discusses coagulation and flocculation processes used to separate suspended solids from water. [1] Coagulation involves adding chemicals to neutralize particles' surface charges so they can stick together, while flocculation gently mixes particles to form larger clumps called flocs that are easy to remove. [2] Proper coagulant selection, dosing, mixing speeds and durations are important for the processes to work effectively. [3] Conventional treatment plants separate coagulation, flocculation and sedimentation stages while some combined units incorporate these steps within one unit.
Coagulation and flocculation are water treatment processes used to remove suspended particles from water. Suspended particles have a negative charge that causes them to repel each other, so coagulants with an opposite charge are added to neutralize this and allow particles to stick together. Coagulation involves rapid mixing to disperse coagulants while flocculation involves gentle mixing to encourage particle collisions and growth of flocs. Incomplete coagulation or flocculation will negatively impact downstream sedimentation and filtration steps. The choice of coagulant depends on factors like the particles to be removed and water chemistry. Common coagulants include inorganic salts like alum and polymers.
This document provides an overview of various unit operations involved in chemical engineering related to water treatment processes. It discusses concepts like coagulation, flocculation, sedimentation, decantation, and different types of coagulants. Coagulation involves neutralizing particle charges so they can stick together to form microflocs. Flocculation increases particle size further to form visible flocs. Sedimentation and decantation are processes that separate solids from liquid using gravity. Common inorganic coagulants include alum and iron salts.
This document summarizes a presentation on flotation processes for wastewater treatment. It discusses how flotation works to separate solids from water by decreasing density. It also describes the components of a flotation system and challenges like rising sludge and bulking sludge. The author argues that using a high rate dissolved air flotation unit before sedimentation can help address these issues and improve effluent quality and plant efficiency compared to conventional activated sludge alone.
Sludge thickening and stabilization processes Natthu Shrirame
Sludge treatment processes aim to reduce water content, volume, and pathogens while improving stability. Key processes include thickening to increase solids content before downstream treatment, alkaline stabilization using lime to raise pH and eliminate pathogens, and anaerobic digestion to biologically reduce organic matter through hydrolysis, acidogenesis, and methanogenesis. Thickening methods include gravity settling, flotation, centrifugation, belt filters, and drums. Stabilization prevents odor and further degradation, while aerobic or anaerobic digestion further reduces solids before final disposal or reuse.
The activated sludge process treats wastewater by mixing it with oxygen and microorganisms in tanks. This allows microbes to break down organic matter, producing new cells, carbon dioxide, and water. The microbes are then removed from the treated water through settling. Oxidation ponds and ditches also use microbes and oxygen to treat wastewater, but do so in large, shallow ponds or ditches, utilizing sunlight, algae, and bacteria to purify the water over longer detention times. Both processes effectively reduce organic matter, but ponds require more land and can have odor issues while ditches are more compact and energy efficient.
This document provides information about coagulation and flocculation processes used in water treatment. It discusses how coagulants are used to remove very fine suspended particles by neutralizing their electrical charges. The processes involve rapid mixing of coagulants, followed by slow mixing or flocculation to form larger floc particles that are then removed by sedimentation. Common coagulants used are aluminum and iron salts. Jar tests are described as a way to determine the optimum pH and coagulant dose for effective treatment.
chemical industries: water treatment flocculation tankDimaJawhar
Introduction:
If river or lake water is not treated or sterilized beforehand, it is barely clean enough
for human consumption. To make groundwater suitable for drinking, it frequently
requires some sort of treatment. Preserving the community's health is the main goal of
water treatment. Naturally, chemicals and dangerous microbes must not be present in
potable water. The water should have almost little turbidity, be a transparent hue, and
have no flavor or odor that is undesirable. Water used for household purposes shouldn't
be caustic or leave unsightly stains and buildup on plumbing fittings.
Figure 1: water treatment process flow diagram.
Regarding Figure 1 For the purpose of cleaning sewage, water, and industrial wastes,
one crucial step is the development of suspended floes, which may be effectively
separated from the solution by settling or filtering. We refer to this process as
coagulation or flocculation. up to 1920, sanitation engineers had little knowledge of the
nature of the process and often confused it with mixing, which refers to the act of
releasing coagulating chemicals in a liquid to aid in the solution's creation. Since then,
it has been discovered that flocculation is a physical process that needs time and mild
disturbance. However, there hasn't been much advancement in the scientific
understanding of the underlying principles and their application to design.
water treatment: flocculation process
Page | 4
Coagulation and flocculation
flocculation involves adding a chemical coagulant to water, for the particles
to create bigger, easier-to-separate clumps.
suspended particles cannot be eliminated. Smaller and lighter particles settle out more
slowly in some cases not at all, whereas larger and heavier particles settle out more
quickly. For this reason, coagulation—a chemical process—usually occurs before it
reaches the sedimentation stage. To combine the non-settling particles into bigger,
heavier masses of solids known as floc, chemicals (coagulants) are introduced to the
water. The (coagulants) are added to the water to make the non-settling particles
together into bigger, heavier masses of solids called floc. Aluminum sulfate (alum) is a
commonly used coagulant for water purification and deep sanitizing Other chemicals,
such as ferric sulfate or sodium aluminate are also be used.
Figure 2: A coagulant is used to minimize electric charges on the particles, to make it
easier to form the particles into clumps. However, it is not enough to settle the particles
out of solution.
water treatment: flocculation process
Page | 5
Oil emulsions will float to the top while suspended particles will sink to the bottom.
The removal of these contaminants during filtration will depend on how they precipitate
out of solution.
Any flocculated particles in the treated water can now be filtered out in the scenario
depicted above in Figure 2. These flocculated particles have now settled to the bottom
of the sedimentation chamber.
These particles ne
The document provides an overview of common water treatment processes used for larger municipal water supplies and smaller private water supplies. It discusses various physical treatment processes like screening, sedimentation, and filtration (slow sand, rapid gravity, pressure) as well as chemical processes like coagulation, flocculation, and pH adjustment. The key principles discussed are using a multiple barrier approach with several treatment stages to effectively treat water and ensure it is safe.
The document proposes a business partnership between DTS Inc. and a water shop in Karachi to provide high-quality RO water filtering systems called Water Heart. Water Heart can filter water to different quality levels depending on usage, such as reducing seawater salt levels to safe drinking levels. It uses advanced filtration technology including RO, NF, MF and carbon filters. The proposal offers an on-site maintenance service and 10-year purchase agreement.
The document describes the chemical oxygen demand (COD) test, which is used to quantify the amount of chemically oxidizable organic material in wastewater. In the COD test, a strong chemical oxidizing agent is used instead of bacteria to oxidize organic compounds. The COD test measures total oxidizable organic material rather than just biodegradable material, so COD results are higher than biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) tests on the same samples. The document also provides an overview of primary, secondary, and advanced wastewater treatment processes and describes processes like activated sludge treatment and trickling filters used in secondary biological treatment.
This presentation delves into the settling of particles in water and its implications for human health. It explores the processes by which particles, including sediments, pollutants, and microorganisms, settle in aquatic environments. Key topics include the role of settling in water treatment, sedimentation rates, and factors influencing particle behavior. Discussions also address health risks associated with sediment-bound contaminants, such as heavy metals and pathogens, and their potential impacts on water quality and public health. By elucidating these linkages, the presentation aims to inform strategies for water management and treatment that minimize health risks and ensure safe drinking water for communities.
This document provides an overview of various water treatment processes and their effects on turbidity. It describes how intake facilities can screen out large debris but have little effect on turbidity. Pre-sedimentation basins and chemical addition can significantly reduce turbidity over longer detention times. Coagulation destabilizes particles for removal but does not reduce turbidity on its own. Flocculation agglomerates destabilized particles to facilitate their removal through sedimentation and filtration, ultimately reducing turbidity.
1) Several factors must be considered when designing an industrial reverse osmosis system, including water source, temperature and flow rate, pretreatment needs, and microbiological and particulate contaminants.
2) The water source impacts pretreatment needs - stable groundwater typically requires less pretreatment than surface water.
3) Water temperature affects flow rate through the membrane - systems must be sized to handle the lowest expected temperatures.
This document provides an overview of various mechanical, physical, chemical, biological, and advanced treatment processes used in industrial wastewater treatment plants. It describes processes like screening, sedimentation, flotation, neutralization, chemical precipitation, activated sludge, trickling filters, anaerobic digestion, and membrane separation. It also includes diagrams of processes like API separators, CPI units, dissolved air flotation systems, and sequential batch reactors. At the end, it proposes a possible flow diagram for an industrial wastewater treatment plant incorporating several of these treatment steps and technologies.
1. A jar test was conducted to evaluate the effectiveness of chemical coagulation and flocculation in removing suspended solids from water.
2. The jar test involved adding different doses of coagulants to water samples, rapidly mixing to dissolve the coagulant, slowly mixing to allow floc formation, and measuring the clarity of the settled water.
3. The results showed that an optimal coagulant dose produced the lowest turbidity reading, indicating the most effective removal of suspended solids. Graphs of water quality parameters versus coagulant dose aided in analyzing the coagulation-flocculation process.
With rising crude prices and depleting quality of crude, however, the level of wastewater pollutants in petroleum wastewater is at new high. Such conditions are forcing refineries to use a more advanced water treatment, water recovery methods, and robust processes that work well under a variety of conditions and can handle the changing refinery effluent flow rates. Finally a process that is economical in overall life time cost is needed to make all of this feasible. Aquatech has experience working with these refinery effluent pollutants in the refinery market and offers the advanced petroleum wastewater treatment and recovery technology necessary for the refinery’s needs.
The document discusses waste water treatment in oil refineries. It notes that refineries produce a variety of waste materials in gaseous, liquid, and solid forms that must be treated before disposal. Refineries use large amounts of water and generate large volumes of wastewater. Treatment involves using oil skimmers, equalization tanks, trickling filters, aeration tanks, and lagoons/final polishing ponds to treat wastewater before discharge or recycling. The goal is to meet minimum standards for BOD, TSS, pH, and absence of visible solids/oil before treated water is released.
This document provides information about sewage treatment plants on ships. It explains that sewage generated on ships must be treated before discharge due to regulations. The most common treatment method is a biological plant, which uses aerobic bacteria and fresh air to decompose sewage into safer byproducts. The biological plant has three chambers - an aeration chamber where sewage is broken down, a settling tank where sludge settles, and a chlorination chamber to disinfect the liquid before discharge. Key terms like BOD, coliform count, and solids levels are also defined. Proper operation and maintenance of the plant is important to efficiently and safely treat sewage on ships.
The document discusses environmental challenges facing the sugar sector in Pakistan. It outlines various wastes produced during sugar production such as wastewater from mill houses containing suspended solids and oils. It then discusses potential environmental solutions including in-house improvement options to reduce waste at source, air and noise emission control measures, and wastewater treatment technologies. Specific treatment methods are described such as lagoons, trickling filters, upflow anaerobic sludge blanket reactors, and activated sludge treatment. ISO 14001 certification and benefits of environmental management systems are also summarized.
Here at ACE DYNAMICS, our innovative, sustainable solutions help our clients to address their Air, Water, Environment, Energy, and Resource management challenges.
Design and Different Sections of a Waste Water Treatment PlantIRJET Journal
This document discusses the design and sections of a wastewater treatment plant. It begins by introducing wastewater treatment plants and their importance. It then describes the main sections of a wastewater treatment plant in order: preliminary treatment to remove large solids, primary treatment using physical and chemical processes to remove grease and oils, and secondary treatment using biological processes to reduce organic matter. It also discusses specific processes like screening, coagulation and flocculation, and sedimentation tanks. The purpose is to provide information on wastewater treatment plant design and processes.
Review of research on bio reactors used in wastewater ijsit 2.4.6IJSIT Editor
This document reviews various types of bioreactors used in wastewater treatment for biohydrogen production, including batch, continuous stirred tank, plug flow, biofilm, suspended growth, upflow anaerobic sludge blanket, anaerobic baffled, upflow packed bed, fluidized bed, sequencing batch, and membrane separation reactors. It discusses the operating principles and advantages/limitations of these different reactor configurations. The review concludes that significant progress has been made in developing advanced high-rate anaerobic reactors to improve wastewater treatment efficiency and biogas production for hydrogen fuel applications.
Flocculation and sedimentation are processes used to separate suspended solids from water. Flocculation involves the addition of chemicals to destabilize particles and cause them to cluster together into larger flocs. Careful control of mixing is needed to build up floc size without shredding. Sedimentation allows flocs to settle out of solution by gravity in tanks with distinct zones. The type of sedimentation depends on factors like particle settling behavior and concentration. Together, flocculation and sedimentation are important steps in water and wastewater treatment.
Conventional wastewater treatment involves primary, secondary, and sometimes tertiary treatment stages. Primary treatment uses settling tanks to remove solids. Secondary treatment uses microbes and oxygen to break down remaining organic matter. This usually involves an aeration tank and secondary clarifier. Tertiary treatment may further remove nutrients or other contaminants through methods like filtration, carbon adsorption, or phosphorus/nitrogen removal. Sludge from primary and secondary clarifiers undergoes anaerobic digestion to reduce pathogens and volume before disposal or reuse.
This document provides information about sewage treatment plants on ships. It explains that sewage generated on ships must be treated before discharge as per regulations. The most common treatment method is a biological plant, which uses aerobic bacteria and fresh air to decompose sewage into safer byproducts. The biological plant has three chambers - an aeration chamber for decomposition, a settling tank to separate liquids and sludge, and a chlorination chamber to disinfect liquids before discharge. Key terms like BOD, coliform count and pumping levels are also defined. Proper operation and maintenance of the plant, like chemical dosing and back-flushing lines, is important for effective sewage treatment on ships.
L11 -SECONDARY TREATMENT OF SEWAGE - TRICKLING FILTERS.pptxPRACHI DESSAI
Wastewater treatment is a process used to remove contaminants from wastewater and convert it into an effluent that can be returned to the water cycle. Once returned to the water cycle, the effluent creates an acceptable impact on the environment or is reused for various purposes (called water reclamation).
Este documento presenta las directrices de planificación y diseño para la implementación de una escuela de contingencia en el Parque N°2 El Parral en Comas, Lima. Se evalúa el sitio y su contexto urbano, y se analiza la infraestructura existente como la cancha deportiva. Luego, se propone la zonificación y distribución de los diferentes módulos requeridos, considerando la orientación, espacios abiertos y accesos. Finalmente, se identifican algunas restricciones y oportunidades del terreno.
El documento presenta pautas y recomendaciones para la elaboración de Expedientes Técnicos en los sectores de Educación, Salud, Transporte, Agua y Saneamiento y Agricultura. Detalla los contenidos requeridos para cada Expediente Técnico, incluyendo estudios, aspectos generales, ingeniería y detalle, y presupuesto y cronograma. Asimismo, provee normativas asociadas a cada contenido. El objetivo es que la ejecución de inversiones se realice según lo planeado para cerrar brechas de manera
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The document provides an overview of common water treatment processes used for larger municipal water supplies and smaller private water supplies. It discusses various physical treatment processes like screening, sedimentation, and filtration (slow sand, rapid gravity, pressure) as well as chemical processes like coagulation, flocculation, and pH adjustment. The key principles discussed are using a multiple barrier approach with several treatment stages to effectively treat water and ensure it is safe.
The document proposes a business partnership between DTS Inc. and a water shop in Karachi to provide high-quality RO water filtering systems called Water Heart. Water Heart can filter water to different quality levels depending on usage, such as reducing seawater salt levels to safe drinking levels. It uses advanced filtration technology including RO, NF, MF and carbon filters. The proposal offers an on-site maintenance service and 10-year purchase agreement.
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This presentation delves into the settling of particles in water and its implications for human health. It explores the processes by which particles, including sediments, pollutants, and microorganisms, settle in aquatic environments. Key topics include the role of settling in water treatment, sedimentation rates, and factors influencing particle behavior. Discussions also address health risks associated with sediment-bound contaminants, such as heavy metals and pathogens, and their potential impacts on water quality and public health. By elucidating these linkages, the presentation aims to inform strategies for water management and treatment that minimize health risks and ensure safe drinking water for communities.
This document provides an overview of various water treatment processes and their effects on turbidity. It describes how intake facilities can screen out large debris but have little effect on turbidity. Pre-sedimentation basins and chemical addition can significantly reduce turbidity over longer detention times. Coagulation destabilizes particles for removal but does not reduce turbidity on its own. Flocculation agglomerates destabilized particles to facilitate their removal through sedimentation and filtration, ultimately reducing turbidity.
1) Several factors must be considered when designing an industrial reverse osmosis system, including water source, temperature and flow rate, pretreatment needs, and microbiological and particulate contaminants.
2) The water source impacts pretreatment needs - stable groundwater typically requires less pretreatment than surface water.
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This document provides an overview of various mechanical, physical, chemical, biological, and advanced treatment processes used in industrial wastewater treatment plants. It describes processes like screening, sedimentation, flotation, neutralization, chemical precipitation, activated sludge, trickling filters, anaerobic digestion, and membrane separation. It also includes diagrams of processes like API separators, CPI units, dissolved air flotation systems, and sequential batch reactors. At the end, it proposes a possible flow diagram for an industrial wastewater treatment plant incorporating several of these treatment steps and technologies.
1. A jar test was conducted to evaluate the effectiveness of chemical coagulation and flocculation in removing suspended solids from water.
2. The jar test involved adding different doses of coagulants to water samples, rapidly mixing to dissolve the coagulant, slowly mixing to allow floc formation, and measuring the clarity of the settled water.
3. The results showed that an optimal coagulant dose produced the lowest turbidity reading, indicating the most effective removal of suspended solids. Graphs of water quality parameters versus coagulant dose aided in analyzing the coagulation-flocculation process.
With rising crude prices and depleting quality of crude, however, the level of wastewater pollutants in petroleum wastewater is at new high. Such conditions are forcing refineries to use a more advanced water treatment, water recovery methods, and robust processes that work well under a variety of conditions and can handle the changing refinery effluent flow rates. Finally a process that is economical in overall life time cost is needed to make all of this feasible. Aquatech has experience working with these refinery effluent pollutants in the refinery market and offers the advanced petroleum wastewater treatment and recovery technology necessary for the refinery’s needs.
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This document provides information about sewage treatment plants on ships. It explains that sewage generated on ships must be treated before discharge due to regulations. The most common treatment method is a biological plant, which uses aerobic bacteria and fresh air to decompose sewage into safer byproducts. The biological plant has three chambers - an aeration chamber where sewage is broken down, a settling tank where sludge settles, and a chlorination chamber to disinfect the liquid before discharge. Key terms like BOD, coliform count, and solids levels are also defined. Proper operation and maintenance of the plant is important to efficiently and safely treat sewage on ships.
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Este documento proporciona atajos de ratón para seleccionar elementos, navegar vistas, editar objetos y modelar en 3D, incluyendo clics, rueda del ratón y combinaciones de teclas para copiar, borrar, mover, rotar, aumentar zoom, disminuir zoom y manipular la vista 3D.
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The growing significance of portable systems to limit power consumption in ultra-large-scale-integration chips of very high density, has recently led to rapid and inventive progresses in low-power design. The most effective technique is adiabatic logic circuit design in energy-efficient hardware. This paper presents two adiabatic approaches for the design of low power circuits, modified positive feedback adiabatic logic (modified PFAL) and the other is direct current diode based positive feedback adiabatic logic (DC-DB PFAL). Logic gates are the preliminary components in any digital circuit design. By improving the performance of basic gates, one can improvise the whole system performance. In this paper proposed circuit design of the low power architecture of OR/NOR, AND/NAND, and XOR/XNOR gates are presented using the said approaches and their results are analyzed for powerdissipation, delay, power-delay-product and rise time and compared with the other adiabatic techniques along with the conventional complementary metal oxide semiconductor (CMOS) designs reported in the literature. It has been found that the designs with DC-DB PFAL technique outperform with the percentage improvement of 65% for NOR gate and 7% for NAND gate and 34% for XNOR gate over the modified PFAL techniques at 10 MHz respectively.
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Advanced control scheme of doubly fed induction generator for wind turbine us...IJECEIAES
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DEEP LEARNING FOR SMART GRID INTRUSION DETECTION: A HYBRID CNN-LSTM-BASED MODELgerogepatton
As digital technology becomes more deeply embedded in power systems, protecting the communication
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solve this issue, this paper develops a hybrid Deep Learning (DL) model specifically designed for intrusion
detection in smart grids. The proposed approach is a combination of the Convolutional Neural Network
(CNN) and the Long-Short-Term Memory algorithms (LSTM). We employed a recent intrusion detection
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train and test our model. The results of our experiments show that our CNN-LSTM method is much better
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Adaptive synchronous sliding control for a robot manipulator based on neural ...IJECEIAES
Robot manipulators have become important equipment in production lines, medical fields, and transportation. Improving the quality of trajectory tracking for
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challenging problem because robot manipulators are complex nonlinear systems
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ensures that the positions of the joints track the desired trajectory, synchronize
the errors, and significantly reduces chattering. First, the synchronous tracking
errors and synchronous sliding surfaces are presented. Second, the synchronous
tracking error dynamics are determined. Third, a robust adaptive control law is
designed,the unknown components of the model are estimated online by the neural network, and the parameters of the switching elements are selected by fuzzy
logic. The built algorithm ensures that the tracking and approximation errors
are ultimately uniformly bounded (UUB). Finally, the effectiveness of the constructed algorithm is demonstrated through simulation and experimental results.
Simulation and experimental results show that the proposed controller is effective with small synchronous tracking errors, and the chattering phenomenon is
significantly reduced.
Introduction- e - waste – definition - sources of e-waste– hazardous substances in e-waste - effects of e-waste on environment and human health- need for e-waste management– e-waste handling rules - waste minimization techniques for managing e-waste – recycling of e-waste - disposal treatment methods of e- waste – mechanism of extraction of precious metal from leaching solution-global Scenario of E-waste – E-waste in India- case studies.
1. Coagulation and Flocculation
Process Fundamentals
WHY THEY ARE USED
All waters, especially surface waters, contain both dissolved and suspended particles.
Coagulation and flocculation processes are used to separate the suspended solids portion from
the water.
The suspended particles vary considerably in source, composition charge, particle size, shape,
and density. Correct application of coagulation and flocculation processes and selection of the
coagulants depend upon understanding the interaction between these factors. The small particles
are stabilized (kept in suspension) by the action of physical forces on the particles themselves.
One of the forces playing a dominant role in stabilization results from the surface charge present
on the particles. Most solids suspended in water possess a negative charge and, since they have
the same type of surface charge, repel each other when they come close together. Therefore, they
will remain in suspension rather than clump together and settle out of the water.
HOW THE PROCESSES WORK
Coagulation and flocculation occur in successive steps intended to overcome the forces
stabilizing the suspended particles, allowing particle collision and growth of floc. If step one is
incomplete, the following step will be unsuccessful.
COAGULATION
The first step destabilizes the particle’s charges. Coagulants with charges opposite those of the
suspended solids are added to the water to neutralize the negative charges on dispersed non-
settlable solids such as clay and color-producing organic substances.
Once the charge is neutralized, the small suspended particles are capable of sticking together.
The slightly larger particles, formed through this process and called microflocs, are not visible to
the naked eye. The water surrounding the newly formed microflocs should be clear. If it is not,
all the particles’ charges have not been neutralized, and coagulation has not been carried to
completion. More coagulant may need to be added.
A high-energy, rapid-mix to properly disperse the coagulant and promote particle collisions is
needed to achieve good coagulation. Over-mixing does not affect coagulation, but insufficient
mixing will leave this step incomplete. Coagulants should be added where sufficient mixing will
occur. Proper contact time in the rapid-mix chamber is typically 1 to 3 minutes.
Coagulation 199
2. FLOCCULATION
Following the first step of coagulation, a second process called flocculation occurs. Flocculation,
a gentle mixing stage, increases the particle size from submicroscopic microfloc to visible
suspended particles.
The microflocs are brought into contact with each other through the process of slow mixing.
Collisions of the microfloc particles cause them to bond to produce larger, visible flocs called
pinflocs. The floc size continues to build through additional collisions and interaction with
inorganic polymers formed by the coagulant or with organic polymers added. Macroflocs are
formed. High molecular weight polymers, called coagulant aids, may be added during this step to
help bridge, bind, and strengthen the floc, add weight, and increase settling rate. Once the floc
has reached it optimum size and strength, the water is ready for the sedimentation process.
Design contact times for flocculation range from 15 or 20 minutes to an hour or more.
Coagulation 200
3. Operational Considerations
Flocculation requires careful attention to the mixing velocity and amount of mix energy. To
prevent the floc from tearing apart or shearing, the mixing velocity and energy input are usually
tapered off as the size of the floc increases. Once flocs are torn apart, it is difficult to get them to
reform to their optimum size and strength. The amount of operator control available in
flocculation is highly dependent upon the type and design of the equipment.
SEDIMENTATION
Design and Operating Considerations
Sedimentation basins are used in conventional plants. Direct-filtration plants skip the
sedimentation stage and go directly to filtration. Detention times for sedimentation are in the
range of 1 to 4 hours. Inlets are designed to distribute water evenly and at uniform velocities.
Overflow rates should not exceed 20,000 gallons per day per foot of weir length. Velocity should
not exceed 0.5 feet per minute.
Sedimentation basins are used to settle out the floc before going to the filters. Some type of
sludge collection device should be used to remove sludge from the bottom of the basin.
Coagulation 201
4. DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS: CONVENTIONAL PLANTS
Conventional plant designs separate the coagulation, or rapid-mix, stage from the flocculation, or
slow-mix, stage. Normally this is followed by a sedimentation stage, after which filtration takes
place. Plants designed for direct filtration route the water directly from flocculation to filtration.
These systems typically have a higher raw-water quality. Conventional designs can incorporate
adjustable mixing speeds in both the rapid-mix and slow-mix equipment. Multiple feed points for
coagulants, polymers, flocculants, and other chemicals can be provided. There is generally
adequate space to separate the feed points for incompatible chemicals.
Conventional plant designs have conservative retention times and rise rates. This usually results
in requirements for large process basins and a large amount of land for the plant site. On-site
pilot plant evaluation of the proposed process, by a qualified engineer familiar with the source of
the water, is advisable prior to selection and construction of the units.
Coagulation 202
5. Retention or detention time is the theoretical time in minutes that water spends in a process. It is
calculated by dividing the liquid volume, in gallons, of a basin by the plant flow rate in gallons
per minute. Actual detention time in a basin will be less than the theoretical detention time
because of “dead areas” and short circuiting, which could be due to inadequate baffling.
Retention time = basin volume (gallons)
gpm flow
The rise rate is calculated by dividing the flow in gallons per minute by the net upflow area of
the basin in square feet.
Rise Rate = gpm flow
surface area
DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS: COMBINATION UNITS
Some designs incorporate coagulation, flocculation, and sedimentation within a single unit.
These designs can be separated into upflow solids contact units and sludge blanket units. Most
solids contact designs use recirculation of previously formed floes to enhance floc formation and
maximize usage of treatment chemicals. Sludge bed designs force the newly forming flocs to
pass upward through a suspended bed of floc. In both styles of units, the cross-sectional surface
of the basin increases from the bottom to top, causing the water flow to slow as it rises, and
allowing the floc to settle out. The combination units generally use higher rise rates and shorter
detention time than conventional treatment. Numerous manufacturers market proprietary units
based on these design concepts. These units are more compact and require less land for plant site
location. On-site pilot plant evaluation of the proposed process, by a qualified engineer familiar
with the source water, is advisable prior to selection and construction of combined units.
Coagulation 203
6. COAGULANT SELECTION
The choice of coagulant chemical depends upon the nature of the suspended solid to be removed,
the raw water conditions, the facility design, and the cost of the amount of chemical necessary to
produce the desired result.
Final selection of the coagulant (or coagulants) should be made following thorough jar testing
and plant scale evaluation. Considerations must be given to required effluent quality, effect upon
down stream treatment process performance, cost, method and cost of sludge handling and
disposal, and net overall cost at the dose required for effective treatment.
Inorganic Coagulants
Inorganic coagulants such as aluminum and iron salts are the most commonly used. When added
to the water, they furnish highly charged ions to neutralize the suspended particles. The inorganic
hydroxides formed produce short polymer chains which enhance microfloc formation.
Inorganic coagulants usually offer the lowest price per pound, are widely available, and, when
properly applied, are quite effective in removing most suspended solids. They are also capable of
removing a portion of the organic precursors which may combine with chlorine to form
disinfection by-products. They produce large volumes of floc which can entrap bacteria as they
settle. However, they may alter the pH of the water since they consume alkalinity. When applied
in a lime soda ash softening process, alum and iron salts generate demand for lime and soda ash.
They require corrosion-resistant storage and feed equipment. The large volumes of settled floc
must be disposed of in an environmentally acceptable manner.
Coagulation 204
7. Inorganic Coagulant Reactions
Common coagulant chemicals used are alum, ferric sulfate, ferric chloride, ferrous sulfate, and
sodium aluminate. The first four will lower the alkalinity and pH of the solution while the
sodium aluminate will add alkalinity and raise the pH. The reactions of each follow:
ALUM
A12(SO4)3 + 3 Ca(HCO3)2 ------------> 2 Al(OH)3 + 3CaSO4 + 6 CO2
Aluminum + Calcium gives Aluminum + Calcium + Carbon
Sulfate Bicarbonate Hydroxide Sulfate Dioxide
(already in the
water to treat)
FERRIC SULFATE
Fe2(SO4)3 + 3 Ca(HCO3)2 ------------> 2 Fe(OH)3 + 3CaSO4 + 6 CO2
Ferric + Calcium gives Ferric + Calcium + Carbon
Sulfate Bicarbonate Hydroxide Sulfate Dioxide
(present in the
water to treat)
FERRIC CHLORIDE
2 Fe Cl3 + 3 Ca(HCO3)2 ------------> 2 Fe(OH)3 + 3CaCl2 + 6CO2
Ferric + Calcium gives Ferric + Calcium + Carbon
Chloride Bicarbonate Hydroxide Chloride Dioxide
(present in the
water to treat)
FERROUS SULFATE
FeS04 + Ca(HCO3)2 ------------> Fe(OH)2 + CaS04 + 2CO2
Ferrous + Calcium gives Ferrous + Calcium + Carbon
Sulfate Bicarbonate Hydroxide Sulfate Dioxide
(present in the
water to treat)
Coagulation 205
8. Coagulation 206
SODIUM ALUMINATE
2 Na2A12O4 + Ca(HCO3)2 ------------> 8 Al(OH)3 + 3 Na2CO3 + 6 H20
Sodium + Calcium gives Aluminum + Sodium + Water
Aluminate Carbonate Hydroxide Carbonate
(present in the
water to treat)
Na2Al2O4 + CO2 ------------> 2 Al(OH)3 + NaCO3
Sodium + Carbon gives Aluminum + Sodium
Aluminate Dioxide Hydroxide Carbonate
(present in the
water to treat)
Na2Al2O4 + MgCo3 ------------> MgAl2O4 + Na2CO3
Sodium + Magnesium gives Magnesium + Sodium
Aluminate Carbonate Aluminate Carbonate
(present in the
water to treat)
POLYMERS
Polymers--long-chained, high-molecular-weight, organic chemicals--are becoming more widely
used, especially as coagulant aids together with the regular inorganic coagulants. Anionic
(negatively charged) polymers are often used with metal coagulants. Low-to-medium weight,
positively charged (cationic) polymers may be used alone or in combination with the aluminum
and iron type coagulants to attract the suspended solids and neutralize their surface charge. The
manufacturer can produce a wide range of products that meet a variety of source-water
conditions by controlling the amount and type of charge and relative molecular weight of the
polymer.
Polymers are effective over a wider pH range than inorganic coagulants. They can be applied at
lower doses, and they do not consume alkalinity. They produce smaller volumes of more
concentrated, rapidly settling floc. The floc formed from use of a properly selected polymer will
be more resistant to shear, resulting in less carryover and a cleaner effluent.
Polymers are generally several times more expensive in their price per pound than inorganic
coagulants. Selection of the proper polymer for the application requires considerable jar testing
under simulated plant conditions, followed by pilot or plant-scale trials.
All polymers must be approved for potable water use by regulatory agencies.