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CLIMATE CHANGE ADAPTATION AND MITIGATION THROUGH
    MANGROVE CONSERVATION AND REHABILITATION




                      J.H. Primavera
      ZSL Community-based Mangrove Rehabilitation Project
                    Iloilo City, Philippines
MARINE HABITATS




                                                          corals
   mangroves
(13+-15 million ha)

                      seagrasses
                                            W. Licuanan
MANGROVE SPECIES OF THE PHILIPPINES
                          (Primavera et al, 2004)

     Family                         Species            FamilyCommon name               Species
Acanthaceae          1. Acanthus ebracteatus     Plumbaginaceae
                                                           --          20. Aegialitis annulata
                     2. A. ilicifolius                     --
                                                 Rhizophoraceae        21. Bruguiera cylindrica
Avicenniaceae        3. Avicennia alba                     Api-api     22. B. exaristata
                     4. A. officinalis                     Api-api     23. B. hainesii
                     5. A. marina                          Bungalon 24. B. gymnorrhiza
                     6. A. rumphiana                       Api-api     25. B. parviflora
Bombacaceae          7. Camptostemon philippinensis        Gapas gapas 26. B. sexangula
                     8. C. schultzii                       --          27. Ceriops decandra
                                                                       28. C. tagal
Combretaceae         9. Lumnitzera littorea                Faban       29. Kandelia candel
                    10. L. racemosa                        --          30. Rhizophora apiculata
                    11. L. roseac                          --          31. R. lamarckiic
Euphorbiaceae       12. Excoecaria agallocha               Alipata     32. R. mucronata
Lythraceae          13. Pemphis acidula                    Bantigi     33. R. stylosa     Indo-Malay
                                                 Rubiaceae Tabigi                          Philippine
                                                                       34. Scyphiphora hydrophyllacea
Meliaceae           14. Xylocarpus granatum                                              Archipelago
                    15. X. moluccensis           Sonneratiaceae
                                                           Tabigi      35. Sonneratia alba
Myrsinaceae         16. Aegiceras corniculatum             Saging-saging S. caseolaris
                                                                       36.
                                                                                      c
                    17. A. floridum                        Tinduktindukan S. gulngai c
                                                                       37.
                                                                       38. S. lanceolata
Myrtaceae           18. Osbornia octodonta                 --          39. S. ovata
Palmae              19. Nypa fruticans                     Nipa

 Sources: Brown & Fischer, 1920; Arroyo, 1979; Fernando & Pancho, 1980; Tomlinson, 1986; Anon,
          1996; Spalding et al., 1997; Yao, 1999; Norman Duke, AIMS, pers. comm.



      Mangrove Species Diversity (Polidoro et al 2010)
USES OF
MANGROVES

    Coastal
   protection

   Habitat for
    wildlife


    Fisheries
    products


    Forestry
    products

Artwork by Ta Luu
(Latief & Hadi,
2006)
NATURAL BUFFERS




Coastal Planning for Disaster Management Seminar – June 30, 2006
PHILIPPINE MANGROVE GREENBELT/OTHER LAWS
                                       (J.H. Primavera)

P.D. 705 (1975)      Revised Forestry Code: mangrove strips in islands providing protection from high
                       winds, typhoons shall not be alienated
P.D. 953 (1976)      Fishpond/mangrove lease holders required to retain or replant 20-m mangrove
                        strip along rivers, creeks
BFD A.O. 2 (1979)    Min. 25% of total mangrove forest in given area completely protected as Mangrove
                       Wilderness Areas
P.P. 2151 & 2152     Declaration of 4,326 ha mangroves as wilderness areas, 74,767 ha as forest reserves
(1981)
MNR A.O. 42 (1986)   Expansion of mangrove belt in storm surge, typhoon areas: 100 m along
                       shorelines, 50 m along riverbanks
DENR A.O. 76         Establishment of buffer zone: 50 m fronting seas/oceans and 20 m along riverbanks;
(1987)                  lessees of FLA ponds required to plant 20-50 m-mangrove strip
DENR A.O. 77         Integrated Social Forestry Program (provision of legal tenure incentives for co-
(1988)                  management of forest resources)
DENR A.O. 123        Award of 25-yr Community Forestry Management Agreement for small scale
(1990)                 mangrove use, Rhizophora and Nypa plantations, aquasilviculture
DENR A.O. 15         Policies on communal forests, plantations, tenure through Mangrove Stewardship
(1990)                  Contracts; revert abandoned ponds to forest; ban cutting of trees in FLA areas;
                        prohibit conversion of thickly vegetated areas
DENR A.O. 3 (1991)   Policies and guidelines for Mangrove Stewardship Agreement
DENR A.O. 23         Combined 3-yr Mangrove Reforestation Contract and 25-yr Forest Land Management
(1993)                 Agreement into 25-yr FLMA for families (1-10 ha) and communities (10-1,000 ha)
Greenbelt: Kung
                            Krabaen, Thailand




                                  Photo Vic Mancebo
Photo Siri Tookwinas




            No greenbelt:
              Philippines
MANILA BAY




             J.H. Primavera
June 2011: Roxas Blvd-Manila Bay
Roxas Blvd. – September 2011
       (J.H. Primavera)
HARD STRUCTURES (ENGG) vs
    SOFT STRUCTURES
       (GREENBELT)
GREENBELT/BUFFER ZONE

P.D. 705 (1975) Revised Forestry Code: retention (exclusion from pond
       development) of 20 m wide mangrove strip along shorelines facing
       oceans, lakes etc.
P.D. 953 (1976) Fishpond/mangrove leaseholders to retain/replant
       20 m mangrove strip along rivers, creeks
MNR A.O. 42 (1986) Expansion of mangrove belt in storm surge, typhoon areas:
       50-100 m along shorelines, 20-50 m along riverbanks
DENR A.O. 76 (1987) Establishment of buffer zone: 50 m fronting seas, oceans
      and 20 m along riverbanks
DENR A.O. 76 (1987) Pond leases required to plant 50 m mangrove strip
DENR A.O. 16 (1993) Guidelines for buffer zones in protected areas
                          J.H. Primavera
What changes
       climate?
Changes in:
  – Sun’s output
  – Earth’s orbit
  – Drifting continents
  – Volcanic eruptions
  – Greenhouse gases
Sea-level rise over coming centuries
Sea-Level Rise, over the coming millennium
   following 70 years of excess greenhouse gas
                                                       emissions
                       1.5




                                                 Total sea level rise
  Sea-level rise (m)




                       1.0


                                                                        Ocean Expansion


                                                                                    Ice-melt
                       0.5



                                                                   Greenhouse gas emissions -
                                                                        Global warming

                       0.0
                                           200               400              600               800

                         Peaking in 2050            Time from start (years)
                                                                                         IPCC, 2001
                                                                                      IPCC 2001
Sea-level trends




                    Vulnerability to flooding
                   (Nicholls & Canezave, 2010)
Most Vulnerable
     Mangroves
• low relief islands
• lack of rivers
• carbonate settings
• subsiding areas
• microtidal <2 meters,
sediment-starved
• blocked by coastal
development/ steep
topography

                          J.H. Primavera
Semeniuk,
            1994




                                                            move
                                                          landward

        Mangroves can keep up with sea level rise if:
- sedimentation rate keeps up with the rate of sea level rise
- substrates for retreat available in landward margins
                                                       mangroves
                                                          lost




                                                       (Gilman et al, 2006)
MANGROVES TO PONDS
   (J.H. Primavera)
(Duke 1992 )



                      MANGROVE AREA
Spalding et al, 2010 - 152,360 sq km (=15.2 million ha)
                      - 123 countries, territories
Giri et al, 2010     - 137,760 sq km (=13.8 million ha)
                      - 118 countries, territories, <7% protected
MANGROVE THREATS (J.H. Primavera)
Natural: sealevel change, erosion
Anthropogenic: Oil spills, War
 - Small-scale harvest: fuelwood, fishing poles,
 - Large-scale conversion: salt beds, rice paddies, aquaculture




 aquaculture ponds              salt beds               agriculture
   • RECOMMENDATIONS

   • Restore/rehabilitate degraded areas (planned retreat:
   •                                      CC adaptation)
   • Protect remaining forests (C sinks: CC mitigation)
      Oil spills                harbors                Vietnam War
MANGROVES            PONDS
1918: 450,000 ha      1940: 61,000 ha
2003: 240,000 ha      1994: 232,000 ha
PRESENT MANGROVE: POND RATIO - 1: 1
  IDEAL RATIO (Saenger et al 1983) - 4: 1
MANGROVE-AQUACULTURE INTEGRATION
Mudcrab Culture in Mangrove Pens




                            J.H. Primavera
Darwin
                                            Harbor,
                                           Australia




                         Iriomote, Japan
                           (ISME, 1998)




Duke in Tomlinson,1986
Misguided planting of bakhaw Rhizophora –
WRONG SPECIES/ECOSYSTEM (J.H. Primavera)
Correct Species: Avicennia
  marina (J.H. Primavera)




                    After 3 weeks




                   After 3 mo
50 meters
                                   50 meters
J.H. Primavera



                                WRONG SITE!!
                               Seafront planting –
                                   below MSL



           Machiwa &
          Hallberg, 1995)
50 meters
                                   50 meters
J.H. Primavera



                                WRONG SITE!!
                               Seafront planting –
                                   below MSL



           Machiwa &
          Hallberg, 1995)
MANGROVE REHABILITATION – SEAFRONT
                 PLANTING VS POND REVERSION
                        (J.H. Primavera)




                                Seafront Planting
                                (<50,000 ha planted)

                                Middle/Lower Intertidal/
 Pond Reversion                 Subtidal (~10% survival)
 (50,000-80,000 ha
 abandoned ponds)

Supra/ Upper Intertidal
    (>80% survival)



                                                       J.H. Primavera
Fisheries Code (Rep. Act 8550): Reversion of abandoned, unutilized
                              Tigbauan,
            and underdeveloped ponds back to mangroves
                                 Iloilo,
                                central
                               Philippines



1989                      1993                          2004
                                    2006




                       J.H. Primavera
abandoned
                                big size: direct
                                                                      Wildings
  pond
                                   planting

                                                                       from
                                                                     Abandoned
                                                                       Pond
                                                             Nabitasan Natl H.S.,
                                                                Leganes, Iloilo
natural stand


                                           NURSERY




            small: bagging
                                                                        relay




                        relay

                                                     relay
   J.H. Primavera
2009-2012: pond-to-
mangrove reversion
 in collaboraton w/
local govt. officials
  (Leganes, Iloilo)
bungalon
                     tabao




       lipata     dungon




                Photos J.H. Primavera
Green Carbon
                                                    Blue Carbon


       C SINKS




                                                MANGROVES
                         Brown     Carbon
                                 •0% of global deforestation emissions
(Donato et al, 2010)             • sequester up to 5x carbon in tropical
                                 forest
                                 • 0.7% area of tropical forests, but
                                 destroyed 3-4x faster
                                 •so key to mitigation of CC-GW
Black Carbon
                                 • also key to CC-SLR adaptation
Mangrove Valuation

                         Total Goods and Services
Costanza et al. (1997)             PhP495,000/ha/yr ($9,900/ha/yr)
Spurgeon & Roxburgh (2005)         PhP520,000/ha/yr ($10,400/ha/yr)
       American Samoa                      (=$104,000/sq km/yr)
Sathirathai & Barbier (2001)       PhP1.8-17.5 million/ha/yr ($27,000-35,000/ha/yr)
        Thailand                          ($2.7-3.5 million/sq km/yr)
Wells et al (2006)                 PhP20-45 million/ha/yr
                                         ($200,000-900,000/ha/yr)


                      Individual Goods and Services

Fisheries: Ronnback 1999, 2000        PhP45,000-620,000 ($900-12,400/ha/yr)
Wood products (Malaysia)              ($11,561/ha/yr)
Erosion control: Ruitenbeek 1992      PhP3,000/household/yr ($600/household/yr)

Waste disposal: Lal 1990 (Fiji)        PhP264,000/ha/yr ($5,280/ha/yr)
      Cabrera etal, 1998 (Mexico)      PhP59,500/ha/yr ($1,190/ha/yr)
Coastal protection & waste             PhP420,750/ha/yr ($8,414/ha/yr)
   disposal (Costanza et al 1997)
14 years: from 1996 `discovery` by scientists to Jan. 2010 KII launching
AJUY, ILOILO
THE AGUSAN MARSH




  Thank You

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Climate Change Adaptation and Mitigation Through Mangrove Conservation and Rehabilitation

  • 1. CLIMATE CHANGE ADAPTATION AND MITIGATION THROUGH MANGROVE CONSERVATION AND REHABILITATION J.H. Primavera ZSL Community-based Mangrove Rehabilitation Project Iloilo City, Philippines
  • 2. MARINE HABITATS corals mangroves (13+-15 million ha) seagrasses W. Licuanan
  • 3. MANGROVE SPECIES OF THE PHILIPPINES (Primavera et al, 2004) Family Species FamilyCommon name Species Acanthaceae 1. Acanthus ebracteatus Plumbaginaceae -- 20. Aegialitis annulata 2. A. ilicifolius -- Rhizophoraceae 21. Bruguiera cylindrica Avicenniaceae 3. Avicennia alba Api-api 22. B. exaristata 4. A. officinalis Api-api 23. B. hainesii 5. A. marina Bungalon 24. B. gymnorrhiza 6. A. rumphiana Api-api 25. B. parviflora Bombacaceae 7. Camptostemon philippinensis Gapas gapas 26. B. sexangula 8. C. schultzii -- 27. Ceriops decandra 28. C. tagal Combretaceae 9. Lumnitzera littorea Faban 29. Kandelia candel 10. L. racemosa -- 30. Rhizophora apiculata 11. L. roseac -- 31. R. lamarckiic Euphorbiaceae 12. Excoecaria agallocha Alipata 32. R. mucronata Lythraceae 13. Pemphis acidula Bantigi 33. R. stylosa Indo-Malay Rubiaceae Tabigi Philippine 34. Scyphiphora hydrophyllacea Meliaceae 14. Xylocarpus granatum Archipelago 15. X. moluccensis Sonneratiaceae Tabigi 35. Sonneratia alba Myrsinaceae 16. Aegiceras corniculatum Saging-saging S. caseolaris 36. c 17. A. floridum Tinduktindukan S. gulngai c 37. 38. S. lanceolata Myrtaceae 18. Osbornia octodonta -- 39. S. ovata Palmae 19. Nypa fruticans Nipa Sources: Brown & Fischer, 1920; Arroyo, 1979; Fernando & Pancho, 1980; Tomlinson, 1986; Anon, 1996; Spalding et al., 1997; Yao, 1999; Norman Duke, AIMS, pers. comm. Mangrove Species Diversity (Polidoro et al 2010)
  • 4. USES OF MANGROVES Coastal protection Habitat for wildlife Fisheries products Forestry products Artwork by Ta Luu
  • 6. NATURAL BUFFERS Coastal Planning for Disaster Management Seminar – June 30, 2006
  • 7.
  • 8. PHILIPPINE MANGROVE GREENBELT/OTHER LAWS (J.H. Primavera) P.D. 705 (1975) Revised Forestry Code: mangrove strips in islands providing protection from high winds, typhoons shall not be alienated P.D. 953 (1976) Fishpond/mangrove lease holders required to retain or replant 20-m mangrove strip along rivers, creeks BFD A.O. 2 (1979) Min. 25% of total mangrove forest in given area completely protected as Mangrove Wilderness Areas P.P. 2151 & 2152 Declaration of 4,326 ha mangroves as wilderness areas, 74,767 ha as forest reserves (1981) MNR A.O. 42 (1986) Expansion of mangrove belt in storm surge, typhoon areas: 100 m along shorelines, 50 m along riverbanks DENR A.O. 76 Establishment of buffer zone: 50 m fronting seas/oceans and 20 m along riverbanks; (1987) lessees of FLA ponds required to plant 20-50 m-mangrove strip DENR A.O. 77 Integrated Social Forestry Program (provision of legal tenure incentives for co- (1988) management of forest resources) DENR A.O. 123 Award of 25-yr Community Forestry Management Agreement for small scale (1990) mangrove use, Rhizophora and Nypa plantations, aquasilviculture DENR A.O. 15 Policies on communal forests, plantations, tenure through Mangrove Stewardship (1990) Contracts; revert abandoned ponds to forest; ban cutting of trees in FLA areas; prohibit conversion of thickly vegetated areas DENR A.O. 3 (1991) Policies and guidelines for Mangrove Stewardship Agreement DENR A.O. 23 Combined 3-yr Mangrove Reforestation Contract and 25-yr Forest Land Management (1993) Agreement into 25-yr FLMA for families (1-10 ha) and communities (10-1,000 ha)
  • 9. Greenbelt: Kung Krabaen, Thailand Photo Vic Mancebo Photo Siri Tookwinas No greenbelt: Philippines
  • 10. MANILA BAY J.H. Primavera
  • 11. June 2011: Roxas Blvd-Manila Bay
  • 12. Roxas Blvd. – September 2011 (J.H. Primavera)
  • 13. HARD STRUCTURES (ENGG) vs SOFT STRUCTURES (GREENBELT)
  • 14. GREENBELT/BUFFER ZONE P.D. 705 (1975) Revised Forestry Code: retention (exclusion from pond development) of 20 m wide mangrove strip along shorelines facing oceans, lakes etc. P.D. 953 (1976) Fishpond/mangrove leaseholders to retain/replant 20 m mangrove strip along rivers, creeks MNR A.O. 42 (1986) Expansion of mangrove belt in storm surge, typhoon areas: 50-100 m along shorelines, 20-50 m along riverbanks DENR A.O. 76 (1987) Establishment of buffer zone: 50 m fronting seas, oceans and 20 m along riverbanks DENR A.O. 76 (1987) Pond leases required to plant 50 m mangrove strip DENR A.O. 16 (1993) Guidelines for buffer zones in protected areas J.H. Primavera
  • 15. What changes climate? Changes in: – Sun’s output – Earth’s orbit – Drifting continents – Volcanic eruptions – Greenhouse gases
  • 16. Sea-level rise over coming centuries Sea-Level Rise, over the coming millennium following 70 years of excess greenhouse gas emissions 1.5 Total sea level rise Sea-level rise (m) 1.0 Ocean Expansion Ice-melt 0.5 Greenhouse gas emissions - Global warming 0.0 200 400 600 800 Peaking in 2050 Time from start (years) IPCC, 2001 IPCC 2001
  • 17. Sea-level trends Vulnerability to flooding (Nicholls & Canezave, 2010)
  • 18. Most Vulnerable Mangroves • low relief islands • lack of rivers • carbonate settings • subsiding areas • microtidal <2 meters, sediment-starved • blocked by coastal development/ steep topography J.H. Primavera
  • 19. Semeniuk, 1994 move landward Mangroves can keep up with sea level rise if: - sedimentation rate keeps up with the rate of sea level rise - substrates for retreat available in landward margins mangroves lost (Gilman et al, 2006)
  • 20. MANGROVES TO PONDS (J.H. Primavera)
  • 21. (Duke 1992 ) MANGROVE AREA Spalding et al, 2010 - 152,360 sq km (=15.2 million ha) - 123 countries, territories Giri et al, 2010 - 137,760 sq km (=13.8 million ha) - 118 countries, territories, <7% protected
  • 22. MANGROVE THREATS (J.H. Primavera) Natural: sealevel change, erosion Anthropogenic: Oil spills, War - Small-scale harvest: fuelwood, fishing poles, - Large-scale conversion: salt beds, rice paddies, aquaculture aquaculture ponds salt beds agriculture • RECOMMENDATIONS • Restore/rehabilitate degraded areas (planned retreat: • CC adaptation) • Protect remaining forests (C sinks: CC mitigation) Oil spills harbors Vietnam War
  • 23. MANGROVES PONDS 1918: 450,000 ha 1940: 61,000 ha 2003: 240,000 ha 1994: 232,000 ha PRESENT MANGROVE: POND RATIO - 1: 1 IDEAL RATIO (Saenger et al 1983) - 4: 1
  • 24. MANGROVE-AQUACULTURE INTEGRATION Mudcrab Culture in Mangrove Pens J.H. Primavera
  • 25. Darwin Harbor, Australia Iriomote, Japan (ISME, 1998) Duke in Tomlinson,1986
  • 26. Misguided planting of bakhaw Rhizophora – WRONG SPECIES/ECOSYSTEM (J.H. Primavera)
  • 27. Correct Species: Avicennia marina (J.H. Primavera) After 3 weeks After 3 mo
  • 28. 50 meters 50 meters J.H. Primavera WRONG SITE!! Seafront planting – below MSL Machiwa & Hallberg, 1995)
  • 29. 50 meters 50 meters J.H. Primavera WRONG SITE!! Seafront planting – below MSL Machiwa & Hallberg, 1995)
  • 30. MANGROVE REHABILITATION – SEAFRONT PLANTING VS POND REVERSION (J.H. Primavera) Seafront Planting (<50,000 ha planted) Middle/Lower Intertidal/ Pond Reversion Subtidal (~10% survival) (50,000-80,000 ha abandoned ponds) Supra/ Upper Intertidal (>80% survival) J.H. Primavera
  • 31. Fisheries Code (Rep. Act 8550): Reversion of abandoned, unutilized Tigbauan, and underdeveloped ponds back to mangroves Iloilo, central Philippines 1989 1993 2004 2006 J.H. Primavera
  • 32. abandoned big size: direct Wildings pond planting from Abandoned Pond Nabitasan Natl H.S., Leganes, Iloilo natural stand NURSERY small: bagging relay relay relay J.H. Primavera
  • 33. 2009-2012: pond-to- mangrove reversion in collaboraton w/ local govt. officials (Leganes, Iloilo)
  • 34. bungalon tabao lipata dungon Photos J.H. Primavera
  • 35. Green Carbon Blue Carbon C SINKS MANGROVES Brown Carbon •0% of global deforestation emissions (Donato et al, 2010) • sequester up to 5x carbon in tropical forest • 0.7% area of tropical forests, but destroyed 3-4x faster •so key to mitigation of CC-GW Black Carbon • also key to CC-SLR adaptation
  • 36. Mangrove Valuation Total Goods and Services Costanza et al. (1997) PhP495,000/ha/yr ($9,900/ha/yr) Spurgeon & Roxburgh (2005) PhP520,000/ha/yr ($10,400/ha/yr) American Samoa (=$104,000/sq km/yr) Sathirathai & Barbier (2001) PhP1.8-17.5 million/ha/yr ($27,000-35,000/ha/yr) Thailand ($2.7-3.5 million/sq km/yr) Wells et al (2006) PhP20-45 million/ha/yr ($200,000-900,000/ha/yr) Individual Goods and Services Fisheries: Ronnback 1999, 2000 PhP45,000-620,000 ($900-12,400/ha/yr) Wood products (Malaysia) ($11,561/ha/yr) Erosion control: Ruitenbeek 1992 PhP3,000/household/yr ($600/household/yr) Waste disposal: Lal 1990 (Fiji) PhP264,000/ha/yr ($5,280/ha/yr) Cabrera etal, 1998 (Mexico) PhP59,500/ha/yr ($1,190/ha/yr) Coastal protection & waste PhP420,750/ha/yr ($8,414/ha/yr) disposal (Costanza et al 1997)
  • 37. 14 years: from 1996 `discovery` by scientists to Jan. 2010 KII launching
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  • 42. THE AGUSAN MARSH Thank You