The endocrine system regulates body functions through the synthesis and release of hormones from endocrine glands. The hypothalamus links the nervous and endocrine systems by stimulating or inhibiting hormone release from the pituitary gland. The pituitary gland, known as the "master gland", regulates other endocrine glands and organs by producing hormones that signal the release of other hormones. Key endocrine glands include the thyroid, adrenals, pancreas, ovaries/testes, and parathyroids, each producing hormones that regulate processes like metabolism, stress response, growth, and reproduction.
Disorders are generally grouped into:
1. HYPER- when the gland secretes excessive hormones
2. HYPO- when the gland does not secrete enough hormones
Hyper and Hypo can be classified as
PRIMARY when the Gland itself is the problem or
SECONDARY when the pituitary or the hypothalamus is causing the problem
OSTEOPOROSIS AT A GLANCE
Osteoporosis is a condition of increased susceptibility to fracture due to fragile bone.
Osteoporosis weakens bone and increases risk of bone fracture.
Bone mass (bone density) decreases after age 35 years and decreases more rapidly in women after menopause.
Key risk factors for osteoporosis include genetic factors, lack of exercise, lack of calcium and vitamin D, personal history of fracture as an adult, rheumatoid arthritis, cigarette smoking, excessive alcohol consumption, low body weight, and family history of osteoporosis.
Patients with osteoporosis have no symptoms until bone fractures occur.
Diagnosis can be suggested by X-rays and confirmed by using tests to measure bone density.
Treatments for osteoporosis, in addition to prescription osteoporosis medications, include stopping use of alcohol and cigarettes, and assuring adequate exercise, calcium, and vitamin D.
This document discusses the components and process of nursing diagnosis. It begins by outlining the 5 components of the nursing process: assessment, diagnosis, planning, implementation, and evaluation. It then focuses on the diagnostic phase, explaining the differences between medical and nursing diagnosis. It provides details on the types of nursing diagnoses according to client status, and how nursing diagnoses are formulated using NANDA terminology and diagnostic statement structures. Factors involved in analyzing data, determining strengths, and prioritizing diagnoses are also summarized.
This document discusses several endocrine glands and their associated hormones, pathologies of overproduction and underproduction. It addresses the thyroid gland and hormones which can cause Graves' disease (overproduction) or Hashimoto's disease (underproduction). It also discusses the pancreas and diabetes mellitus caused by overproduction or underproduction of insulin. Finally, it reviews the anterior pituitary gland and disorders like acromegaly and gigantism from overproduction of growth hormone, or dwarfism from underproduction.
The pituitary gland, located at the base of the brain, is responsible for regulating many important bodily processes through the hormones it produces and secretes. Known as the "master gland", it takes signals from the brain and controls other endocrine glands. Composed of three lobes, the anterior pituitary secretes hormones that stimulate growth, thyroid function, adrenal function, lactation, and reproduction. The posterior pituitary stores and releases oxytocin and vasopressin. Together with the hypothalamus, the pituitary regulates a negative feedback system to maintain hormone levels within normal ranges.
1. The thyroid gland secretes two main hormones: thyroxine (T4) and triiodothyronine (T3) in a ratio of 15:1.
2. T4 and T3 are bound to serum proteins and transported through the bloodstream, with the free unbound levels regulating thyroid function.
3. Peripherally, T4 is converted to the more potent T3, which enters cells and binds nuclear receptors to increase protein synthesis and cellular metabolism.
The document discusses the assessment of level of consciousness and the Glasgow Coma Scale. It describes the various levels of consciousness from normal to altered states including confusion, delirium, lethargy, and coma. The Glasgow Coma Scale is introduced as a tool to evaluate a patient's level of consciousness based on their motor, verbal, and eye responses on a scale of 3 to 15, with lower scores indicating more severe brain impairment. Factors that can affect consciousness like medical conditions, drugs, and brain injuries are outlined.
The hypothalamus-pituitary-gonadal (HPG) axis controls sex hormone synthesis and release. The hypothalamus releases gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) which stimulates the pituitary to secrete luteinizing hormone (LH) and follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH). LH and FSH then act on the gonads and adrenal glands to regulate the production of androgens, estrogens, and progesterone through a series of enzymatic conversion steps. These sex hormones feedback on the HPG axis and have critical roles in sexual development and function in both males and females.
Disorders are generally grouped into:
1. HYPER- when the gland secretes excessive hormones
2. HYPO- when the gland does not secrete enough hormones
Hyper and Hypo can be classified as
PRIMARY when the Gland itself is the problem or
SECONDARY when the pituitary or the hypothalamus is causing the problem
OSTEOPOROSIS AT A GLANCE
Osteoporosis is a condition of increased susceptibility to fracture due to fragile bone.
Osteoporosis weakens bone and increases risk of bone fracture.
Bone mass (bone density) decreases after age 35 years and decreases more rapidly in women after menopause.
Key risk factors for osteoporosis include genetic factors, lack of exercise, lack of calcium and vitamin D, personal history of fracture as an adult, rheumatoid arthritis, cigarette smoking, excessive alcohol consumption, low body weight, and family history of osteoporosis.
Patients with osteoporosis have no symptoms until bone fractures occur.
Diagnosis can be suggested by X-rays and confirmed by using tests to measure bone density.
Treatments for osteoporosis, in addition to prescription osteoporosis medications, include stopping use of alcohol and cigarettes, and assuring adequate exercise, calcium, and vitamin D.
This document discusses the components and process of nursing diagnosis. It begins by outlining the 5 components of the nursing process: assessment, diagnosis, planning, implementation, and evaluation. It then focuses on the diagnostic phase, explaining the differences between medical and nursing diagnosis. It provides details on the types of nursing diagnoses according to client status, and how nursing diagnoses are formulated using NANDA terminology and diagnostic statement structures. Factors involved in analyzing data, determining strengths, and prioritizing diagnoses are also summarized.
This document discusses several endocrine glands and their associated hormones, pathologies of overproduction and underproduction. It addresses the thyroid gland and hormones which can cause Graves' disease (overproduction) or Hashimoto's disease (underproduction). It also discusses the pancreas and diabetes mellitus caused by overproduction or underproduction of insulin. Finally, it reviews the anterior pituitary gland and disorders like acromegaly and gigantism from overproduction of growth hormone, or dwarfism from underproduction.
The pituitary gland, located at the base of the brain, is responsible for regulating many important bodily processes through the hormones it produces and secretes. Known as the "master gland", it takes signals from the brain and controls other endocrine glands. Composed of three lobes, the anterior pituitary secretes hormones that stimulate growth, thyroid function, adrenal function, lactation, and reproduction. The posterior pituitary stores and releases oxytocin and vasopressin. Together with the hypothalamus, the pituitary regulates a negative feedback system to maintain hormone levels within normal ranges.
1. The thyroid gland secretes two main hormones: thyroxine (T4) and triiodothyronine (T3) in a ratio of 15:1.
2. T4 and T3 are bound to serum proteins and transported through the bloodstream, with the free unbound levels regulating thyroid function.
3. Peripherally, T4 is converted to the more potent T3, which enters cells and binds nuclear receptors to increase protein synthesis and cellular metabolism.
The document discusses the assessment of level of consciousness and the Glasgow Coma Scale. It describes the various levels of consciousness from normal to altered states including confusion, delirium, lethargy, and coma. The Glasgow Coma Scale is introduced as a tool to evaluate a patient's level of consciousness based on their motor, verbal, and eye responses on a scale of 3 to 15, with lower scores indicating more severe brain impairment. Factors that can affect consciousness like medical conditions, drugs, and brain injuries are outlined.
The hypothalamus-pituitary-gonadal (HPG) axis controls sex hormone synthesis and release. The hypothalamus releases gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) which stimulates the pituitary to secrete luteinizing hormone (LH) and follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH). LH and FSH then act on the gonads and adrenal glands to regulate the production of androgens, estrogens, and progesterone through a series of enzymatic conversion steps. These sex hormones feedback on the HPG axis and have critical roles in sexual development and function in both males and females.
The document discusses disorders of the endocrine system, focusing on the thyroid gland. It describes the main endocrine glands and their hormones. It then discusses mechanisms of hormonal alterations including failures of feedback systems and target cell response. Specific thyroid gland disorders are explored in depth, including the effects of thyroid hormones, the mechanisms of thyroid hormone action, and the physiological effects of thyroid hormones on various body systems and metabolism.
The document discusses perception, coordination, brain anatomy, cranial nerves, levels of consciousness, neurological assessment of older adults, the Glasgow Coma Scale, and common neurological diagnostic tests. It provides nursing implications for several diagnostic tests including MRI, CT scan, EEG, and lumbar puncture. Critical thinking questions assess ability to apply knowledge of the Glasgow Coma Scale.
1) This document discusses pathology of the endocrine system, focusing on diseases of the pituitary gland, thyroid gland, parathyroid glands, adrenal glands, and diabetes mellitus. 2) Key learning objectives include describing various endocrine tumors, thyroid disorders like Graves' disease and Hashimoto's thyroiditis, parathyroid hypo- and hyperfunction, adrenal hypo- and hyperfunction, and diabetes mellitus. 3) The topics will be presented over 5 lectures covering the major endocrine organs and their diseases.
The document provides an overview of several endocrine system diseases. It discusses pituitary gland diseases like acromegaly which results in GH hypersecretion in adulthood causing disfiguring bone and tissue overgrowth. It also discusses thyroid diseases including Graves' disease, a common cause of hyperthyroidism, and hypothyroidism. The document also summarizes parathyroid diseases, adrenal diseases like Cushing's syndrome, diabetes mellitus, and diabetic emergencies.
Disorders of pituitary gland (( THE MASTER )) BY M.SASIcardilogy
The pituitary gland acts as the control center of the endocrine system. Disorders of the pituitary gland can cause either pituitary hyperfunction (hyperpituitarism) or hypopituitarism. Pituitary hyperfunction is usually caused by a pituitary adenoma and can result in excess secretion of hormones like prolactin, growth hormone, ACTH, or TSH. Prolactinomas, which cause excess prolactin secretion, are the most common type of pituitary adenoma. Symptoms of a prolactinoma include menstrual irregularities in women, infertility, and galactorrhea. Diagnosis involves measuring prolactin levels and treating the underlying cause.
Pheochromocytoma is a rare neuroendocrine tumor that originates from chromaffin cells of the adrenal medulla. It secretes high amounts of catecholamines, mostly epinephrine and norepinephrine. Symptoms include hypertension, headache, sweating, anxiety and weight loss. Diagnosis involves measuring catecholamines in blood and urine samples. Imaging tests like CT, MRI, MIBG scan and PET are also used. Preoperative treatment includes alpha-blockers to lower blood pressure. Surgical removal of the tumor is the primary treatment. Postoperative care focuses on blood pressure monitoring and managing stress.
The document discusses various releasing hormones including corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH), thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH), gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH), and growth hormone-releasing hormone (GHRH). These releasing hormones are produced by the hypothalamus and stimulate the secretion of other hormones from the anterior pituitary gland, including adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH), thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH), follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH), and growth hormone (GH). The releasing hormones play an important role in stress response, metabolism, reproduction, and postnatal growth.
This document discusses cortisol measurement and its importance in diagnosing conditions like Cushing's syndrome and Addison's disease. It describes the physiology of cortisol secretion and regulation by CRH and ACTH in the HPA axis. Methods for measuring cortisol in serum, urine, and saliva are also outlined, including their advantages and disadvantages. Total serum cortisol, 24-hour urinary free cortisol, and salivary free cortisol are the main tests discussed for assessing cortisol levels.
The document defines gigantism as abnormally large growth due to excess growth hormone during childhood, before growth plates close. It describes the pathophysiology of gigantism as being caused by overproduction of growth hormone from a pituitary adenoma, which leads to increased insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-1) levels. The clinical features of gigantism include excessive growth, delayed puberty, headaches, and enlarged hands and feet. Diagnostic tests include CT/MRI scans showing a pituitary adenoma, and high levels of growth hormone and IGF-1. Treatment involves surgery to remove the adenoma, radiation therapy, and drug therapy such as bromocriptine.
Neurotransmitters are chemical messengers that transmit signals between neurons. They are produced in neuron cell bodies, stored in vesicles, and released into the synaptic cleft upon neuronal stimulation. Common neurotransmitters include acetylcholine, dopamine, norepinephrine, serotonin, GABA, glutamate, and endorphins. Neurotransmitters play important roles in functions like movement, cognition, mood, sleep, and pain perception. Imbalances can result in conditions such as depression, anxiety, Parkinson's disease, and Alzheimer's disease.
This document summarizes six divisions of biopsychology: physiological psychology, psychopharmacology, neuropsychology, psychophysiology, cognitive neuroscience, and comparative psychology. For each division, it outlines the mechanism of action/memory, purpose, typical subjects, and key parameters. Physiological psychology directly manipulates animal brains to study memory mechanisms. Psychopharmacology investigates drug effects on the brain in animals and humans. Neuropsychology studies brain damage in humans through case studies. Psychophysiology examines the relationship between physiological activity and psychology in humans. Cognitive neuroscience uses brain imaging to observe memory in humans. Comparative psychology compares species' behaviors to understand evolution and adaptation.
Psychiatric-mental health nursing requires a wide range of nursing, psychosocial, and neurobiological expertise. PMH nurses promote well-being through prevention and education, in addition to the assessment, diagnosis, care, and treatment of mental health and substance use disorders.
This document provides an overview of endocrinology and the endocrine system. It discusses that endocrinology is the study of hormones, their receptors, and signaling pathways. It describes the major endocrine glands and their hormone functions. It also summarizes the different types of hormone actions, classifications, synthesis, secretion, transport, and feedback control of hormone levels.
This document discusses moral issues surrounding behavior control technologies like psychosurgery and claims to health care. It notes that psychosurgery aims to modify behavior or mental states but raises moral concerns about undermining patient autonomy and dignity. It also discusses that health care is necessary for a normal life and that individuals have an inherent right to medical care irrespective of attributes. However, recognizing universal health care risks violating physician rights. Overall criteria for health care inclusion and comparison are proposed, and ethical theories like natural law, utilitarianism, and justice are applied to debates around allocating scarce medical resources.
The document discusses the pituitary gland and pituitary diseases. It begins by providing an overview of the pituitary gland, noting that it is located at the base of the brain and controls other endocrine glands by releasing hormones into the bloodstream. It then discusses specific pituitary diseases including anterior and posterior pituitary hypofunction, as well as pituitary hyperfunction. Anterior pituitary hypofunction can be caused by tumors, vascular issues, or trauma/infection and results in hormone deficiencies. Posterior pituitary hypofunction impacts antidiuretic hormone and causes diabetes insipidus. Pituitary hyperfunction includes excess secretion of hormones like prolactin, growth hormone, ACTH, and TSH, leading to conditions such as acromegaly, Cushing
The document discusses the pharmacology of gonadal hormones, including estrogens, progestins, and androgens. It provides learning objectives about their physiological actions, pharmacological effects, clinical uses, adverse effects, and contraindications. It also discusses selective estrogen receptor modulators and androgen antagonists. The topical outline covers key topics like the reproductive system organization, contraception, menopause, and hypogonadism. Key definitions of terms and diagrams of the hormone regulation and menstrual cycle are provided.
The document provides an overview of the endocrine system, including its major glands and hormones. It discusses the classical endocrine glands like the pituitary, thyroid, and adrenals. It explains how the hypothalamus regulates the pituitary which in turn regulates other glands. The pituitary is divided into the anterior and posterior portions. Hormones communicate between organs through negative feedback loops or by binding to target cells. The functions and mechanisms of several key hormones are reviewed like growth hormone, thyroid hormones, and parathyroid hormone.
Biochemistry Of Hormones
Contains All Important topics with best key points....
Made By Sanjay kumar (Student Of PharmD Faculty of Pharmacy Hamdard University)
The document discusses disorders of the endocrine system, focusing on the thyroid gland. It describes the main endocrine glands and their hormones. It then discusses mechanisms of hormonal alterations including failures of feedback systems and target cell response. Specific thyroid gland disorders are explored in depth, including the effects of thyroid hormones, the mechanisms of thyroid hormone action, and the physiological effects of thyroid hormones on various body systems and metabolism.
The document discusses perception, coordination, brain anatomy, cranial nerves, levels of consciousness, neurological assessment of older adults, the Glasgow Coma Scale, and common neurological diagnostic tests. It provides nursing implications for several diagnostic tests including MRI, CT scan, EEG, and lumbar puncture. Critical thinking questions assess ability to apply knowledge of the Glasgow Coma Scale.
1) This document discusses pathology of the endocrine system, focusing on diseases of the pituitary gland, thyroid gland, parathyroid glands, adrenal glands, and diabetes mellitus. 2) Key learning objectives include describing various endocrine tumors, thyroid disorders like Graves' disease and Hashimoto's thyroiditis, parathyroid hypo- and hyperfunction, adrenal hypo- and hyperfunction, and diabetes mellitus. 3) The topics will be presented over 5 lectures covering the major endocrine organs and their diseases.
The document provides an overview of several endocrine system diseases. It discusses pituitary gland diseases like acromegaly which results in GH hypersecretion in adulthood causing disfiguring bone and tissue overgrowth. It also discusses thyroid diseases including Graves' disease, a common cause of hyperthyroidism, and hypothyroidism. The document also summarizes parathyroid diseases, adrenal diseases like Cushing's syndrome, diabetes mellitus, and diabetic emergencies.
Disorders of pituitary gland (( THE MASTER )) BY M.SASIcardilogy
The pituitary gland acts as the control center of the endocrine system. Disorders of the pituitary gland can cause either pituitary hyperfunction (hyperpituitarism) or hypopituitarism. Pituitary hyperfunction is usually caused by a pituitary adenoma and can result in excess secretion of hormones like prolactin, growth hormone, ACTH, or TSH. Prolactinomas, which cause excess prolactin secretion, are the most common type of pituitary adenoma. Symptoms of a prolactinoma include menstrual irregularities in women, infertility, and galactorrhea. Diagnosis involves measuring prolactin levels and treating the underlying cause.
Pheochromocytoma is a rare neuroendocrine tumor that originates from chromaffin cells of the adrenal medulla. It secretes high amounts of catecholamines, mostly epinephrine and norepinephrine. Symptoms include hypertension, headache, sweating, anxiety and weight loss. Diagnosis involves measuring catecholamines in blood and urine samples. Imaging tests like CT, MRI, MIBG scan and PET are also used. Preoperative treatment includes alpha-blockers to lower blood pressure. Surgical removal of the tumor is the primary treatment. Postoperative care focuses on blood pressure monitoring and managing stress.
The document discusses various releasing hormones including corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH), thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH), gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH), and growth hormone-releasing hormone (GHRH). These releasing hormones are produced by the hypothalamus and stimulate the secretion of other hormones from the anterior pituitary gland, including adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH), thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH), follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH), and growth hormone (GH). The releasing hormones play an important role in stress response, metabolism, reproduction, and postnatal growth.
This document discusses cortisol measurement and its importance in diagnosing conditions like Cushing's syndrome and Addison's disease. It describes the physiology of cortisol secretion and regulation by CRH and ACTH in the HPA axis. Methods for measuring cortisol in serum, urine, and saliva are also outlined, including their advantages and disadvantages. Total serum cortisol, 24-hour urinary free cortisol, and salivary free cortisol are the main tests discussed for assessing cortisol levels.
The document defines gigantism as abnormally large growth due to excess growth hormone during childhood, before growth plates close. It describes the pathophysiology of gigantism as being caused by overproduction of growth hormone from a pituitary adenoma, which leads to increased insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-1) levels. The clinical features of gigantism include excessive growth, delayed puberty, headaches, and enlarged hands and feet. Diagnostic tests include CT/MRI scans showing a pituitary adenoma, and high levels of growth hormone and IGF-1. Treatment involves surgery to remove the adenoma, radiation therapy, and drug therapy such as bromocriptine.
Neurotransmitters are chemical messengers that transmit signals between neurons. They are produced in neuron cell bodies, stored in vesicles, and released into the synaptic cleft upon neuronal stimulation. Common neurotransmitters include acetylcholine, dopamine, norepinephrine, serotonin, GABA, glutamate, and endorphins. Neurotransmitters play important roles in functions like movement, cognition, mood, sleep, and pain perception. Imbalances can result in conditions such as depression, anxiety, Parkinson's disease, and Alzheimer's disease.
This document summarizes six divisions of biopsychology: physiological psychology, psychopharmacology, neuropsychology, psychophysiology, cognitive neuroscience, and comparative psychology. For each division, it outlines the mechanism of action/memory, purpose, typical subjects, and key parameters. Physiological psychology directly manipulates animal brains to study memory mechanisms. Psychopharmacology investigates drug effects on the brain in animals and humans. Neuropsychology studies brain damage in humans through case studies. Psychophysiology examines the relationship between physiological activity and psychology in humans. Cognitive neuroscience uses brain imaging to observe memory in humans. Comparative psychology compares species' behaviors to understand evolution and adaptation.
Psychiatric-mental health nursing requires a wide range of nursing, psychosocial, and neurobiological expertise. PMH nurses promote well-being through prevention and education, in addition to the assessment, diagnosis, care, and treatment of mental health and substance use disorders.
This document provides an overview of endocrinology and the endocrine system. It discusses that endocrinology is the study of hormones, their receptors, and signaling pathways. It describes the major endocrine glands and their hormone functions. It also summarizes the different types of hormone actions, classifications, synthesis, secretion, transport, and feedback control of hormone levels.
This document discusses moral issues surrounding behavior control technologies like psychosurgery and claims to health care. It notes that psychosurgery aims to modify behavior or mental states but raises moral concerns about undermining patient autonomy and dignity. It also discusses that health care is necessary for a normal life and that individuals have an inherent right to medical care irrespective of attributes. However, recognizing universal health care risks violating physician rights. Overall criteria for health care inclusion and comparison are proposed, and ethical theories like natural law, utilitarianism, and justice are applied to debates around allocating scarce medical resources.
The document discusses the pituitary gland and pituitary diseases. It begins by providing an overview of the pituitary gland, noting that it is located at the base of the brain and controls other endocrine glands by releasing hormones into the bloodstream. It then discusses specific pituitary diseases including anterior and posterior pituitary hypofunction, as well as pituitary hyperfunction. Anterior pituitary hypofunction can be caused by tumors, vascular issues, or trauma/infection and results in hormone deficiencies. Posterior pituitary hypofunction impacts antidiuretic hormone and causes diabetes insipidus. Pituitary hyperfunction includes excess secretion of hormones like prolactin, growth hormone, ACTH, and TSH, leading to conditions such as acromegaly, Cushing
The document discusses the pharmacology of gonadal hormones, including estrogens, progestins, and androgens. It provides learning objectives about their physiological actions, pharmacological effects, clinical uses, adverse effects, and contraindications. It also discusses selective estrogen receptor modulators and androgen antagonists. The topical outline covers key topics like the reproductive system organization, contraception, menopause, and hypogonadism. Key definitions of terms and diagrams of the hormone regulation and menstrual cycle are provided.
The document provides an overview of the endocrine system, including its major glands and hormones. It discusses the classical endocrine glands like the pituitary, thyroid, and adrenals. It explains how the hypothalamus regulates the pituitary which in turn regulates other glands. The pituitary is divided into the anterior and posterior portions. Hormones communicate between organs through negative feedback loops or by binding to target cells. The functions and mechanisms of several key hormones are reviewed like growth hormone, thyroid hormones, and parathyroid hormone.
Biochemistry Of Hormones
Contains All Important topics with best key points....
Made By Sanjay kumar (Student Of PharmD Faculty of Pharmacy Hamdard University)
The document provides information about the endocrine system and its glands. It discusses the major endocrine glands including the hypothalamus, pituitary gland, thyroid gland, parathyroid gland, thymus, adrenal glands, pancreas, ovaries, and testes. It explains the hormones produced by each gland and their functions, such as insulin regulating blood sugar and testosterone controlling male development. The role of hormones in the female and male reproductive systems is also summarized, including how hormones like FSH and LH control the menstrual cycle and sperm production. Finally, common endocrine disorders are briefly described, such as osteoporosis, goiter, gigantism and dwarfism resulting from hormonal im
HAP 7 sem 2 PCI syllabus bpharmacy First yearchristinajohn24
The document discusses the endocrine system, including the classification and functions of various endocrine glands. It describes the pituitary gland, thyroid gland, parathyroid gland, adrenal gland, pancreas and their associated hormones. The pituitary gland regulates other endocrine glands via releasing hormones from the hypothalamus. The thyroid gland produces thyroxine and triiodothyrone which regulate metabolism. The parathyroid gland and pancreas regulate calcium and blood sugar levels respectively. The adrenal gland regulates stress responses and metabolism through corticosteroids, androgens and adrenaline/noradrenaline.
ENDOCRINOLOGY NOTES BY KELVIN KEAN.........kkean6089
The endocrine system is made up of glands that secrete hormones directly into the bloodstream to regulate bodily functions. It works closely with the nervous system to maintain homeostasis. Key glands include the pituitary, thyroid, parathyroid, adrenals, pancreas, ovaries and testes. Hormones travel through the blood and act on target organs. The pituitary gland is controlled by the hypothalamus and regulates other glands via feedback mechanisms. Major hormones include growth hormone, thyroid hormones, insulin, estrogen and testosterone.
The document discusses the endocrine system and its role in regulating and maintaining body functions. It describes the major areas of control, including responses to stress and reproduction. It provides details on the anatomy of the endocrine system, including the locations and functions of the major endocrine glands like the pituitary, thyroid, adrenals, and others. The document also covers the physiology of the endocrine system, including the classes of hormones, hormone properties, and the homeostatic feedback mechanisms that help regulate hormone levels.
The document summarizes the endocrine system and hormones. It begins with an introduction to the endocrine and nervous systems regulating body functions. It then describes cell signaling using chemical messengers like hormones. The major glands discussed include the pituitary gland which regulates other glands, thyroid gland which secretes T3, T4, and calcitonin, and their roles in metabolism. It also outlines the synthesis of thyroid hormones from iodine and tyrosine and the steps of organification in the follicular cells and follicular cavity to produce T3 and T4.
The endocrine system consists of glands that secrete hormones directly into the bloodstream to help maintain homeostasis. The system includes the adrenal glands, ovaries, parathyroid glands, pancreas, pineal gland, testes, thymus gland, and thyroid gland. The suffixes "-crine" and "-tropin" are used in relation to hormones. "-crine" refers to secreting, as seen in "endocrine." "-tropin" refers to stimulating, as seen in hormones like somatotropin and gonadotropins. Somatotropin stimulates growth while gonadotropins influence the gonads.
This document provides information about hormones and the major endocrine glands. It defines hormones as chemical messengers secreted by one tissue and carried in the bloodstream to target tissues. The major hormone secreting glands are the pituitary, thyroid and parathyroid, adrenal, pancreas, ovaries, and testes. Hormones can be classified based on their chemical structure as peptide/protein, amine, or steroid hormones. They can also be classified based on their mechanism of action as either binding intracellular receptors or cell surface receptors. The document then describes each major endocrine gland and the hormones they secrete.
The endocrine system consists of glands that secrete hormones directly into the bloodstream. The major glands include the pituitary, thyroid, parathyroid, adrenal, pancreas and thymus. The pituitary gland regulates growth and regulates the function of other endocrine glands by producing hormones such as growth hormone, TSH, and ACTH. The thyroid gland produces T3 and T4 which increase metabolism, and calcitonin which regulates calcium levels. The parathyroid produces PTH which regulates calcium levels in opposition to calcitonin. The adrenals produce cortisol and aldosterone to regulate stress and electrolyte balance. The pancreas produces insulin and glucagon which regulate blood sugar levels. The th
The endocrine system consists of glands that secrete hormones directly into the bloodstream to regulate distant target organs and tissues. The major glands include the pituitary, thyroid, parathyroid, adrenal, pancreas, ovaries, and testes. The pituitary gland is considered the "master gland" as it controls other endocrine glands by producing hormones that stimulate or inhibit their secretions. Hormones travel through the bloodstream to target cells, regulating critical functions like growth, metabolism, mood, fertility, and fluid and mineral balance. Negative feedback loops help maintain optimal hormone levels within a narrow range.
Here is detailed description of pituitary gland, its hormone and its functions in human body. Pituitary gland is also called master gland. This assignment will tell you about the location, size, principle, weight and different lobes of hormones. The study is taken from different internet sources and published paper. Hope it will help you and will give you the knowledge which you want.
The endocrine system regulates physiological activities through hormones secreted by glands. There are four types of chemical messengers: endocrine messengers (hormones), paracrine messengers (act locally), autocrine messengers (control source cells), and neurocrine messengers (neurotransmitters and neurohormones). The pituitary gland located at the base of the brain regulates many other glands. It has an anterior and posterior lobe; the anterior lobe secretes hormones that regulate other glands while the posterior lobe stores hormones from the hypothalamus. Major hormones discussed include prolactin, growth hormone, thyroid stimulating hormone, and antidiuretic hormone.
The document discusses the human endocrine system. It provides definitions of hormones and describes the major endocrine glands and their roles. The endocrine glands include the hypothalamus, pituitary gland, thyroid gland, parathyroid gland, adrenal glands, pancreas, ovaries, and testes. The hypothalamus and pituitary gland control the other endocrine glands by producing releasing and inhibiting hormones. The endocrine glands secrete hormones like insulin, estrogen and testosterone to regulate processes throughout the body, including growth and development, metabolism, and reproduction.
This document provides information about the hypothalamus including its:
- Anatomy, boundaries, subdivisions and nuclei
- Connections including tracts that regulate the pituitary gland
- Main functions like controlling the endocrine system, autonomic nervous system, and roles in regulating behaviors
such as food intake, circadian rhythms, temperature, and sexual dimorphism
- Some hypothalamic disorders including hypothalamic obesity and memory dysfunctions
Hormone:- organic substance secreted by organism that functions in the
regulation of physiological activities and in maintaining homeostasis
Hormones are molecules that are produced by endocrine glands, including the
hypothalamus, pituitary gland, adrenal glands, gonads, (i.e., testes and ovaries),
thyroid gland, parathyroid glands, and pancreas
The term “endocrine” implies that in response to specific stimuli, the products of
those glands are released into the bloodstream.
The hormones then are carried via the blood to their target cells.
Some hormones have only a few specific target cells, whereas other hormones
affect numerous cell types throughout the body.
The target cells for each hormone are characterized by the presence of certain
docking molecules (i.e., receptors) for the hormone that are located either on the
cell surface or inside the cell
Hormones carry out their functions by evoking responses from specific organs
7
Hormone
The interaction between the hormone and its receptor triggers a cascade of
biochemical reactions in the target cell that eventually modify the cell’s function
or activity.
A plethora of hormones regulate many of the body’s functions, including growth
and development, metabolism, electrolyte balances, and reproduction.
Numerous glands throughout the body produce hormones.
I. The hypothalamus produces several releasing and inhibiting hormones
that act on the pituitary gland.
II. The pituitary gland produces the pituitary hormones in response to
hypothalamus signal
the hormone produced from pituitary gland act on either of other glands
throughout the body or targets organs
III. Other hormone-producing glands throughout the body include:-
the adrenal glands, which primarily produce cortisol;
the gonads (i.e., ovaries and testes), which produce sex hormones;
the thyroid, which produces thyroid hormone;
the parathyroid, which produces parathyroid hormone; and
the pancreas, which produces insulin and glucagon.
Many of these hormones are part of regulatory hormonal cascades involving a
hypothalamic hormone, one or more pituitary hormones, and one or more target gland hormones.
The endocrine system consists of glands that secrete hormones directly into the bloodstream to regulate distant tissues and organs. The major glands include the pituitary, thyroid, parathyroid, adrenal and pineal glands. The hypothalamus and tissues like the pancreas also secrete hormones. Hormones travel through the bloodstream and bind to target cells. The pituitary gland and hypothalamus regulate other endocrine glands through feedback mechanisms. The endocrine system maintains homeostasis through processes like glucose regulation and calcium balance.
This document provides an overview of the endocrine system and hormones. It discusses the discovery of hormones in 1902 by Bayliss and Starling. It defines hormones and describes the principal functions of the endocrine system in maintaining homeostasis, growth, development, and reproduction. It compares the endocrine and nervous systems and describes different types of cell signaling. It provides details on the major endocrine glands and hormones, hormone classification, mechanisms of hormone action, and feedback control of hormone secretion.
Similar to CLIENTS WITH PROBLEMS IN ENDOCRINE SYSTEM (20)
The document discusses programs run by the Philippines Department of Health (DOH) related to family planning. It describes the DOH's Family Health Office, which operates health programs to improve family health. These include the National Safe Motherhood Program, Family Planning Program, Child Health Program, and others. It provides details on objectives, components, and services offered by the National Safe Motherhood Program and National Family Planning Program, which aim to improve maternal and child health and allow individuals to plan family size.
ORTHOPEDIC NURSING: CARE OF THE CLIENT WITH MUSCULO-SKELETAL DISORDERRommel Luis III Israel
The document discusses orthopedic nursing and provides information on musculoskeletal anatomy and physiology. It describes the three types of muscles, tendons, ligaments, bones, joints, and other musculoskeletal structures. It then covers assessment of the musculoskeletal system through history, physical examination including gait, posture, and range of motion. Common laboratory procedures used to assess the musculoskeletal system are also outlined such as bone marrow aspiration, arthroscopy, bone scan, and DXA scan. The nursing management of common musculoskeletal problems like pain, impaired mobility, and self-care deficits are summarized. Modalities used including traction and casting are described. Finally, common musculoskeletal conditions like osteoporosis are briefly discussed.
This document discusses common laboratory procedures used to evaluate alterations in the endocrine system. It describes assays that measure hormone levels in the blood, including stimulation and suppression tests. It provides examples of how thyroid hormone levels can indicate hypo- or hyperthyroidism. Tests are also described for radioactive iodine uptake, thyroid scans, basal metabolic rate, fasting blood glucose, oral glucose tolerance, and glycosylated hemoglobin A1C. The purpose, procedure, and interpretation of results are covered for each test.
This document provides information about end of life care. It discusses key aspects of end of life care including physical and psychological manifestations at the end of life, the goals of end of life care which are to provide comfort, improve quality of remaining life, and ensure a dignified death. It also discusses variables that can affect end of life care like cultural and spiritual needs as well as nursing management of end of life care.
This document discusses cirrhosis of the liver, liver cancer, and hepatitis. It provides information on the causes of cirrhosis including alcohol, viral hepatitis, and non-alcoholic fatty liver disease. Symptoms of cirrhosis include jaundice, fatigue, bruising, and abdominal swelling. The complications of cirrhosis are also examined, such as bleeding from varices and hepatic encephalopathy. Treatment focuses on preventing further liver damage, managing complications through medications and procedures, and potentially liver transplantation for severe cases.
The document discusses acute and chronic renal failure. It defines the key functions of the kidney system and describes important lab values used to assess renal function such as BUN and creatinine. It distinguishes between the different types and causes of acute renal failure including pre-renal, intra-renal, and post-renal. Medical management focuses on fluid balance, electrolyte control, and removing any obstructions. Chronic renal failure is typically irreversible and results from long-standing kidney damage from conditions like diabetes or hypertension.
The document discusses disorders of the liver, gallbladder, and pancreas. It provides information on the functions of the liver and describes conditions such as jaundice, cirrhosis, hepatitis, liver tumors, and their signs and symptoms. Gallbladder disorders like cholelithiasis and cholecystitis are covered. Pancreatitis, both acute and chronic, as well as pancreatic cancer, are explained in terms of pathophysiology, assessment findings, and treatment. Nursing management is also addressed for various conditions.
This document discusses evidence-based practice (EBP) in nursing. It defines EBP as integrating the best research evidence, clinical expertise, and patient values and needs. The document outlines the history of EBP beginning in the 1980s and its focus on improving patient outcomes. It also discusses the skills needed for EBP, including critical thinking, information literacy, and communication skills. The five key steps of the EBP process are also summarized: formulating a clinical question, gathering evidence, appraising evidence, integrating evidence with expertise and patient preferences, and evaluating the practice change.
The Expanded Program on Immunization (EPI) was established in 1976 to provide routine childhood immunizations against six diseases: tuberculosis, polio, diphtheria, tetanus, pertussis, and measles. The program aims to reduce child mortality from vaccine-preventable diseases and has specific goals around immunizing children, maintaining polio-free status, eliminating measles, and controlling other diseases. The EPI follows principles of targeting eligible populations, focusing on epidemiology, and providing immunization as a basic health service. It utilizes a cold chain system to store and transport vaccines according to their temperature sensitivities.
The document discusses critical care nursing in the Philippines. It describes how critical care nursing deals with life-threatening illnesses and injuries. It outlines the responsibilities of critical care nurses to provide optimal care for critically ill patients and their families. It also discusses the development of critical care practice in the Philippines and the role of the Critical Care Nurses of the Philippines organization in promoting education and professional development in the field.
This document discusses various topics related to medication administration including:
- Types of medications and their purposes
- Therapeutic actions and effects of drugs
- Different types of doctors' orders and parts of prescriptions
- Routes of drug administration including their advantages and disadvantages
- The 11 rights of drug administration and importance of proper attitude when administering medications
The document provides information to help understand proper medication administration procedures and guidelines.
This document discusses breathing and breathing exercises. It begins by defining breathing and describing the organs involved. It then discusses the goals and principles of breathing exercises, which are used to treat patients with pulmonary diseases or injuries. Various types of breathing exercises are described in detail, including diaphragmatic breathing, glossopharyngeal breathing, and pursed lip breathing. Guidelines for teaching patients and precautions are provided.
Madeleine Leininger developed the Theory of Culture Care Diversity and Universality in nursing. Some key points of her theory are:
- She recognized the importance of culture and caring in nursing.
- She observed cultural differences in caring practices between cultures.
- Her theory posits that there is culture care diversity between cultures but also some culture care universality.
- She identified three modes of nursing care - culture care preservation, accommodation, and repatterning/restructuring.
The document discusses the care of clients with respiratory disorders, focusing on pulmonary embolism. It defines pulmonary embolism as an occlusion of the pulmonary blood vessels by an embolus. Risk factors include recent surgery, trauma, immobility, obesity, and deep vein thrombosis. Signs and symptoms may include dyspnea, syncope, chest pain, cough, and hemoptysis. Diagnostic tests include chest x-rays, EKGs, blood gases, perfusion scans, angiography, and blood coagulation tests. Treatment involves oxygen therapy, anticoagulation, thrombolytics, and sometimes embolectomy or placement of an inferior vena cava filter.
Advanced Cardiac Life Support (ACLS) protocols provide guidelines for treating cardiac emergencies. The ACLS guidelines were first published in 1974 and are updated regularly by the American Heart Association. ACLS training teaches algorithms for cardiac arrest, shock, heart attack, and other cardiovascular emergencies. It focuses on airway management, chest compressions, defibrillation, and medications to optimize survival from cardiac arrest. The algorithms guide treatment with decision points based on the patient's condition and response to therapy.
The document discusses the care of clients with cardiovascular disorders including the anatomy and physiology of the heart, electrocardiograms, coronary heart diseases, coronary arterial bypass graft surgery, angina pectoris, and myocardial infarction. It provides details on diagnostic procedures, medical management, and nursing interventions for these conditions.
This document outlines the process for conducting a full musculoskeletal assessment. It details inspecting and palpating each body part including the spine, shoulders, elbows, wrists, hands, hips, knees, ankles and feet. Range of motion tests are performed for the joints in each area. Potential tests for specific conditions like carpal tunnel syndrome are also described. The assessment concludes with analyzing the findings to identify nursing diagnoses, problems and necessary referrals.
About this webinar: This talk will introduce what cancer rehabilitation is, where it fits into the cancer trajectory, and who can benefit from it. In addition, the current landscape of cancer rehabilitation in Canada will be discussed and the need for advocacy to increase access to this essential component of cancer care.
Under Pressure : Kenneth Kruk's StrategyKenneth Kruk
Kenneth Kruk's story of transforming challenges into opportunities by leading successful medical record transitions and bridging scientific knowledge gaps during COVID-19.
Stem Cell Solutions: Dr. David Greene's Path to Non-Surgical Cardiac CareDr. David Greene Arizona
Explore the groundbreaking work of Dr. David Greene, a pioneer in regenerative medicine, who is revolutionizing the field of cardiology through stem cell therapy in Arizona. This ppt delves into how Dr. Greene's innovative approach is providing non-surgical, effective treatments for heart disease, using the body's own cells to repair heart damage and improve patient outcomes. Learn about the science behind stem cell therapy, its benefits over traditional cardiac surgeries, and the promising future it holds for modern medicine. Join us as we uncover how Dr. Greene's commitment to stem cell research and therapy is setting new standards in healthcare and offering new hope to cardiac patients.
This particular slides consist of- what is hypotension,what are it's causes and it's effect on body, risk factors, symptoms,complications, diagnosis and role of physiotherapy in it.
This slide is very helpful for physiotherapy students and also for other medical and healthcare students.
Here is the summary of hypotension:
Hypotension, or low blood pressure, is when the pressure of blood circulating in the body is lower than normal or expected. It's only a problem if it negatively impacts the body and causes symptoms. Normal blood pressure is usually between 90/60 mmHg and 120/80 mmHg, but pressures below 90/60 are generally considered hypotensive.
Feeding plate for a newborn with Cleft Palate.pptxSatvikaPrasad
A feeding plate is a prosthetic device used for newborns with a cleft palate to assist in feeding and improve nutrition intake. From a prosthodontic perspective, this plate acts as a barrier between the oral and nasal cavities, facilitating effective sucking and swallowing by providing a more normal anatomical structure. It helps to prevent milk from entering the nasal passage, thereby reducing the risk of aspiration and enhancing the infant's ability to feed efficiently. The feeding plate also aids in the development of the oral muscles and can contribute to better growth and weight gain. Its custom fabrication and proper fitting by a prosthodontist are crucial for ensuring comfort and functionality, as well as for minimizing potential complications. Early intervention with a feeding plate can significantly improve the quality of life for both the infant and the parents.
TEST BANK For Accounting Information Systems, 3rd Edition by Vernon Richardso...rightmanforbloodline
TEST BANK For Accounting Information Systems, 3rd Edition by Vernon Richardson, Verified Chapters 1 - 18, Complete Newest Version
TEST BANK For Accounting Information Systems, 3rd Edition by Vernon Richardson, Verified Chapters 1 - 18, Complete Newest Version
TEST BANK For Accounting Information Systems, 3rd Edition by Vernon Richardson, Verified Chapters 1 - 18, Complete Newest Version
Can coffee help me lose weight? Yes, 25,422 users in the USA use it for that ...nirahealhty
The South Beach Coffee Java Diet is a variation of the popular South Beach Diet, which was developed by cardiologist Dr. Arthur Agatston. The original South Beach Diet focuses on consuming lean proteins, healthy fats, and low-glycemic index carbohydrates. The South Beach Coffee Java Diet adds the element of coffee, specifically caffeine, to enhance weight loss and improve energy levels.
The best massage spa Ajman is Chandrima Spa Ajman, which was founded in 2023 and is exclusively for men 24 hours a day. As of right now, our parent firm has been providing massage services to over 50,000+ clients in Ajman for the past 10 years. It has about 8+ branches. This demonstrates that Chandrima Spa Ajman is among the most reasonably priced spas in Ajman and the ideal place to unwind and rejuvenate. We provide a wide range of Spa massage treatments, including Indian, Pakistani, Kerala, Malayali, and body-to-body massages. Numerous massage techniques are available, including deep tissue, Swedish, Thai, Russian, and hot stone massages. Our massage therapists produce genuinely unique treatments that generate a revitalized sense of inner serenely by fusing modern techniques, the cleanest natural substances, and traditional holistic therapists.
Michigan HealthTech Market Map 2024. Includes 7 categories: Policy Makers, Academic Innovation Centers, Digital Health Providers, Healthcare Providers, Payers / Insurance, Device Companies, Life Science Companies, Innovation Accelerators. Developed by the Michigan-Israel Business Accelerator
Hypertension and it's role of physiotherapy in it.Vishal kr Thakur
This particular slides consist of- what is hypertension,what are it's causes and it's effect on body, risk factors, symptoms,complications, diagnosis and role of physiotherapy in it.
This slide is very helpful for physiotherapy students and also for other medical and healthcare students.
Here is summary of hypertension -
Hypertension, also known as high blood pressure, is a serious medical condition that occurs when blood pressure in the body's arteries is consistently too high. Blood pressure is the force of blood pushing against the walls of blood vessels as the heart pumps it. Hypertension can increase the risk of heart disease, brain disease, kidney disease, and premature death.
Chandrima Spa Ajman is one of the leading Massage Center in Ajman, which is open 24 hours exclusively for men. Being one of the most affordable Spa in Ajman, we offer Body to Body massage, Kerala Massage, Malayali Massage, Indian Massage, Pakistani Massage Russian massage, Thai massage, Swedish massage, Hot Stone Massage, Deep Tissue Massage, and many more. Indulge in the ultimate massage experience and book your appointment today. We are confident that you will leave our Massage spa feeling refreshed, rejuvenated, and ready to take on the world.
Visit : https://massagespaajman.com/
Call : 052 987 1315
Letter to MREC - application to conduct studyAzreen Aj
Application to conduct study on research title 'Awareness and knowledge of oral cancer and precancer among dental outpatient in Klinik Pergigian Merlimau, Melaka'
At Apollo Hospital, Lucknow, U.P., we provide specialized care for children experiencing dehydration and other symptoms. We also offer NICU & PICU Ambulance Facility Services. Consult our expert today for the best pediatric emergency care.
For More Details:
Map: https://cutt.ly/BwCeflYo
Name: Apollo Hospital
Address: Singar Nagar, LDA Colony, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh 226012
Phone: 08429021957
Opening Hours: 24X7
Can Allopathy and Homeopathy Be Used Together in India.pdfDharma Homoeopathy
This article explores the potential for combining allopathy and homeopathy in India, examining the benefits, challenges, and the emerging field of integrative medicine.
INFECTION OF THE BRAIN -ENCEPHALITIS ( PPT)blessyjannu21
Neurological system includes brain and spinal cord. It plays an important role in functioning of our body. Encephalitis is the inflammation of the brain. Causes include viral infections, infections from insect bites or an autoimmune reaction that affects the brain. It can be life-threatening or cause long-term complications. Treatment varies, but most people require hospitalization so they can receive intensive treatment, including life support.
MBC Support Group for Black Women – Insights in Genetic Testing.pdfbkling
Christina Spears, breast cancer genetic counselor at the Ohio State University Comprehensive Cancer Center, joined us for the MBC Support Group for Black Women to discuss the importance of genetic testing in communities of color and answer pressing questions.
Let's Talk About It: Breast Cancer (What is Mindset and Does it Really Matter?)bkling
Your mindset is the way you make sense of the world around you. This lens influences the way you think, the way you feel, and how you might behave in certain situations. Let's talk about mindset myths that can get us into trouble and ways to cultivate a mindset to support your cancer survivorship in authentic ways. Let’s Talk About It!
2. ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
The endocrine system
integrates body
functions by the
synthesis and release
of hormones.
The functions of the
endocrine and the
nervous system are
interrelated.
Hypothalamus: link
between the nervous
system and the
endocrine system.
By: ROMMEL LUIS C. ISRAEL III 2
5. Endocrine System
Glands
– secrete their products directly into the
bloodstream
– different from exocrine glands
– Exocrine glands: secrete through ducts
onto epithelial surfaces or into the
gastrointestinal tract
By: ROMMEL LUIS C. ISRAEL III 5
6. Hormones
are chemical substances that are
secreted by the endocrine glands.
can travel moderate to long distances or
very short distances.
acts only on cells or tissues that have
receptors for the specific hormone.
Target Organ: The cell or tissue that
responds to a particular hormone
By: ROMMEL LUIS C. ISRAEL III 6
9. WHAT DOES THE
HYPOTHALAMUS DO?
The hypothalamus is a small area in the
center of the brain. It helps produce
hormones that regulate heart rate, body
temperature, hunger, and the sleep-
wake cycle.
The hypothalamus’ main role is to keep
the body in HOMEOSTASIS (a healthy
and balanced internal state) as much as
possible.
By: ROMMEL LUIS C. ISRAEL III 9
10. WHAT DOES THE
HYPOTHALAMUS DO?
The hypothalamus works between the
endocrine and nervous systems.
As different systems and parts of the
body send signals to the brain, they can
alert the hypothalamus to any
unbalanced factors that need
addressing. The hypothalamus
responds by stimulating relevant
endocrine activity to address this
balance. By: ROMMEL LUIS C. ISRAEL III 10
11. WHAT DOES THE
HYPOTHALAMUS DO?
For example, if the hypothalamus
receives a signal that the internal
temperature is too high, it will tell the
body to sweat.
If it receives the signal that the
temperature is too cold, the body will
create its own heat by shivering.
By: ROMMEL LUIS C. ISRAEL III 11
12. WHAT DOES THE
HYPOTHALAMUS DO?
It also plays a role in:
• Growth
• thirst
• appetite
• weight control
• emotions
• sleep-wake cycles
• sex drive
• childbirth
• breast milk production
By: ROMMEL LUIS C. ISRAEL III 12
13. WHAT DOES THE
HYPOTHALAMUS DO?
To maintain homeostasis, in conjunction with
the pituitary gland, the hypothalamus secretes
the following hormones:
Antidiuretic hormone (ADH)
Corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH)
Gonadotropin-releasing hormone
Oxytocin
Prolactin-controlling hormones
Thyrotropin-releasing hormone
By: ROMMEL LUIS C. ISRAEL III 13
14. WHAT DOES THE
HYPOTHALAMUS DO?
The hypothalamus also directly influences
growth hormones. It commands the pituitary
gland to either increase or decrease levels in
the body, which is essential for both growing
children and fully developed adults.
By: ROMMEL LUIS C. ISRAEL III 14
17. Regulation of Hormones:
Negative Feedback Mechanism
If the client is healthy, the concentration
or hormones is maintained at a constant
level.
When the hormone concentration rises,
further production of that hormone is
inhibited.
When the hormone concentration falls,
the rate of production of that hormone
increases.
By: ROMMEL LUIS C. ISRAEL III 17
18. The Hormones of the
Anterior Pituitary
(Adenohypophysis)
By: ROMMEL LUIS C. ISRAEL III 18
22. ACTH
Adrenocorticotropic hormone
(ACTH) is a tropic hormone
produced by the anterior pituitary.
Stimulates the adrenal cortex to
produce and release
adrenocorticoids, esp. Cortisol, as
well as growth of adrenal glands
ACTH has little effect on
aldosterone
By: ROMMEL LUIS C. ISRAEL III 22
23. How is adrenocorticotropic
hormone controlled?
Secretion of ACTH is controlled by three inter-
communicating regions of the body,
the hypothalamus, the pituitary gland and the adrenal
glands. This is called the hypothalamic–pituitary–
adrenal (HPA) axis.
When cortisol levels in the blood are low, a group of
cells in the hypothalamus release a hormone
called corticotrophin-releasing hormone (CRH) which
stimulates the pituitary gland to secrete
adrenocorticotropic hormone into the bloodstream.
By: ROMMEL LUIS C. ISRAEL III 23
24. How is adrenocorticotropic
hormone controlled?
High levels of ACTH are detected by the adrenal
gland receptors which stimulate the secretion of
cortisol, causing blood levels of cortisol to rise.
As the cortisol levels rise, they start to slow down the
release of corticotrophin-releasing hormone from the
hypothalamus (long loop inhibition) and
adrenocorticotropic hormone from the pituitary gland
(short loop inhibition).
As a result, the ACTH levels start to fall and
consequently cortisol. This is called a negative
feedback loop.
By: ROMMEL LUIS C. ISRAEL III 24
25. How is adrenocorticotropic
hormone controlled?
Stress, both physical and psychological,
also stimulates ACTH production and
hence increases cortisol levels.
Cortisol plays an important role in the
stress response. Maintaining an
adequate balance of cortisol is essential
for health.
By: ROMMEL LUIS C. ISRAEL III 25
27. TSH and Thyroid gland
Stimulates growth of thyroid gland
and release of thyroid hormones
By: ROMMEL LUIS C. ISRAEL III 27
28. TSH and Thyroid gland
Thyroid Stimulating Hormone
(TSH) is produced and released
into the bloodstream by the pituitary
gland.
It stimulates the production of the
thyroid hormones: thyroxine (T4)
and triiodothyronine (T3), by the
thyroid gland by binding to its
receptors in the thyroid gland.
By: ROMMEL LUIS C. ISRAEL III 28
29. TSH and Thyroid gland
Thyroxine (T4) and triiodothyronine
(T3) are essential for maintaining
the body’s metabolic rate, heart
and digestive functions, muscle
control, brain development and
bone activity.
By: ROMMEL LUIS C. ISRAEL III 29
31. FSH, LH Gonads
By: ROMMEL LUIS C. ISRAEL III 31
32. FSH-LH
Luteinizing hormone (LH) and follicle-
stimulating hormone (FSH) are
called gonadotropins because
stimulate the gonads - in males, the
testes, and in females, the ovaries.
They are not necessary for life, but are
essential for reproduction.
These two hormones are secreted from
cells in the anterior pituitary
called gonadotrophs. Most
By: ROMMEL LUIS C. ISRAEL III 32
33. FSH-LH
These two hormones are secreted from
cells in the anterior pituitary
called gonadotrophs.
Most gonadotrophs secrete only LH or
FSH, but some appear to secrete both
hormones.
By: ROMMEL LUIS C. ISRAEL III 33
34. FSH, LH Gonads
FSH: Stimulates growth, maturation, and
function of primary and secondary sex organs
including production of estrogen and
testosterone
LH: Works with FSH in final maturation of
follicles; promotes ovulation and
progesterone secretion; maintains corpus
luteum and progesterone secretion
By: ROMMEL LUIS C. ISRAEL III 34
35. CONTROL OF GONADOTROPHINE
SECRETION
The principle regulator of LH and FSH
secretion is gonadotropin-releasing
hormone (GnRH, also known as LH-
releasing hormone).
GnRH is a ten amino acid peptide that
is synthesized and secreted from
hypothalamic neurons and binds to
receptors on gonadotrophs.
By: ROMMEL LUIS C. ISRAEL III 35
36. CONTROL OF GONADOTROPHINE
SECRETION
The GnRH
stimulates
secretion of LH,
which in turn
stimulates
gonadal secretion
of the sex
steroids
testosterone,
estrogen and
progesterone.
By: ROMMEL LUIS C. ISRAEL III 36
37. CONTROL OF GONADOTROPHINE
SECRETION
In a classical
Negative
Feedback Loop,
sex steroids
inhibit secretion
of GnRH and
also appear to
have direct
negative effects
on gonadotrophs.
By: ROMMEL LUIS C. ISRAEL III 37
38. Melanocyte Stimulating Hormone
ALTERNATIVE NAMES:
MSH; α-melanocyte-stimulating
hormone;
alpha-MSH; α-MSH;
alpha-melanotropin;
alpha-melanocortin;
alpha-intermedin;
melanophore-stimulating hormone
By: ROMMEL LUIS C. ISRAEL III 38
39. Melanocyte Stimulating Hormone
Melanocyte-stimulating hormone is a
collective name for a group of peptide
hormones produced by the skin,
pituitary gland and hypothalamus.
In response to ultraviolet (UV)
Radiation, its production by the skin and
pituitary is enhanced, and this plays a
key role in producing colored
pigmentation found in the skin, hair and
eyes. By: ROMMEL LUIS C. ISRAEL III 39
40. Melanocyte Stimulating Hormone
induces specialized skin cells called
melanocytes to produce a pigment
called melanin;
melanin protects cells from DNA-
(1)'>DNA damage, which can lead to
skin cancer (melanoma).
By: ROMMEL LUIS C. ISRAEL III 40
41. Melanocyte Stimulating Hormone
Melanocyte can also suppress
appetite by acting on receptors
in the hypothalamus in the
brain.
This effect is enhanced by
leptin, a hormone released from
fat cells.
By: ROMMEL LUIS C. ISRAEL III 41
42. Melanocyte Stimulating Hormone
Melanocyte-stimulating hormone
also has anti-inflammatory effects
It can influence the release of the
hormone aldosterone, which
controls salt and water balance in
the body,
and also has an effect on sexual
behaviour.
By: ROMMEL LUIS C. ISRAEL III 42
43. How is melanocyte-stimulating
hormone controlled?
• Melanocyte-stimulating hormone
secretion from the pituitary is
increased by exposure to UV light.
• Unlike most hormones,
melanocyte-stimulating hormone
release is not thought to be
controlled by a direct feedback
mechanism.
By: ROMMEL LUIS C. ISRAEL III 43
47. Vasopressin or Antidiuretic
Hormone
Regulates water
metabolism
Released during stress
or in response to an
increase in plasma
osmolality to stimulate
reabsorption of water
and decreased urine
output
By: ROMMEL LUIS C. ISRAEL III 47
50. Oxytocin
Stimulates uterine contractions during
delivery and the release of milk in lactation
Oxytocin is a nonapeptide hormone released
from the posterior pituitary and multiple
organs (uterus, placenta, amnion, corpus
luteum, testes, and heart) in response to
social bonding, interactions, and the
emotional context of social relationships
(Shamay-Tsoory and Abu-Akel, 2016).
By: ROMMEL LUIS C. ISRAEL III 50
51. Oxytocin
It is released in large amounts during labor,
and after stimulation of the nipples.
It is a facilitator for childbirth and
breastfeeding.
One of the oldest applications of oxytocin as
a proper drug is as a therapeutic agent during
labor and delivery.
By: ROMMEL LUIS C. ISRAEL III 51
52. Oxytocin
Oxytocin is also present in men, playing a
role in sperm transport and production of
testosterone by the testes.
In the brain, oxytocin acts as a chemical
messenger and has an important role in
many human behaviours including sexual
arousal, recognition, trust, romantic
attachment and mother–infant bonding.
By: ROMMEL LUIS C. ISRAEL III 52
56. Adrenal Cortex Hormones
Glucocorticoids
– Cortisol, Corticosterone
Increase blood glucose levels by
increasing rate of gluconeogenesis
Increase protein catabolism
Increase mobilization of fatty acids
Promote sodium and water retention
Anti-inflammatory effect
Aid the body in coping with stress
By: ROMMEL LUIS C. ISRAEL III 56
57. Adrenal Cortex Hormones
Mineralocorticoids
– Aldosterone, Corticosterone, Deoxycorticosterone
– Regulate fluid and electrolyte balance
– Stimulate reabsorption of sodium, chloride and
water
– Stimulate potassium excretion
Under the control of the Renin-Angiotensin-
Aldosterone system
By: ROMMEL LUIS C. ISRAEL III 57
59. Adrenal Cortex Hormones
Sex Hormones
– Androgens, Estrogens
– Influences the development of sexual
characteristics
By: ROMMEL LUIS C. ISRAEL III 59
63. Hormones of the Thyroid Gland
T3(Triiodothyronine)
T4 (Thyroxine)
– Regulate metabolic rate
– Regulate Carbohydrate, Fat and Protein
metabolism
– Aid in regulating physical and mental
growth and development
Under the direct control of TSH
By: ROMMEL LUIS C. ISRAEL III 63
64. Hormones of the Thyroid Gland
Thyrocalcitonin
– Lowers serum calcium by increasing bone
deposition
Controlled by calcium level
By: ROMMEL LUIS C. ISRAEL III 64
66. Hormone of the Parathyroid
Glands
PTH
– Regulates serum calcium and phosphate
levels
– Increases serum calcium level by bone
resorption, increased GI absorption, and
increased renal reabsorption of calcium
– Secretion is controlled by serum calcium
level
By: ROMMEL LUIS C. ISRAEL III 66
68. Hormones of the Pancreas
Insulin
– Decreases blood sugar by:
• Stimulating active transport of glucose into
muscle and adipose tissue
• Promoting the conversion of glucose to
glycogen for storage
• Promoting conversion of fatty acids into fat
• Stimulating protein synthesis
– Secreted in response to high blood sugar
– Found in β cells of the Islets of Langerhans
By: ROMMEL LUIS C. ISRAEL III 68
69. Hormones of the Pancreas
Glucagon
– Increases blood glucose by
• causing gluconeogenesis and glycogenolysis
in the liver
– Secreted in response to low blood sugar
– Found in the α-cells of the Islets of
Langerhans
By: ROMMEL LUIS C. ISRAEL III 69
71. The Gonadal Hormones
Estrogen
– Development of secondary sex
characteristics in the female
– Maturation of sex organs
– sexual functioning
Progesterone
– maintenance of pregnancy
By: ROMMEL LUIS C. ISRAEL III 71
72. The Gonadal Hormones
Testosterone
– Development of secondary sex
characteristics in the male
– Maturation of sex organs
– Sexual functioning
By: ROMMEL LUIS C. ISRAEL III 72
73. Diseases of the Endocrine
System
Primary” Disease problem in target
organ; autonomous
“Secondary” disease most often due
to a problem in pituitary gland
By: ROMMEL LUIS C. ISRAEL III 73
75. Disorders of the
Pituitary Gland
Hypopituitarism
Hyperpituitarism
SIADH
Diabetes Insipidus
By: ROMMEL LUIS C. ISRAEL III 75
76. Hypopituitarism
Hypopituitarism is a rare condition in which
the pituitary gland doesn't make one or more
hormones or doesn't make enough
hormones.
May result from destruction of the anterior
lobe of the pituitary gland.
Panhypopituitarism (Sheehan syndrome or
Simmonds’ disease) is total absence of all
pituitary secretion and is rare.
Lack of the hormone leads to loss of function
in the gland or organ that it controls.
By: ROMMEL LUIS C. ISRAEL III 76
77. Causes of Primary Hypopituitarism
pituitary tumors
inadequate blood supply to pituitary gland
– e.g. Sheehan syndrome
infections and/or inflammatory diseases
–sarcoidosis
–amyloidosis
radiation therapy
surgical removal of pituitary tissue
autoimmune diseases
By: ROMMEL LUIS C. ISRAEL III 77
78. Causes of secondary
hypopituitarism (affecting the
hypothalamus):
tumors of the hypothalamus
inflammatory disease
head injuries
surgical damage to the pituitary and/or
blood vessels or nerves leading to it
By: ROMMEL LUIS C. ISRAEL III 78
79. Signs and Symptoms
Tumor: bitemporal hemianopia on visual
confrontation (describes the ocular defect
that leads to impaired peripheral vision in
the outer temporal halves of the visual field
of each eye.)
By: ROMMEL LUIS C. ISRAEL III 79
82. Signs and Symptoms
Varying signs of
hormonal disturbances
depending on which
hormones are being
under secreted
By: ROMMEL LUIS C. ISRAEL III 82
83. Signs and Symptoms
Gonadotropin Deficiency
– Congenital onset
• Delayed or absent secondary sexual
characteristics
• May have micropenis, undescended
testes (cryptorchidism)
By: ROMMEL LUIS C. ISRAEL III 83
87. Signs and Symptoms
Gonadotropin Deficiency
–Acquired
•Loss of body hair
•Infertility, decreased libido,
impotence in males,
amenorrhea in females
•muscle atrophy
By: ROMMEL LUIS C. ISRAEL III 87
88. Signs and Symptoms
Gonadotropin Deficiency
- Osteopenia
is a condition where the
density of the bone mineral
decreases, making bones weaker
and more susceptible to
fractures.
By: ROMMEL LUIS C. ISRAEL III 88
91. Signs and Symptoms
Thyroid-stimulating (TSH)
deficiency
–Causes hypothyroidism with
manifestations such as
fatigue, weakness, weight
change, and hyperlipidemia
By: ROMMEL LUIS C. ISRAEL III 91
94. Signs and Symptoms
Adrenocorticotropic
hormone (ACTH) deficiency
–results in diminished cortisol
secretion.
–Symptoms include weakness,
fatigue, weight loss, and
hypotension.
By: ROMMEL LUIS C. ISRAEL III 94
95. Signs and Symptoms
Growth hormone
(GH) deficiency
– In childhood: failure
to grow
– In adulthood: mild to
moderate central
obesity, increased
systolic blood
pressure, and
increases in LDL
cholesterol
By: ROMMEL LUIS C. ISRAEL III 95
96. Signs and Symptoms
Panhypopituitarism
– Absence of all anterior pituitary hormones
– Patients with long-standing hypopituitarism
tend to have dry, pale, finely textured skin.
– Face has fine wrinkles and an apathetic
countenance
By: ROMMEL LUIS C. ISRAEL III 96
97. Diagnostics
X-ray, MRI or CT
scan: pituitary tumor
Plasma hormone
levels: decreased
By: ROMMEL LUIS C. ISRAEL III 97
98. Treatment
Hormonal Substitution: may be for life
– Corticosteroids
– Levothyroxine
– Androgen for males
– Estrogen for females
– Growth hormone
Radiation therapy for tumors
Surgery for tumors: Transsphenoidal
hypophysectomy
By: ROMMEL LUIS C. ISRAEL III 98
99. Nursing Intervention
Provide care for the client undergoing
hypophysectomy or radiation therapy if
indicated
Provide client teaching and discharge
planning concerning hormone
replacement therapy and importance of
follow up care
By: ROMMEL LUIS C. ISRAEL III 99
100. Hyperpituitarism
Hyperfunction of the anterior pituitary
gland oversecretion of one or more
of the anterior pituitary hormones
Usually caused by a benign pituitary
adenoma
2 most common hormones affected:
– Prolactin
– Growth hormone
By: ROMMEL LUIS C. ISRAEL III 100
102. Prolactinoma
Female: menstrual
disturbances, infertility,
galactorrhea, ovarian
steroid deficit
manifestations ( vaginal
mucosal atrophy,
decreased vaginal
lubrication and libido)
Male: Decreased libido
and possible impotence,
reduced sperm count and
infertility, gynecomastia
By: ROMMEL LUIS C. ISRAEL III 102
103. Growth Hormone Hypersecretion
Gigantism: GH
hypersecretion prior
to closure of
epiphyses;
proportional growth
Acromegaly: GH
hypersecretion after
closure of
epiphyses;
disproportional
growth
By: ROMMEL LUIS C. ISRAEL III 103
104. Growth Hormone Hypersecretion
By: ROMMEL LUIS C. ISRAEL III 104
ACROMEGALY: abnormal growth of the hands, feet,
and face, caused by overproduction of growth hormone
by the pituitary gland.
106. Growth Hormone Hypersecretion:
Signs and symptoms
Enlarged hand and feet; Carpal
tunnel syndrome common
Coarsening of features esp. in
acromegaly; prominent
mandible, tooth spacing widens,
Macroglossia OSA
(Obstructive Sleep Apnea)
By: ROMMEL LUIS C. ISRAEL III 106
107. Growth Hormone Hypersecretion:
Signs and symptoms
Hypertension, cardiomegaly, heart failure
Insulin resistance DM
Visual field defects: bitemporal
hemianopsiacomplete blindess
Bitemporal hemianopsia is a condition where
you can't see the outer halves of your visual
field in both eyes
By: ROMMEL LUIS C. ISRAEL III 107
108. Growth Hormone Hypersecretion:
Signs and symptoms
Headaches
Arthritis
Hypogonadism
People experience hypogonadism when their
sex glands, or gonads, produce insufficient
levels of sex hormones. In adult women, the
ovaries don’t secrete enough estrogen,
leading to hot flashes, changes in mood and
energy levels, and irregular or stopped
menstruation.
By: ROMMEL LUIS C. ISRAEL III 108
109. Treatment
Medication
– Bromocriptine and cabergoline (dopamine agonist) for
prolactinoma and GH hypersecretion
– Octreotide (somatostatin) for GH hypersecretion
Surgery
– Surgical remission is achieved in about 70% of patients
followed over 3 years.
– Growth hormone levels fall immediately; diaphoresis and
carpal tunnel syndrome often improve within a day after
surgery.
Radiation Therapy for large tumors
Diet
By: ROMMEL LUIS C. ISRAEL III 109
110. Nursing Interventions
Provide emotional support striking body change
can cause psychological stress.
Perform or assist with range-of-motion exercises to
promote maximum joint mobility and prevent injury.
Evaluate muscle weakness, especially in the patient
with late-stage acromegaly.
Keep the skin dry. Avoid using an oily lotion because
the skin is already oily.
Be aware that pituitary tumor may cause visual
problems. If there is hemianopia, stand where he can
see you.
By: ROMMEL LUIS C. ISRAEL III 110
111. Nursing Interventions
Hyperpituitarism can cause inexplicable mood
changes. Reassure that family that these mood
changes result from the disease and can be modified
with treatment.
Before surgery, reinforce what the surgeon has told
the patient and try to allay the patient’s fear with a
clear and honest explanation of the scheduled
operation.
If the patient is a child, explain to the parents that
such surgery prevents permanent soft-tissue
deformities but won’t correct bone changes that have
already occurred.
Before discharge, emphasize the importance of
continuing hormone replacement therapy.
By: ROMMEL LUIS C. ISRAEL III 111
113. Transsphenoidal hypophysectomy
Transsphenoidal surgery is usually well
tolerated, but complication occur in about
10% (infection, CSF leak, and
hypopituitarism)
Hyponatremia can occur 4-13 days
postoperatively and is manifested by nausea,
vomiting, headache, malaise, or seizure.
Diabetes insipidus may occur
By: ROMMEL LUIS C. ISRAEL III 113
114. Postoperative Care
Keep the patient on bed rest for 24 hours
after surgery and encourage ambulation
Keep the head of bed elevated to avoid
placing tension or pressure on the suture line.
Instruct patient not to sneeze, cough, blow his
nose, or bend over for several days to avoid
disturbing the suture line.
Mild analgesics for headache cause by CSF
loss during surgery or for paranasal pain.
Paranasal pain typically subsides when the
catheters and packing are removed, usually
24 to 72 hours after surgery. Provide oral
care.
By: ROMMEL LUIS C. ISRAEL III 114
115. Postoperative Care
Anticipate that the patient may develop
transient diabetes insipidus, usually 24 to 48
hours after surgery.
Be alert for increased thirst and increased
urine volume with a low specific gravity.
If diabetes insipidus occurs, replace fluids
and administer aqueous vasopressin, or give
sublingual desmopressin acetate, as ordered.
Diabetes insipidus may resolve within 72
hours.
By: ROMMEL LUIS C. ISRAEL III 115
116. Postoperative Care
WOF: Hyponatremia 4-13 days post-op.
Dietary salt supplements for 2 weeks
postoperatively may prevent this complication.
WOF: CSF leak, infection, hemorrhage
Arrange for visual field testing as soon as
possible because visual defects can indicate
hemorrhage.
Advise the patient not to brush his teeth for 2
weeks to avoid suture line disruption.
Patient may need hormonal replacement
therapy due to decreased pituitary secretion
of tropic hormones.
*WOF (Watch Out For)
By: ROMMEL LUIS C. ISRAEL III 116
117. DIABETES INSIPIDUS
Disorder characterized
by massive polyuria due
to either lack of ADH or
kidney’s insensitivity to it
Types:
– Central DI
– Nephrogenic DI
By: ROMMEL LUIS C. ISRAEL III 117
118. DIABETES INSIPIDUS
Central Diabetes Insipidus : Deficiency of
vasopressin
– Primary diabetes insipidus (without an
identifiable organic lesion noted on MRI of the
pituitary and hypothalamus)
• May be familial, occurring as a dominant trait, or sporadic
(“idiopathic”).
– Secondary diabetes insipidus
• Due to damage to the hypothalamus or pituitary stalk by
tumor, anoxic encephalopathy, surgical or accidental
trauma, infection (encephalitis, tuberculosis, syphilis),
sarcoidosis, or multifocal Langerhans cell (eosinophilic)
granulomatosis (“histiocytosis X”).
By: ROMMEL LUIS C. ISRAEL III 118
119. DIABETES INSIPIDUS
– Vasopressin-induced diabetes insipidus
• May be seen in the last trimester of pregnancy and in
puerperium
• Associated with oigohydramnios, preeclampsia, or
hepatic dysfunction.
“Nephrogenic” Diabetes Insipidus
– Due to defect in the kidney tubules that interferes
with water reabsorption.
– Polyuria is unresponsive to vasopressin.
– Patients have normal secretion of vasopressin
By: ROMMEL LUIS C. ISRAEL III 119
120. DIABETES INSIPIDUS
Signs and Symptoms
Polyuria enormous daily output of very dilute,
water-like urine with a specific gravity of 1.001 to
1.005
Intense thirst (patient tends to drink 4 to 40 liters of
fluid daily), especially with a craving for ice water,
Dehydration weight loss, poor tissue turgor, dry
mucous membranes, constipation, muscle weakness,
dizziness.
Inadequate water replacement results in
– Hyperosmolality (irritability, mental dullness, coma,
hyperthermia) because of dehydration and
hypernatremia
– Hypovolemia (hypotension, tachycardia, and
shock eventually)
By: ROMMEL LUIS C. ISRAEL III 120
121. DIABETES INSIPIDUS
Diagnostics
Fluid deprivation test to differentiate
between psychogenic polydipsia and DI
Administration of desmopressin to
differentiate between central DI and
nephrogenic DI
24-hour urine collection for volume, glucose,
and creatinine
serum for glucose, urea nitrogen, calcium,
uric acid, potassium and sodium.
By: ROMMEL LUIS C. ISRAEL III 121
122. DIABETES INSIPIDUS
Management Objectives
– to replace vasopressin ( long-term
therapeutic program)
– to ensure adequate fluid replacement
– to search for and correct the underlying
intracranial pathology
By: ROMMEL LUIS C. ISRAEL III 122
123. DIABETES INSIPIDUS
Medications
For central DI
– Desmopressin (DDAVP): intranasal
– Lypressin: intranasal
– Vasopressin tannate in oil: IM
For nephrogenic DI:
– Indomethacin-hydrochlorothiazide (with potassium
supplementation)
– indomethacin-desmopressin
– indomethacin-amiloride
Clofibrate, chlorpropamide and thiazide diuretics
(mild DI)
Psychotherapy
By: ROMMEL LUIS C. ISRAEL III 123
124. DIABETES INSIPIDUS: Nursing
Management
Record I and O. Weight patient daily.
Maintain fluid intake to prevent severe dehydration.
WOF: signs of hypovolemic shock, and monitor blood
pressure and heart and respiratory rates regularly,
especially during the water deprivation test.
Keep the side rails up and assist with walking if the
patient is dizzy or has muscle weakness.
Monitor urine specific gravity between doses. Watch
for decreased specific gravity with increased urine
output need for the next dose or a dosage
increase.
Add more bulk foods and fruit juices to the diet to
prevent constipation. Laxative (milk of magnesia) prn.
By: ROMMEL LUIS C. ISRAEL III 124
125. DIABETES INSIPIDUS: Nursing
Management
Provide meticulous skin and mouth care, and
apply a lubricant to cracked or sore lips.
Make sure caloric intake is adequate and the
meal plan is low in sodium.
Support to patient and family, especially those
undergoing studies for a possible cranial lesion.
Instruct about follow-up care and emergency
measures.
Wear a medical identification bracelet and to
carry medication and information about this
disorder at all times.
Caution must be used with administration of
vasopressin if coronary artery disease is present
causes vasoconstriction.
By: ROMMEL LUIS C. ISRAEL III 125
126. Syndrome of Inappropriate
Antidiuretic Hormone (SIADH)
Disorder due to excessive ADH release
Patients with this disorder cannot excrete dilute urine.
They retain fluid and develop a sodium deficiency
(dilutional hyponatremia).
Signs and symptoms:
– Persistent excretion of concentrated urine
– Signs of fluid overload
– Change in level of consciousness
– NO EDEMA
– HYPONATREMIA
By: ROMMEL LUIS C. ISRAEL III 126
127. Syndrome of Inappropriate Antidiuretic
Hormone (SIADH): Causes of SIADH
Tumors: bronchogenic carcinoma, lymphoma,
pancreatic cancer, mesothelioma
Pulmonary: TB, pneumonia, lung abscess, COPD,
pneumothorax, HIV infection
CNS: meningitis, head injury, subdural hematoma,
subarachnoid hemorrhage, neurosurgery
Drugs: Some medications (vincristine,
phenothiazines, tricyclic antidepressants, thiazide
diuretics, and others) and nicotine have been
implicated in SIADH; they either directly stimulate the
pituitary gland or increase the sensitivity of renal
tubules to circulating ADH
By: ROMMEL LUIS C. ISRAEL III 127
128. Syndrome of Inappropriate
Antidiuretic Hormone (SIADH):
Diagnostic Tests
low serum sodium (<135 meq/L0
low serum osmolality
high urine osmolality (urine osmolality
>100 mosmol/kg)
high urine sodium excretion (>20
mmol/L)
Normal renal function (low BUN <10
mg/dL), absence of hypothyroidism and
glucocorticoid deficiency and recent
diuretic therapy.
By: ROMMEL LUIS C. ISRAEL III 128
129. Syndrome of Inappropriate Antidiuretic
Hormone (SIADH): Medical
Management
Restriction of water intake (500 ml/day).
If the patient has evidence of fluid
overloading, a history of CHF, or is
resistant to treatment, loop diuretics
(Furosemide) may be added as well.
Chronic treatment: lithium or
demeclocycline which inhibit ADH
action.
Monitoring of body weight
By: ROMMEL LUIS C. ISRAEL III 129
130. Syndrome of Inappropriate
Antidiuretic Hormone (SIADH):
Medical Management
If the serum sodium is below 120 or if the
patient is seizing, emergency treatment is
administration of 3% sodium chloride solution
to raise the serum sodium to 125. May be
followed by furosemide.
Excessively rapid correction of hyponatremia
may cause central pontine myelinolysis.
– Central pontine myelinolysis (CPM) is a
rare demyelinating condition of the pons
– Patients with a plasma sodium
concentration greater than 125 mmol/l
rarely need specific therapy for
hyponatremia.
By: ROMMEL LUIS C. ISRAEL III 130
131. Syndrome of Inappropriate
Antidiuretic Hormone (SIADH):
Nursing Management
Close monitoring of fluid intake and output,
daily weight, urine and blood chemistries, and
neurologic status is indicated for the patient
at risk for SIADH.
Educate her about the need for fluid
restriction (< 1 liter/day) Fluid restriction takes
3 to 10 days to start working
Assess her neurologic status to monitor for
improvement, deterioration, or new problems.
By: ROMMEL LUIS C. ISRAEL III 131
132. Syndrome of Inappropriate Antidiuretic
Hormone (SIADH): Nursing Management
Administer medications as ordered.
– Antineoplastic therapy helps manage SIADH by
destroying the SCLC cells that produce ectopic
antidiuretic hormone (ADH).
Demeclocycline, 600 to 1,200 mg/day,
with or without fluid restriction for
moderate SIADH (serum sodium 115 to
125 mEq/liter).
– Adverse reactions: infection, photosensitivity,
nausea, hepatotoxicity, and a reversible, dose-
related diabetes insipidus syndrome.
By: ROMMEL LUIS C. ISRAEL III 132
133. Syndrome of Inappropriate Antidiuretic
Hormone (SIADH): Nursing Management
Severely decreased sodium levels (less
than 115 mEq/liter) can cause severe,
even life-threatening signs and
symptoms.
–The patient requires intensive nursing
care, diuresis, and intravenous (I.V.)
therapy with hypertonic (3% to 5%)
sodium chloride solution, and
chemotherapy.
Institute seizure precautions and teach
your patient's family how to respond to
seizures
By: ROMMEL LUIS C. ISRAEL III 133
134. Disorders of the Thyroid
Gland
Hyperthyroidism
Hypothyroidism
By: ROMMEL LUIS C. ISRAEL III 134
135. The Thyroid Gland
Thyroid gland is a butterfly-shaped organ located in
the lower neck anterior to the trachea.
•It consists of two lateral
lobes connected by an
isthmus.
•The gland is about 5 cm
long and 3 cm wide and
weighs about 30 g.
•It produces three
hormones: thyroxine (T4)
and triiodothyronine
(T3), and calcitonin.
By: ROMMEL LUIS C. ISRAEL III 135
136. Function of Thyroid Hormones
T4 and T3
Control the cellular metabolic activity.
T4, a relatively weak hormone, maintains body metabolism in a
steady state.
T3, is about five times as potent as T4 and has a more rapid
metabolic action.
Accelerates metabolic processes.
Influence cell replication and are important in brain
development.
Necessary for normal growth.
Calcitonin
Or thyrocalcitonin, secreted in response to high plasma levels of
calcium and it reduces the plasma level of calcium by increasing
its deposition in bone.
By: ROMMEL LUIS C. ISRAEL III 136
137. Tests of Thyroid Function
Thyroid-Stimulating Hormone
Single best screening test of thyroid function because
of its high sensitivity.
Values above the normal range of 0.38 to 6.15 uU/mL
are indicative of primary hypothyroidism, and low
values indicate hyperthyroidism
If TSH is normal, there is a 98% chance that the free
thyroxine (FT4) is also normal.
Used for monitoring thyroid hormone replacement
therapy and for differentiating between disorders of
the thyroid gland and disorders of the pituitary or
hypothalamus.
By: ROMMEL LUIS C. ISRAEL III 137
138. Tests of Thyroid Function
Serum Free Thyroxine
Test used to confirm an abnormal TSH is FT4.
FT4 is a direct measurement of free (unbound) thyroxine, the
only metabolically active fraction of T4.
The range of FT4 in serum is normally between 0.9 and 1.7 ng/L
(11.5 to 21.8 pmol/L).
Serum T3 and T4
Normal range for T4 is between 4.5 and 11.5 ug/dL (58.5 to 150
nmol/L).
Although serum T3 and T4 levels generally increase or
decrease together, the T3 level appears to be a more accurate
indicator of hyperthyroidism, which causes a greater rise in T3
than T4 levels.
Normal range for serum T3 is 70 to 220 ng/dL (1.15 to 3.10
nmol/L)
By: ROMMEL LUIS C. ISRAEL III 138
139. Tests of Thyroid Function
Radioactive Iodine Uptake
Measures the rate of iodine uptake by the thyroid
gland.
The patient is administered a tracer dose of iodine-
123
Measures the proportion of the administered dose
present in the thyroid gland at a specific time after its
administration.
Affected by the patient’s intake of iodide or thyroid
hormone; therefore, a careful preliminary clinical
history is essential in evaluating results.
hyperthyroidism high uptake of the 123 I
hypothyroidism very low uptake.
By: ROMMEL LUIS C. ISRAEL III 141
140. Tests of Thyroid Function
Thyroid scan, Radioscan, or Scintiscan
In a thyroid scan, a scintillation detector or gamma
camera moves back and forth across the area to be
studied and a visual image is made of the distribution
of radioactivity in the area being scanned.
Isotopes used:
– 123I most commonly used isotope,
– technetium-99m pertechnetate, thallium, and
americium
Scans are helpful in determining location, size,
shape, and anatomic function of the thyroid gland,
particularly when thyroid tissue is substernal or large.
Identifying areas of increased function (“hot” areas)
or decreased function (“cold” areas) can assist in
diagnosis.
By: ROMMEL LUIS C. ISRAEL III 142
141. Tests of Thyroid Function
Fine-Needle Aspiration
Biopsy
Sampling thyroid tissue
to: detect malignancy.
Initial test for evaluation
of thyroid masses.
Results are reported as
(1) negative (benign),
(2) positive (malignant),
(3) indeterminant
(suspicious), and (4)
inadequate
(nondiagnostic)
By: ROMMEL LUIS C. ISRAEL III 143
142. Tests of Thyroid Function
Other Diagnostic Tests
Achilles tendon reflex time: measures period
of contraction and relaxation of Achilles
tendon reflex)
Serum cholesterol levels
Electrocardiogram (ECG)
Muscle enzyme studies (ALT, LDH, CK)
Ultrasound
CT scanning
MRI
By: ROMMEL LUIS C. ISRAEL III 144
143. Tests of Thyroid Function
Nursing Implications of Thyroid Tests
It is necessary to determine whether the
patient has taken medications or agents that
contain iodine because these alter the results
of some of the scheduled tests.
Assess for allergy to iodine or shellfish
For the scans, tell patient that radiation is
minimal
By: ROMMEL LUIS C. ISRAEL III 145
144. Hyperthyroidism
Or Thyrotoxicosis
Increased metabolic rate
Causes:
– Grave’s disease
– Initial manifestations of thyroiditis
(Hashimoto’s and subacute thyroiditis)
– Toxic Adenoma
– TSH-secreting pituitary tumor
– Factitious thyrotoxicosis
– Jodbasedow disease
– Amiodarone-induced
By: ROMMEL LUIS C. ISRAEL III 146
145. Hyperthyroidism: Signs and
symptoms
Enlarged thyroid gland
Tachycardia atrial fibrillation, heart failure
Hypertension
Heat intolerance, diaphoresis
Smooth, soft, warm skin
Fine, soft hair
Diarrhea, weight loss inspite of increased
appetite
Nervousness and fine tremors of hands
Hyperactive reflexes, body weakness
Personality changes, mood swings
Osteoporosis
Clubbing and swelling of fingers, Plummer’s nails
Menstrual disturbances, decreased infertility
By: ROMMEL LUIS C. ISRAEL III 147
146. Signs and symptoms of Grave’s
Disease
All s/s of
thyrotoxicosis
Grave’s
exophthalmos
vision loss,
diplopia
Pretibial
myxedema
By: ROMMEL LUIS C. ISRAEL III 148
148. Thyroid Storm
A medical emergency : high mortality
Marked delirium, severe tachycardia,
vomiting, diarrhea, dehydration, high
fever
Occurs in patients with existing but
unrecognized thyrotoxicosis, stressful
illness, thyroid surgery, RAI
administration
increased systemic adrenergic activity
epinephrine overproduction and severe
hypermetabolism
By: ROMMEL LUIS C. ISRAEL III 150
149. Hyperthyroidism: Diagnostics
Radioimmunoassay test shows elevated
T4 and T3.
Thyroid scan reveals increased
radioactive iodine (123 I) uptake
↓TSH in Primary hyperthyroidism
↑ TSH in secondary hyperthyroidism
Orbital sonography and computed scan
confirm subclinical ophthalmopathy
By: ROMMEL LUIS C. ISRAEL III 151
150. Hyperthyroidism: Management
Antithyroid drug therapy
Propylthiouracil (PTU) and methimazole
Used for pregnant women and patient who
refuse surgery or 131I treatment.
During pregnancy PTU, is the preferred
therapy
A few (1%) of the infants born to mothers
receiving antithyroid medication will be
hypothyroid.
Mechanism of action
– Blocks thyroid hormone synthesis
By: ROMMEL LUIS C. ISRAEL III 152
151. Hyperthyroidism: Management
Nursing considerations
Give the drug with meals to reduce GI effects
Watch for signs of hypothyroidism (mental
depression, cold intolerance, hard, nonpitting
edema)
WOF: Agranulocytosis
–Warn the patient to immediately
report fever, sore throat, or mouth
sores
–Agranulocytosis can develop too
rapidly to be detected by periodic
blood cell counts
By: ROMMEL LUIS C. ISRAEL III 153
152. Hyperthyroidism: Management
Instruct patient to report for skin eruptions
(sign of hypersensitivity)
The drug should be stopped if severe rash
develops or cervical lymph nodes become
enlarged
Advise patient to avoid foods high in iodine
(seafood, iodized salt, cabbage, kale, turnips)
or potassium
Warn the patient against the use of the over-
the-counter medication; many contain iodine
Store the drug in a light-resistant container
By: ROMMEL LUIS C. ISRAEL III 154
153. Hyperthyroidism: Management
Radioactive iodine (sodium iodide)131 I, potassium
or sodium iodide (potassium iodide SSKI), strong
iodine solution (Lugol’s solution)
Adjunct with other antithyroid drugs in preparation for
thyroidectomy
Treatment for thyrotoxic crisis
Mechanism of action:
– Inhibits the release and synthesis of thyroid hormones
– Decreases the vascularity of the thyroid gland
– Decreases thyroidal uptake of radioactive iodine following
radiation emergencies or administration of radioactive
isotopes of iodine
By: ROMMEL LUIS C. ISRAEL III 155
154. Hyperthyroidism: Nursing
Management
Potassium or sodium iodide, (potassium iodide
solution, SSKI), strong iodine solution (Lugol’s
solution) Category D
Dilute oral doses in water or fruit juice and give with
meals to prevent gastric irritation, to hydrate the
patient, and to mask the very salty taste
Warn the patient that sudden withdrawal may
precipitate thyrotoxicosis
Store in a light-resistant container
Give iodides through a straw to avoid tooth
discoloration
Force fluids to prevent fluid volume deficit
By: ROMMEL LUIS C. ISRAEL III 156
155. Hyperthyroidism: Nursing
Management of RAI treatment
Radioactive iodine (sodium iodide or 131I )
– Category X
Food may delay absorption. The patient should fast
overnight before administration
After dose for hyperthyroidism, the patient’s urine and
saliva are slightly radioactive for 24 hours; vomitus is
highly radioactive for 6 to 8 hours.
Institute full radiation precautions during this time
Instruct the patient to use appropriate disposal
methods when coughing and expectorating.
By: ROMMEL LUIS C. ISRAEL III 157
156. Hyperthyroidism: Nursing
Management of RAI treatment
After dose for thyroid cancer, isolate the
patient and observe the following
precautions:
– Pregnant personnel shouldn’t take care of
the patient
– Disposable eating utensils and linens
should be used
– Instruct the patient to save all urine in lead
containers for 24 to 48 hours so amount of
radioactive material excreted can be
determined.
– Or flush the toilet twice after urination
By: ROMMEL LUIS C. ISRAEL III 158
157. Hyperthyroidism: Nursing
Management of RAI treatment
– The patient should drink as much fluid as
possible for 48 hours after drug
administration to facilitate excretion.
– Limit contact with the patient to 30 minutes
per shift per person the 1st day; may
increase time to 1 hour on 2nd day and
longer on 3rd day.
By: ROMMEL LUIS C. ISRAEL III 159
158. Hyperthyroidism: Nursing
Management of RAI treatment
If the patient is discharged less than 7
days after 131 I dose for thyroid cancer,
warn patient
– to avoid close, prolonged contact with
small children
– not to sleep in the same room with his
spouse for 7 days after treatment
increased risk of thyroid cancer in persons
exposed to 131 I.
By: ROMMEL LUIS C. ISRAEL III 160
159. Hyperthyroidism: Management
B-blockers, Digoxin, anticoagulation
Prednisone for ophthalmopathy
Treatment for thyroid storm:
– PTU
– I.V. propranolol to block sympathetic effects
– Corticosteroids to replace depleted cortisol
levels
– Iodide to block release of thyroid hormone
By: ROMMEL LUIS C. ISRAEL III 161
160. Hyperthyroidism: Management
Surgery: Thyroidectomy
Preop: give Lugol’s iodide to prevent thyroid storm
Care of Post-thyroidectomy client
– Monitor for respiratory distress
– Have tracheotomy set, oxygen, and suction at
bedside
– Semi-Fowler’s position
– Monitor for laryngeal nerve damage (respiratory
obstruction, dysphonia, high-pitched voice, stridor,
dysphagia, restlessness)
– Monitor for signs of hypocalcemia and tetany
• Prepare to administer calcium gluconate or
calcium chloride as prescribed for tetany
– Monitor for thyroid storm
By: ROMMEL LUIS C. ISRAEL III 162
161. Hyperthyroidism: Nursing
Management
Record vital signs and weight.
Monitor serum electrolyte levels, and check
periodically for hyperglycemia and glycosuria.
Monitor cardiac function.
Check level of consciousness and urine output
If patient is in her first trimester of pregnancy, report
signs of spontaneous abortion (spotting and
occasional mild cramps) to the doctor immediately.
Diet
– high protein, high calorie diet, with six meals per day and
vitamin supplements.
– Low sodium diet for the patients with edema.
– No stimulants like coffee, tea
By: ROMMEL LUIS C. ISRAEL III 163
162. Hyperthyroidism: Nursing
Management
For exophthalmos
– suggest sunglasses or eye patches to protect his eyes from
light
– Moisten the conjunctivae often with artificial tears
– Warn the patient with severe lid retraction to avoid sudden
physical movement that might cause the lid to slip behind the
eyeball.
– Elevate the head of the bed to reduce periorbital edema
Stress the importance of regular medical follow-up
after discharge because hypothyroidism may develop
from 2 to 4 weeks postoperatively.
Drug therapy and 131 I therapy require careful
monitoring and comprehensive teaching.
By: ROMMEL LUIS C. ISRAEL III 164
163. Hypothyroidism
A state of low serum thyroid hormone levels or
cellular resistance to thyroid hormone,
Causes
may result from thyroidectomy
radiation therapy
chronic autoimmune thyroiditis (Hashimoto’s disease)
inflammatory conditions such as amyloidosis and
sarcoidosis
pituitary failure to produce TSH
hypothalamic failure to produce thyrotropin-releasing
hormone (TRH).
Inborn errors of thyroid hormone synthesis
an inability to synthesize thyroid hormone because of
iodine deficiency
use of antithyroid medications such as propylthiouracil.
By: ROMMEL LUIS C. ISRAEL III 165
165. Hypothyroidism: Signs and
symptoms
Puffy face, hands and
feet
Periorbital edema
Dry, sparse hair
Thick, brittle nails
Slow pulse rate
Anorexia
Abdominal distention
Menorrhagia
Decreased libido
Infertility
Ataxia
Intention tremor
Congenital
Hypothyroidism
By: ROMMEL LUIS C. ISRAEL III 167
166. Myxedema Coma
Manifests as hypotension, bradycardia,
hypothermia, hyponatremia,
hypoglycemia, respiratory failure, coma
Can be precipitated by acute illness, rapid
withdrawal of thyroid medication,
anesthesia, surgery, hypothermia, use of
opioids
By: ROMMEL LUIS C. ISRAEL III 168
167. Hypothyroidism: Diagnostics
Radioimmunoassay tests: ↓ T3, T4
↑TSH level with primary hypothyroidism
↓ TSH in secondary hypothyroidism
↓TRH in hypothalamic insufficiency
Serum cholesterol and triglyceride levels are
increased
In myxedema coma
– low serum sodium levels
– respiratory acidosis because of hypoventilation
By: ROMMEL LUIS C. ISRAEL III 169
168. Management
Prevention: Prophylactic iodine
supplements to decrease the incidence
of iodine deficient goiter
Symptomatic Cases:
Hormonal replacement: Synthroid
(synthetic hormone (levothyroxine))
– Dosage is increased q 2-3 weeks esp. if
the patient is an elderly
By: ROMMEL LUIS C. ISRAEL III 170
169. Nursing Management of
replacement therapy
Different brands of levothyroxine may not be
bioequivalent.
– After the patient’s condition has been stabilized on one
brand, warn patient not to switch to another, as this may
affect drug bioavailability. Avoid generic levothyroxine.
Warn the patient (especially the elderly) to tell the
doctor if with
– chest pain, palpitations, sweating, nervousness,
or other signs or symptoms of overdosage
– signs and symptoms of aggravated
cardiovascular disease (chest pain, dyspnea, and
tachycardia).
By: ROMMEL LUIS C. ISRAEL III 171
170. Nursing Management of
replacement therapy
Instruct the patient to take thyroid hormones
at the same time each day to maintain
constant hormone levels.
Suggest a morning dosage to prevent
insomnia
Monitor apical pulse and blood pressure. If
pulse is >100 bpm, withhold the drug. Assess
for tachyarrhythmias and chest pain.
Prepare I.V. dose immediately before
injection
By: ROMMEL LUIS C. ISRAEL III 172
171. Nursing Management of
replacement therapy
Thyroid hormones alter thyroid function test
results.
– A patient taking levothyroxine who needs to have
123I uptake studies must discontinue the drug 4
weeks before the test.
– A patient taking liothyronine who needs to have
123I uptake studies must discontinue the drug 7 to
10 days before the test.
Monitor prothrombin time; a patient taking
these hormones usually requires less
anticoagulant.
– WOF: unusual bleeding and bruising
By: ROMMEL LUIS C. ISRAEL III 173
172. Nursing Management of
replacement therapy
Liothyronine sodium: not indicated to relieve vague
symptoms, such as physical and mental
sluggishness, irritability, depression, nervousness,
and ill-defined aches and pains; to treat obesity in
euthyroid persons; to treat metabolic insufficiency; or
to treat menstrual disorders or male infertility, unless
associated with hypothyroidism.
Thyroid USP (desiccated): thyroid hormone
replacement requirements are about 25% lower in
patients over age 60 than in young adults. Use
carefully in patients with myxedema, they’re
unusually sensitive to thyroid hormone.
By: ROMMEL LUIS C. ISRAEL III 174
173. Hypothyroidism: Nursing
Interventions
Diet: high-bulk, low-calorie diet
Encourage activity
Maintain warm environment
Administer cathartics and stool softeners, as needed.
To prevent myxedema coma, tell the patient to
continue his course of antithyroid medication even if
his symptoms subside.
– maintain patent airway
– administer medications – Synthroid, glucose,
corticosteroids
– IV fluid replacement
– Wrap patient in blanket
– Treat infection or any underlying illness
By: ROMMEL LUIS C. ISRAEL III 175
174. Disorders of the Adrenal
Glands
Adrenal Insufficiency
Cushing’s Syndrome
Hyperaldosteronism
Pheochromocytoma
By: ROMMEL LUIS C. ISRAEL III 176
175. Adrenal Insufficiency
Addison’s disease, the most common form of adrenal
hypofunction occurs when more than 90% of the
adrenal gland is destroyed.
Autoimmune process, circulating antibodies react
specifically against the adrenal tissue decreased
secretion of androgen, glucocorticoids, and
mineralocorticoids.
It may also be caused by a disorder outside the
gland, in which case aldosterone secretion frequently
continues.
Acute adrenal insufficiency, or adrenal crisis
(Addisonian crisis), is a medical emergency
requiring immediate, vigorous treatment.
By: ROMMEL LUIS C. ISRAEL III 177
176. Adrenal Insufficiency: Causes
Tuberculosis, bilateral adrenalectomy, hemorrhage
into the adrenal gland, neoplasms, or fungal
infections
Secondary adrenal hypofunction is caused by
– Hypopituitarism
– abrupt withdrawal of long-term corticosteroid
therapy
In a patient with adrenal hypofunction, adrenal crisis
occurs when the body’s stores of glucocorticoids are
exhausted by trauma, infection, surgery, or other
physiologic stressors.
By: ROMMEL LUIS C. ISRAEL III 178
177. Adrenal Insufficiency: Signs and
Symptoms
Weakness, fatigue,
weight loss, nausea and vomiting,
anorexia
chronic constipation or diarrhea,
cardiovascular abnormalities
–postural hypotension, decreased
heart size and cardiac output
–weak, irregular pulse
–decreased tolerance for even
minor stress
By: ROMMEL LUIS C. ISRAEL III 179
178. Adrenal Insufficiency: Signs and
Symptoms
conspicuous bronze skin coloration, especially in
hand creases and over the metacarpophalangeal
joints, elbows, and knees
poor coordination
fasting hypoglycemia; and craving for salty food.
Amenorrhea
Adrenal crisis
– profound weakness and fatigue, shock, severe
nausea and vomiting, hypotension, dehydration
and high fever.
By: ROMMEL LUIS C. ISRAEL III 180
179. POMC: the “Big Momma”
MSH is produced when ACTH production is
increased hyperpigmentation
By: ROMMEL LUIS C. ISRAEL III 181
180. Adrenal Crisis
Cortisol
Absent or low
Adrenal Gland
Destruction of
the adrenal cortex
Aldosterone
Absent or Low
Liver
Decrease in hepatic
Glucose output
Heart
Arrhythmias and
Decrease CO
Kidney
Na and H2O loss with
K retention
Stomach
Decrease in Digestive
Enzyme
Hypoglycemia
Hypovolemia
And
Hypotension
Vomiting, Cramps
And Diarrhea
Shock
Brain
Coma and Death
Profound
Hypoglycemia
By: ROMMEL LUIS C. ISRAEL III 182
181. Adrenal Insufficiency: Diagnostic
tests
Decreased plasma cortisol and serum sodium
levels
Increased corticotropin, serum potassium,
and blood urea nitrogen levels
Corticotropin stimulation test provocative
studies that determine whether adrenal
hypofunction is primary or secondary
By: ROMMEL LUIS C. ISRAEL III 183
182. Adrenal Insufficiency: Treatment
Corticosteroid replacement, usually with
cortisone or hydrocortisone primary
lifelong treatment
Fludrocortisone acetate: acts as a
mineralocorticoid to prevent dehydration
and hypotension.
Adrenal crisis : prompt I.V. bolus of
corticosteroids, 3 to 5 L of I.V.fluids,
dextrose
By: ROMMEL LUIS C. ISRAEL III 184
183. Adrenal Insufficiency: Nursing
Management
In an adrenal crisis, monitor signs of
hypotension, volume depletion, and
signs of shock (decreased level of
consciousness and urine output).
Watch for hyperkalemia before
treatment and for hypokalemia after
treatment (from excessive
mineralocorticoid effect).
By: ROMMEL LUIS C. ISRAEL III 185
184. Adrenal Insufficiency: Nursing
Management
If patient has diabetes, check blood
glucose levels periodically because
steroid replacement may necessitate
changing the insulin dosage.
Force fluids to replace excessive fluid
loss until the onset of mineralocorticoid
effects.
By: ROMMEL LUIS C. ISRAEL III 186
185. Adrenal Insufficiency: Nursing
Management
Diet: maintain sodium and potassium balance, high
protein and carbohydrates.
If the patient is anorexic, suggest six small meals per
day to increase calorie intake
Observe the patient receiving steroids for cushingoid
signs, such as fluid retention around the eyes and
face.
By: ROMMEL LUIS C. ISRAEL III 187
186. Adrenal Insufficiency: Nursing
Management
Instruct on lifelong cortisone replacement
therapy: “Do not omit medications”. Give 2/3
of dose in AM and 1/3 in PM.
Instruct the patient that he’ll need to increase
the dosage during times of stress.
Warn that infection, injury, or profuse
sweating in hot weather may precipitate a
crisis.
By: ROMMEL LUIS C. ISRAEL III 188
187. Hypercortisolism (Cushing’s
Syndrome)
Cluster of physical
abnormalities due to
excessive cortisol release
Cortisol excess is due either
to:
autonomous steroid release
from adrenals
Increased ACTH release from
pituitary
complication of exogenous
steroid therapy
By: ROMMEL LUIS C. ISRAEL III 189
188. Hypercortisolism (Cushing’s
Syndrome)
Altered metabolism of
CHO: hyperglycemia
CHON: muscle wasting, thin, fragile
skin, impaired wound healing
Fats: central obesity, moon face,
buffalo hump
Na and water retention
Hypokalemia, hypocalcemia
Acne, hirsutism, menstrual changes,
decreased libido
Weakness, emotional lability
By: ROMMEL LUIS C. ISRAEL III 190
192. Complications
Osteoporosis
Peptic Ulcer (from steroid intake)
Immune and inflammatory response is also
compromised
Other complications include HPN, and sexual
and psychological complications
By: ROMMEL LUIS C. ISRAEL III 194
193. Cushing’s Syndrome: Diagnostics
ACTH Levels determine whether the syndrome is
ACTH dependent
24-hr urine collection for cortisol, midnight serum
cortisol
Dexamethasone Suppression Test 1 mg
dexamethasone given at 11 pm and serum cortisol
taken at 8 AM the next day
• Cortisol level <5ug/dl excludes Cushing’s
syndrome with 98% certainty
Radiologic evaluation
– tumor in the pituitary or adrenal gland
By: ROMMEL LUIS C. ISRAEL III 195
194. Cushing’s Syndrome: Management
Transsphenoidal resection of pituitary tumor
Aminogluthetimide: adrenal enzyme inhibitor
Metyrapone and ketokonazole: suppress
hypercortisolism in unresectable adrenal
tumor
Antihypertensives
Adrenalectomy as needed
By: ROMMEL LUIS C. ISRAEL III 196
195. Cushing’s Syndrome : Nursing
Considerations
Monitor VS, WOF for HPN
Maintain Muscle tone
Prevent accidents or falls and provide adequate rest
Protect client from exposure to infection, monitor
WBC
Maintain skin integrity
Minimize stress
Provide diet low in calories, sodium and high in
protein, potassium, calcium and vitamin D
Monitor for urine glucose and acetone, administer
insulin if necessary
Prepare client for adrenalectomy if needed
By: ROMMEL LUIS C. ISRAEL III 197
197. Hyperaldosteronism
hypersecretion of aldosterone from the
adrenal cortex
Two types:
– primary disease of the adrenal cortex
– secondary condition due to increased
plasma renin activity
causes excessive reabsorption of sodium and
water and excessive renal excretion of
potassium
By: ROMMEL LUIS C. ISRAEL III 199
198. Hyperaldosteronism : Causes
Primary hyperaldosteronism: Autonomous
secretion of aldosterone from adrenals
Benign adrenal adenoma (Conn’s syndrome)
Bilateral adrenortical hyperplasia
Secondary hyperaldosteronism: High renin state
stimulating aldosterone release
Renal artery stenosis
Wilm’s tumor
Pregnancy
Oral contraceptive use
Nephritic syndrome
Cirrhosis with ascites
Idiopathic edema
Heart failure
Extrarenal sodium loss
By: ROMMEL LUIS C. ISRAEL III 200
199. Hyperaldosteronism: Signs and
Symptoms
Hypertension
– Headache and visual disturbance
Hypokalemia
– Muscle weakness and Fatigue
– Paresthesia and Arrhythmias
– Polyuria and Polydipsia
– Tetany from alkalosis
Hypernatremia
By: ROMMEL LUIS C. ISRAEL III 201
200. Hyperaldosteronism: Diagnostics
Hypokalemia (<3.5 meq/L)
Hypernatremia (>145 meq/L)
Elevated serum bicarbonate and pH
Hypomagnesemia
Elevated plasma and urinary aldosterone
↓Renin in primary hyperaldosteronism
↑Renin in secondary hyperaldosteronism
Low specific gravity urine (diluted urine)
By: ROMMEL LUIS C. ISRAEL III 202
201. Hyperaldosteronism: Treatment
Primary hyperaldosteronism:
– unilateral adrenalectomy
• After adrenalectomy, observe for weakness,
hyponatremia, rising serum potassium levels,
and signs of adrenal insufficiency such as
hypotension.
potassium-sparing diuretic (such as spironolactone or
amiloride)
antihypertensives
sodium restriction
Treatment may include calcium channel blockers and
aminogluthetimide which inhibits synthesis of
aldosterone.
Treatment of secondary hyperaldosteronism: include
correction of the underlying cause.
By: ROMMEL LUIS C. ISRAEL III 203
202. Hyperaldosteronism:
Nursing interventions
Monitor and record urine output, BP , weight, and
serum potassium levels.
Watch for signs of tetany (muscle twitching, positive
Chvostek’s sign) and for hypokalemia-induced
cardiac arrhythmias, paresthesia, or weakness.
Give potassium replacements as ordered
Ask the dietician to provide a low-sodium, high-
potassium diet.
If the patient is taking spironolactone, advise him to
watch for signs of hyperkalemia.
– Long term use may result to libido, impotence, and
gynecomastia.
Instruct female patients about the possibility of
menstrual irregularities.
By: ROMMEL LUIS C. ISRAEL III 204
203. Pheochromocytoma
Rare disorder, a chromaffin-cell tumor of the
sympathetic nervous system, usually in the
adrenal medulla, secretes an excess of the
catecholamines epinephrine and
norepinephrine.
This causes episodes of hypertension and
symptoms of catecholamine excess.
The tumor is usually benign but may be
malignant in as many as 10% of patient.
By: ROMMEL LUIS C. ISRAEL III 205
205. Pheochromocytoma:
Signs and symptoms
persistent or paroxysmal hypertension
palpitations, tachycardia, headache, visual
disturbances, diaphoresis, pallor, warmth or
flushing, paresthesia, tremor, and excitation
anxiety, fright, nervousness, feelings of
impending doom, abdominal or chest pain,
tachypnea, nausea and vomiting, fatigue,
weight loss, constipation, postural
hypotension, paradoxical response to
antihypertensives (common), glycosuria,
hyperglycemia, and hypermetabolism.
By: ROMMEL LUIS C. ISRAEL III 207
206. Pheochromocytoma:
Diagnostic tests:
– Increased plasma levels of
catecholamines, elevated blood sugar,
glucosuria
– Elevated urinary catecholamines and
urinary vanilylmandelic acid (VMA) levels
– Tumor on CT scan
By: ROMMEL LUIS C. ISRAEL III 208
207. Pheochromocytoma: Treatment
Surgical removal of the tumor with
sparing of normal adrenals, if possible
Antihypertensives:
–Alpha-adrenergic blocker
(phentolamine, prazosin, or
phenoxybenzamine)
–A beta-adrenergic blocker
(propranolol)
–Calcium channel blockers
Metyrosine may be used to block
catecholamine synthesis
By: ROMMEL LUIS C. ISRAEL III 209
208. Pheochromocytoma: Treatment
Postoperatively, I.V. fluids, plasma
volume expanders, vasopressors,
and transfusions may be required if
marked hypotension occurs.
The first 24 to 48 hours
immediately after surgery are the
most critical because blood
pressure can drop drastically.
By: ROMMEL LUIS C. ISRAEL III 210
209. Pheochromocytoma: Treatment
Hypertensive crisis:
–nifedipine 10 mg SL
–I.V. administration of phentolamine
(push or drip) or nitroprusside
• Prolonged nitroprusside administration
can cause cyanide toxicity.
Tachyarrhythmia is treated with IV
atenolol, esmolol, or lidocaine
By: ROMMEL LUIS C. ISRAEL III 211
210. Pheochromocytoma: Nursing
interventions
To ensure the reliability of urine
catecholamine measurement, make
sure the patient avoids foods high in
vanillin (such as coffee, nuts, chocolate,
and bananas) for 2 days before urine
collection for VMA measurements.
Instruct patients on drugs that may
interfere with the accurate determination
of VMA levels (such as guaifenesin and
salicylates).
By: ROMMEL LUIS C. ISRAEL III 212
211. Pheochromocytoma: Nursing
interventions
Collect the urine in a special container
prepared by the laboratory containing
hydrochloric acid.
Post-op: If the patient receives vasopressors
I.V., check blood pressure every 3 to 5
minutes and regulate the drip to maintain a
safe pressure.
Arterial pressure lines facilitate constant
monitoring
By: ROMMEL LUIS C. ISRAEL III 213
212. Pheochromocytoma: Nursing
interventions
WOF: Postoperative hypertension
WOF: post-op profuse sweating keep the
room cool and change the patient’s clothing
and bedding often.
If the patient is receiving phentolamine,
monitor blood pressure several times per day
with the patient in supine and in standing
positions.
– WOF: and record adverse effects, such as
dizziness, hypotension, and tachycardia.
By: ROMMEL LUIS C. ISRAEL III 214
213. Pheochromocytoma: Nursing
interventions
Post-op:
Watch for abdominal distention and return of
bowel sounds.
Check dressings and vital signs for
indications of hemorrhage
Give analgesics for pain, as ordered, but
monitor BP analgesics, especially
meperidine, can cause hypotension.
Obtain blood pressure readings often
because transient hypertensive attacks are
possible.
By: ROMMEL LUIS C. ISRAEL III 215
214. Pheochromocytoma: Nursing
interventions
Tell the patient to report headaches,
palpitations, nervousness, or other acute
attack symptoms.
If hypertensive crisis develops, monitor blood
pressure and heart rate every 2 to 5 minutes
until blood pressure stabilizes.
Check blood for glucose, and watch for
weight loss from hypermetabolism.
If autosomal dominant transmission of
pheochromocytoma is suspected, the
patient’s family should also be evaluated for
this condition.
By: ROMMEL LUIS C. ISRAEL III 216
215. ADRENALECTOMY
Resection or removal of one or both
adrenal glands.
The treatment of choice for adrenal
hyperfunction and hyperaldosteronism.
Used to treat adrenal tumors, such as
adenomas and pheochromocytomas,
By: ROMMEL LUIS C. ISRAEL III 217
217. Adrenalectomy: Postoperative
Care
Monitor vital signs
WOF: shock from hemorrhage.
Keep in mind that postoperative hypertension is
common because handling of the adrenal glands
stimulates catecholamine release.
WOF: adrenal crisis hypotension, hyponatremia,
hyperkalemia
Remember, glucocorticoids from the adrenal
cortex are essential to life and must be replaced
to prevent adrenal crisis until the hypothalamic,
pituitary, and adrenal axis resumes functioning.
By: ROMMEL LUIS C. ISRAEL III 219
218. Adrenalectomy: Nursing
interventions
Instruct the patient to take
prescribed medication as directed.
If patient had unilateral
adrenalectomy, explain that he may
be able to taper his medication in a
few months,
Inform patient that sudden
withdrawal of steroids can
precipitate adrenal crisis
By: ROMMEL LUIS C. ISRAEL III 220
219. Adrenalectomy: Nursing
interventions
Instruct patient that he needs continued
medical follow-up to adjust his steroid dosage
appropriately during stress or illness.
Notify physician if adverse reactions such as
weight gain, acne, headaches, fatigue, and
increase urinary frequency, which can
indicate steroid overdosage.
Take steroid with meals or antacids to
minimize gastric irritation.
By: ROMMEL LUIS C. ISRAEL III 221
220. Hyperaparathyroidism
Characterized by
excess activity or
one or more of the
four parathyroid
glands, resulting in
excessive secretion
of parathyroid
hormone (PTH).
May be primary or
secondary.
By: ROMMEL LUIS C. ISRAEL III 222
221. Hyperaparathyroidism
Effect of PTH secretion: ↑Calcium
– Through increased bone resorption, increased GI
and renal absorption of calcium
Complications
– renal calculi renal failure
– Osteoporosis
– Pancreatitis
– peptic ulcer
By: ROMMEL LUIS C. ISRAEL III 223
222. Hyperaparathyroidism: Causes
Primary hyperparathyroidism:
– single adenoma, genetic disorders, or
multiple endocrine neoplasias.
Secondary hyperparathyroidism:
– rickets, vitamin D deficiency, chronic renal
failure, or phenytoin or laxative abuse.
By: ROMMEL LUIS C. ISRAEL III 224
223. Hyperaparathyroidism:
Signs and symptoms
Think of Hypercalcemia:
CNS: psychomotor and personality
disturbances, loss of memory for
recent event, depression, overt
psychosis, stupor and, possibly,
coma.
GI: anorexia, nausea, vomiting,
dyspepsia, and constipation.
Neuromuscular: fatigue; marked
muscle weakness and atrophy,
particularly in the legs.
By: ROMMEL LUIS C. ISRAEL III 225
224. Hyperaparathyroidism:
Signs and symptoms
Renal: symptoms of recurring
nephrolithiasis renal insufficiency
Skeletal and articular: chronic lower back
pain and easy fracturing from bone
degeneration, bone tenderness, joint pain
Others: skin pruritus, vision impairment
from cataracts, subcutaneous
calcification.
By: ROMMEL LUIS C. ISRAEL III 226
226. Hyperaparathyroidism: Treatment
Surgery to remove the adenoma
Force fluids; limiting dietary calcium intake;
For life threatening hypercalcemia: promote
sodium and calcium excretion, using normal
saline solution (up to 6 L in life-threatening
situations), furosemide; and administering
oral sodium or potassium phosphate,
Calcitonin
Postmenopausal women: estrogen
supplements
I.V. administration of magnesium and
phosphate or sodium phosphate solution
given by mouth or by retention enema.
By: ROMMEL LUIS C. ISRAEL III 228
227. Hyperaparathyroidism: Treatment
Supplemental calcium also may be needed
during the first 4 to 5 days after surgery,
when serum calcium falls to low-normal
levels.
Vitamin D or calcitriol may also be used to
raise the serum calcium level
Secondary hyperparathyroidism must
correct the underlying cause of
parathyroid hypertrophy.
Vitamin D therapy or aluminum hydroxide
for hyperphosphatemia in the patient with
renal disease.
By: ROMMEL LUIS C. ISRAEL III 229
228. Hyperaparathyroidism:Nursing
interventions
Monitor intake and output as the patient
receives hydration to reduce serum calcium
levels.
Strain urine to check for stones.
Monitor sodium, potassium, and magnesium
levels frequently.
Auscultate for breath sounds often, and be
alert for pulmonary edema in the patient
receiving large amounts of I.V. saline solution
Prevent injury, patient prone to fractures.
By: ROMMEL LUIS C. ISRAEL III 230
229. Hypoparathyroidism
A deficiency of parathyroid hormone
(PTH).
PTH primarily regulates calcium
balance; hypoparathyroidism leads to
hypocalcemia and produces
neuromuscular symptoms ranging from
paresthesia to tetany.
By: ROMMEL LUIS C. ISRAEL III 231
230. Hypoparathyroidism: Causes
Congenital absence or malfunction of the parathyroid
glands
autoimmune destruction
removal of or injury to one or more parathyroid
glands during neck surgery
rarely, from massive thyroid radiation therapy.
Ischemic infarction of the parathyroids during surgery
diseases, such as amyloidosis or neoplasms
suppression of normal gland function caused by
hypercalcemia (reversible)
hypomagnesemia-induced impairment of hormone
secretion (reversible).
By: ROMMEL LUIS C. ISRAEL III 232
231. Hypoparathyroidism: Signs
and symptoms
Neuromuscular irritability
Increased deep tendon reflexes, positive Chvostek’s and
Trousseau’s signs
Dysphagia
Paresthesia
Psychosis
Mental deficiency in children
Tetany seizures
Arrhythmias
Abdominal pain
Dry, lusterless hair, spontaneous hair loss
Brittle fingernails that develop ridges or fall out.
Dry and scaly skin
Weakened tooth enamel may cause teeth to stain, crack, and
decay easily
By: ROMMEL LUIS C. ISRAEL III 233
232. Hypoparathyroidism:
Diagnostic tests
Decreased PTH and serum calcium
levels
Elevated serum phosphorus levels
X-rays reveal increased bone density
ECG: prolonged QTi, QRS-complex and
ST-elevation changes
By: ROMMEL LUIS C. ISRAEL III 234
233. Hypoparathyroidism:
Treatment
Vitamin D with supplemental calcium
Lifelong therapy, except for patient with
the reversible form of the disease.
Acute life-threatenting tetany calls for
immediate I.V. administration of calcium
to raise serum calcium levels.
Sedatives and anticonvulsants are
given to control spasms until calcium
levels rise.
By: ROMMEL LUIS C. ISRAEL III 235
234. Hypoparathyroidism: Nursing
interventions
Maintain patent I.V. line and keep 10%
calcium gluconate solution available
Institute seizure precautions
Keep tracheostomy tray and endotracheal
tube at the bedside, because laryngospasm
may result from hypocalcemia.
For patient with tetany, administer 10%
calcium gluconate by slow I.V. infusion and
maintain a patent airway.
By: ROMMEL LUIS C. ISRAEL III 236
235. Hypoparathyroidism: Nursing
interventions
When caring for the patient with
hypothyroidism, particularly a child, stay alert
for minor muscle twitching ad for signs of
laryngospasm (respiratory stridor or
dysphagia). These effects may signal the
onset of tetany.
Watch out for heart block and signs of
decreased cardiac output.
Watch for signs and symptoms of digoxin
toxicity (arrhythmias, nausea, fatigue and
changes in vision)
By: ROMMEL LUIS C. ISRAEL III 237
236. Diabetes Mellitus
Chronic disease characterized by
hyperglycemia
It is due to total or partial insulin
deficiency or insensitivity of the cells to
insulin
Characterized by disorders in the
metabolism of CHO, FAT and CHON as
well as changes in the structure and
function of blood vessels
By: ROMMEL LUIS C. ISRAEL III 238
237. Types of DM
Type 1 or IDDM
– Usually occurs in children or in non-obese adults
Type 2 or NIDDM
– Usually occurs in obese adults over age 40
Gestational DM
Secondary DM
– Induced by trauma, surgery, pancreatic disease or
medications
– Can be treated as either type 1or type 2
By: ROMMEL LUIS C. ISRAEL III 239
238. Pathophysiology
Lack of insulin causes hyperglycemia
(insulin is necessary for the transport of
glucose across the membrane)
Body excretes excess glucose through
kidneys osmotic diuresis polyuria
dehydration polydipsia
Cellular starvation polyphagia
By: ROMMEL LUIS C. ISRAEL III 240
239. Cont. Pathophysiology
The body turns to fats and protein for
energy; but in the absence of glucose in
the cell, fats cannot be completely
metabolized and ketones are produced
By: ROMMEL LUIS C. ISRAEL III 241
241. Instruction in the Care of the Feet
Hygiene of the feet
Wash feet daily with mild soap and
lukewarm water. Dry thoroughly
between the toes by pressure. Do
not rub vigorously, as this is apt to
break the delicate skin.
Rub well with vegetable oil to keep
them soft, prevent excess friction,
remove scales, and prevent dryness.
If the feet become too soft and
tender, rub them with alcohol about
once a week.
By: ROMMEL LUIS C. ISRAEL III 243
242. Instruction in the Care of the Feet
Hygiene of the feet
When rubbing the feet, always rub upward
from the tips of the toes. If varicose veins
are present, massage the feet very gently;
never massage the legs.
If the toenails are brittle and dry, soften
them by soaking for 11/2 hour each night
in lukewarm water containing 1 tbsp of
powdered sodium borate (borax) per
quart. Clean around the nails with an
orangewood stick. If the nails become too
long, file them with an emery board. File
them straight across and no shorter than
the underlying soft tissue of the toes.
Never cut the corners of the nails.
By: ROMMEL LUIS C. ISRAEL III 244
243. Instruction in the Care of the Feet
Wear low-heeled shoes of soft leather that fit
the shape of the feet correctly. The shoes
should have wide toes that will cause no
pressure, fit close in the arch, and grip the
heels snugly. Wear new shoes one-half hour
only on the first day and increase by 1 hour
each day following. Wear thick, warm, loose
stockings.
Treatment of Corns and Calluses
Corns and calluses are due to friction and
pressure, most often from improperly fitted
shoes and stockings. Wear shoes that fit
properly and cause no friction or pressure.
By: ROMMEL LUIS C. ISRAEL III 245
244. Instruction in the Care of the Feet
To remove excess calluses or corns, soak the feet in
lukewarm (not hot) water, using a mild soap, for
about 10 minutes and then rub off the excess tissue
with a towel or file. Do not tear it off. Under no
circumstances must the skin become irritated.
Do not cut corns or calluses. If they need attention it
is safer to see a podiatrist.
prevent callus formation under the ball of the foot (a)
by exercise, such as curling and stretching the toes
several times a day; (b) by finishing each step on the
toes and not on the ball of the foot; and (c) by
wearing shoes that are not too short and that do not
have high heels.
By: ROMMEL LUIS C. ISRAEL III 246
245. Diagnostics: FBS and OGTT
Normal
glucose
tolerance
Impaired
glucose
tolerance
Diabetes
Mellitus
Fasting
Plasma
Glucose
<110
mg/dl
110-125
mg/dl
> 126
mg/dl
2 hours
after
glucose
< 140
mg/dl
> 140 but
< 200
> 200
mg/dl
By: ROMMEL LUIS C. ISRAEL III 247
247. Therapeutic interventions:
Life-style changes
– Weight control and Exercises
– Planned diet
• 50 – 60 % of calories are complex
carbohydrates, high fiber
• 12 -20 % of daily calories is protein, 60 – 85
g/day
• Fat intake not to exceed 30% of daily calories,
more of polyunsaturated/monounsaturated fats
• Basic tools: food exchange groups, using the
exchange system of dietary control, food
composition tables
– Self-monitoring of blood glucose
By: ROMMEL LUIS C. ISRAEL III 249
248. Cont. Therapeutic
interventions:
Insulin Administration
– For type 1 IDDM and type 2 DM when diet and
weight control therapy failed
– Aspirin, alcohol, oral anticoagulants, oral
hypoglycemics, beta blockers, tricyclic
antidepressants, tetracycline, MAOIs increase the
hypoglycemic effect of insulin
– Glucocorticoids, thiazide diuretics, thyroid
agents, oral contraceptives increase blood
glucose level
– Illness, infection, and stress increase the need for
insulin
By: ROMMEL LUIS C. ISRAEL III 250
249. Insulin Onset Peak Duration
Ultra rapid
Acting
Insulin analog
(Humalog)
10 - 15 min 1 hour 3 hours
SAI
(Humulin regular)
½-1 hr 2-4 hrs 4-6 hours
IAI
(Humulin lente,
Humulin NPH)
3-4 hrs 4-12 hrs 16-20 hrs
LAI
(Protamine Zinc,
Humulin
Ultralente)
6-8 hrs 12-16 hrs 20-30 hours
Premixed Insulin
(70% NPH, 30%
Regular)
½-1 hour 2-12 hrs 18-24 hrs
By: ROMMEL LUIS C. ISRAEL III 251
250. Complications of insulin
therapy
Local allergic reaction, lipodystrophy, Insulin
resistance
Dawn phenomenon
– increase in blood sugar because of release of
growth hormone at around 3 AM;
– Tx: give at 10 pm, intermediate-acting insulin
Somogy effect
– rebound hyperglycemia at 7 am after a bout of
hypoglycemia at around 2-3 AM.
Tx: decrease the evening dose of intermediate-
acting insulin
By: ROMMEL LUIS C. ISRAEL III 252
251. Complications of insulin
therapy
Hypoglycemia
If awake, give 10-15 g of fast-acting simple
carbohydrate (glucose tablets, fruit juice,
and soda).
If unconscious, glucagon SQ or IM.
If in the hospital, 25-50 cc of D50%.
By: ROMMEL LUIS C. ISRAEL III 253
252. Oral Hypoglycemic Agents
For DM type 2
May have to be shifted to insulin when
sick, under stress, during surgery.
Necessary to shift to insulin when
pregnant.
By: ROMMEL LUIS C. ISRAEL III 254
253. ORAL HYPOGLYCEMICS
Sulfonylureas
– promotes inc. insulin secretion from
pancreatic beta cells through direct
stimulation (requires at least 30 % normally
functioning beta cells)
– First-Generation Agents:
• Tolbutamide, Acetohexamide, Tolazamide,
Chlorpropamide
– Second-Generation Agents
• Glypizide, Glyburide
By: ROMMEL LUIS C. ISRAEL III 255
254. ORAL HYPOGLYCEMICS
Biguanides
– reduces hepatic production of glucose by
inhibiting glycogenolysis
– decrease the intestinal absorption of
glucose and improving lipid profile
– Agents
• Phenformin , Metformin , Buformin
By: ROMMEL LUIS C. ISRAEL III 256
255. ORAL HYPOGLYCEMICS
Alpha-glucosidase inhibitors
– Inhibits alpha-glucosidase enzymes in the
small intestine and alpha amylase in the
pancreas
– Decrease rate of complex carbohydrate
metabolism resulting to a reduced rate
postprandially.
– Agents
• Acarbose (precose), Miglitol (glyset)
By: ROMMEL LUIS C. ISRAEL III 257
256. ORAL HYPOGLYCEMICS
Thiazolidinediones
– Enhances insulin action at the cell and
post-receptor site and decreasing
insulin resistance
– Agents
• Pioglitazone (Actos), Rosiglitazone
(Avandia)
By: ROMMEL LUIS C. ISRAEL III 258
257. Acute Complication: DKA
Characterized by hyperglycemia and
accumulation of ketones in the body
causing metabolic acidosis
Occurs in Insulin-Dependent Diabetic
Client
Precipitating Factors: Undiagnosed
diabetes, neglect of treatment, infection,
other physical or emotional stress
Onset slow, maybe hours to days
By: ROMMEL LUIS C. ISRAEL III 259
258. DKA: Signs and Symptoms
Polydipsia, polyphagia and polyuria
Nausea and Vomiting, Abdominal pain
Skin warm, dry and flushed
Dry mucous membrane
Kussmaul’s respirations or
hyperventilation; acetone breath
Alterations in LOC
Hypotension, tachycardia
By: ROMMEL LUIS C. ISRAEL III 260
259. Hyperglycemic Hyperosmolar
Nonketotic Coma (HHNK)
characterized by hyperglycemia and a
hyperosmolar state without ketosis
Occurs in NIDDM or non-diabetic
persons (typically elderly persons)
Precipitating factors: undiagnosed
diabetes, infection or other stress;
certain medications, dialysis,
hyperalimentation, major burns
By: ROMMEL LUIS C. ISRAEL III 261
260. Emergency Management:
For both DKA and HHNK, treat dehydration
first with 0.9% or 0.45% saline.
– Shift to D5W when glucose level is down to
250-300 mg/dl.
– WOF too rapid correction, it can cause rapid
fluid shifts (brain edema and increased ICP,
ARDS)
IV Regular Insulin 0.1 unit/kg bolus and then
0.1 u/k/h drip
Correcting electrolyte imbalance. Watch out
for hypokalemia as a result of treatment. For
severe acidosis (pH < 7.1), DKA patients may
have to be given NaHCO3.
By: ROMMEL LUIS C. ISRAEL III 262
261. References:
Oxytocin | You and Your Hormones from the Society for Endocrinology. (n.d.).
Www.yourhormones.info.
https://www.yourhormones.info/hormones/oxytocin/#:~:text=by%20the%20nipple.-
US EPA, O. (2015, July 6). Overview of the Endocrine System. Www.epa.gov.
https://www.epa.gov/endocrine-disruption/overview-endocrine-
system#:~:text=The%20endocrine%20system%2C%20made%20up
Hypothalamus: Function, hormones, and disorders. (n.d.). Www.medicalnewstoday.com.
https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/312628#disorders
Biology LibreTexts. (2016). 13.27: Hormone Regulation. [online] Available at:
https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Introductory_and_General_Biology/Introductory_Biology_(
CK-
12)/13%3A_Human_Biology/13.27%3A_Hormone_Regulation#:~:text=Most%20hormones%20are
%20controlled%20by.
Better Health (2017). Growth hormone. [online] Vic.gov.au. Available at:
https://www.betterhealth.vic.gov.au/health/conditionsandtreatments/growth-hormone.
Allen, M.J. and Sharma, S. (2021). Physiology, Adrenocorticotropic Hormone (ACTH). [online] PubMed. Available at:
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK500031/#:~:text=Adrenocorticotropic%20hormone%20(ACTH)%20is%20a.
By: ROMMEL LUIS C. ISRAEL III 263
262. References:
Shomon, M. (2004). High and Low TSH Levels: What They Mean. [online] Verywell Health. Available
at: https://www.verywellhealth.com/understanding-thyroid-blood-tests-low-or-high-tsh-3233198.
Luteinizing and Follicle Stimulating Hormones. (n.d.). Www.vivo.colostate.edu.
http://www.vivo.colostate.edu/hbooks/pathphys/endocrine/hypopit/lhfsh.html#:~:text=Luteinizin
g%20hormone%20%28LH%29%20and%20follicle-stimulating%20hormone%20%28FSH%29%20are
Yourhormones.info. (2018). Melanocyte-stimulating hormone | You and Your Hormones from the
Society for Endocrinology. [online] Available at:
https://www.yourhormones.info/hormones/melanocyte-stimulating-hormone/.
Melanocyte-stimulating hormone | You and Your Hormones from the Society for Endocrinology.
(2018). Yourhormones.info. https://www.yourhormones.info/hormones/melanocyte-stimulating-
hormone/
Verywell Health. (n.d.). A Quick Rundown of the Symptoms of Hypogonadism. [online] Available at:
https://www.verywellhealth.com/hypogonadism-signs-symptoms-and-complications-5191935.
Bing. (n.d.). Transsphenoidal hypophysectomy. [online] Available at:
https://www.bing.com/search?q=Transsphenoidal+hypophysectomy&cvid=349c865c86eb4249a78
60659ce931476&aqs=edge..69i57j0l8.1337j0j4&FORM=ANAB01&PC=NMTS [Accessed 13 Aug.
2023].
By: ROMMEL LUIS C. ISRAEL III 264
263. References:
• Mayo Clinic (2021). Diabetes insipidus - Symptoms and causes. [online] Mayo
Clinic. Available at: https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/diabetes-
insipidus/symptoms-causes/syc-20351269.
• Vallie, S. (n.d.). What Is SIADH? [online] WebMD. Available at:
https://www.webmd.com/a-to-z-guides/what-is-siadh.
• Society for Endocrinology (2019). Adrenocorticotropic hormone | You and
Your Hormones from the Society for Endocrinology. [online]
Yourhormones.info. Available at:
https://www.yourhormones.info/hormones/adrenocorticotropic-hormone/.
• Australia, H. (2020). The role of cortisol in the body. [online]
www.healthdirect.gov.au. Available at: https://www.healthdirect.gov.au/the-
role-of-cortisol-in-the-
body#:~:text=Cortisol%20is%20a%20hormone%20produced.
By: ROMMEL LUIS C. ISRAEL III 265