Chromosomes
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Chromosomes are structures that carry genetic information in the form of DNA. They are found in the nucleus of human cells and determine characteristics like eye color and blood type. Each human cell normally contains 23 pairs of chromosomes, half inherited from each parent, for a total of 46 chromosomes in nearly every cell.
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Structural organization of Chromosome
Chromosomes are made of chromatin fibers containing DNA and proteins. Each chromosome contains two chromatids joined at the centromere. The centromere divides the chromosome into short and long arms. During cell division, the centromere and attached kinetochore allow chromosomes to align and separate. Telomeres are repetitive DNA sequences at chromosome ends that prevent fusion and shorten with each cell division due to the end replication problem, in which DNA polymerase cannot fully replicate chromosome ends.
Dosage compensation ∧ sex determination in drosophila
Dosage compensation is the process where the total gene expression from a single X chromosome in one sex is made equal to the total gene expression from the two X chromosomes in the other sex. This can occur by up-regulating the single X chromosome or down-regulating the two X chromosomes. Failure to achieve dosage compensation is often lethal. The general organization of sex determination genes in Drosophila melanogaster includes master regulator genes, intermediate regulator genes, and terminal regulator genes that determine whether female or male development progresses.
organization of DNA in chromosomes.
Chromosomes contain an organism's genetic material and come in different structures depending on the organism. Bacteria typically have a single circular chromosome while eukaryotes have multiple linear chromosomes in the nucleus. Genetic material is highly compacted through various mechanisms to fit inside cells. In eukaryotes, DNA is wrapped around histone proteins to form nucleosomes, which further compact to form a 30nm fiber and loop domains that attach to a nuclear matrix, compacting the DNA over 1000-fold to fit in the nucleus.
Plasma membrane
The document summarizes key aspects of the plasma membrane structure and models. It discusses the plasma membrane's role in separating the cell's cytoplasm from the external environment and controlling molecule movement. The plasma membrane is composed primarily of lipids, proteins, and carbohydrates arranged in a fluid mosaic structure according to the fluid mosaic model. This model proposes the plasma membrane has a fluid-like consistency with protein molecules dotted mosaic-style throughout the lipid bilayer.
Theories regarding origin of Mitochondria and Chloroplasts
The document summarizes the endosymbiotic theory of the origin of mitochondria and chloroplasts. It states that mitochondria likely evolved from aerobic prokaryotes that were engulfed by early eukaryotic cells, eventually becoming specialized organelles. Similarly, chloroplasts may have evolved from photosynthetic prokaryotes that were engulfed by eukaryotic cells already containing mitochondria. This endosymbiotic theory was first proposed by Lynn Margulis and has received significant evidentiary support.
Chromosome
Chromosomes are organized packages of DNA found in cells that contain genetic material. Humans normally have 46 chromosomes - 44 autosomes and 2 sex chromosomes. Each autosome has a matching homologous chromosome that it pairs with. Chromosomes are easiest to study during metaphase when they are most condensed. Key features of metaphase chromosomes include sister chromatids joined at the centromere, which divides the chromosome into arms. Telomeres cap the ends of chromosomes and help maintain stability.
Chromatin structure and organization
The document summarizes the different levels of chromatin structure and DNA packaging in eukaryotic cells. It discusses how DNA wraps around histone proteins to form nucleosomes, which condense further into 30-nanometer fibers called heterochromatin. The highest level of packaging occurs in metaphase chromosomes, where DNA is condensed approximately 40-fold. Chromatin structure allows for compact storage of long DNA molecules in the nucleus while also regulating gene expression and protecting DNA during cell division.
Telomerase replication
Telomers & Telomerase replication.
THIS WAS MY PRESENTATION TOPIC IN CLASS. THOUGHT OF SHARING IT AND HOPE IT HELPS.
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Structural organization of Chromosome
Chromosomes are made of chromatin fibers containing DNA and proteins. Each chromosome contains two chromatids joined at the centromere. The centromere divides the chromosome into short and long arms. During cell division, the centromere and attached kinetochore allow chromosomes to align and separate. Telomeres are repetitive DNA sequences at chromosome ends that prevent fusion and shorten with each cell division due to the end replication problem, in which DNA polymerase cannot fully replicate chromosome ends.
Dosage compensation ∧ sex determination in drosophila
Dosage compensation is the process where the total gene expression from a single X chromosome in one sex is made equal to the total gene expression from the two X chromosomes in the other sex. This can occur by up-regulating the single X chromosome or down-regulating the two X chromosomes. Failure to achieve dosage compensation is often lethal. The general organization of sex determination genes in Drosophila melanogaster includes master regulator genes, intermediate regulator genes, and terminal regulator genes that determine whether female or male development progresses.
organization of DNA in chromosomes.
Chromosomes contain an organism's genetic material and come in different structures depending on the organism. Bacteria typically have a single circular chromosome while eukaryotes have multiple linear chromosomes in the nucleus. Genetic material is highly compacted through various mechanisms to fit inside cells. In eukaryotes, DNA is wrapped around histone proteins to form nucleosomes, which further compact to form a 30nm fiber and loop domains that attach to a nuclear matrix, compacting the DNA over 1000-fold to fit in the nucleus.
Plasma membrane
The document summarizes key aspects of the plasma membrane structure and models. It discusses the plasma membrane's role in separating the cell's cytoplasm from the external environment and controlling molecule movement. The plasma membrane is composed primarily of lipids, proteins, and carbohydrates arranged in a fluid mosaic structure according to the fluid mosaic model. This model proposes the plasma membrane has a fluid-like consistency with protein molecules dotted mosaic-style throughout the lipid bilayer.
Theories regarding origin of Mitochondria and Chloroplasts
The document summarizes the endosymbiotic theory of the origin of mitochondria and chloroplasts. It states that mitochondria likely evolved from aerobic prokaryotes that were engulfed by early eukaryotic cells, eventually becoming specialized organelles. Similarly, chloroplasts may have evolved from photosynthetic prokaryotes that were engulfed by eukaryotic cells already containing mitochondria. This endosymbiotic theory was first proposed by Lynn Margulis and has received significant evidentiary support.
Chromosome
Chromosomes are organized packages of DNA found in cells that contain genetic material. Humans normally have 46 chromosomes - 44 autosomes and 2 sex chromosomes. Each autosome has a matching homologous chromosome that it pairs with. Chromosomes are easiest to study during metaphase when they are most condensed. Key features of metaphase chromosomes include sister chromatids joined at the centromere, which divides the chromosome into arms. Telomeres cap the ends of chromosomes and help maintain stability.
Chromatin structure and organization
The document summarizes the different levels of chromatin structure and DNA packaging in eukaryotic cells. It discusses how DNA wraps around histone proteins to form nucleosomes, which condense further into 30-nanometer fibers called heterochromatin. The highest level of packaging occurs in metaphase chromosomes, where DNA is condensed approximately 40-fold. Chromatin structure allows for compact storage of long DNA molecules in the nucleus while also regulating gene expression and protecting DNA during cell division.
Telomerase replication
Telomers & Telomerase replication.
THIS WAS MY PRESENTATION TOPIC IN CLASS. THOUGHT OF SHARING IT AND HOPE IT HELPS.
Chloroplasts
Chloroplasts are organelles found in plants and algae that carry out photosynthesis. They have an inner and outer membrane, with an intermembrane space between them. Inside is the stroma, which contains thylakoids that are arranged in stacks called grana. Chloroplasts contain their own genome and divide independently. According to the endosymbiotic theory, chloroplasts originated from cyanobacteria that were engulfed by other cells but not destroyed. Chloroplasts import most proteins from the cytosol through translocation complexes in the inner and outer membranes. They perform photosynthesis through light and dark reactions, using solar energy to fix carbon dioxide and produce oxygen and carbohydrates.
Mitotic spindle
The spindle apparatus refers to the cytoskeletal structure that forms during cell division to separate sister chromatids between daughter cells. It is composed of microtubules that are nucleated from centrosomes or acentrosomally near chromosomes. There are three main types of microtubules that make up the spindle apparatus: astral microtubules that interact with the cell cortex to orient the spindle, polar microtubules that push the spindle poles apart, and kinetochore microtubules that connect directly to the kinetochores of each chromosome. Precise regulation of microtubule dynamics and interactions by motor proteins and phosphorylation events is required for proper spindle assembly and chromosome segregation during cell division.
Nucleosomes
Nucleosomes are the fundamental repeating subunits of eukaryotic chromatin that package DNA into a compact structure. They are composed of 146 base pairs of DNA wrapped around an octamer of histone proteins, resembling beads on a string. This represents the first order of DNA compaction. Higher orders of compaction involve the nucleosomes winding further to form solenoid fibers, scaffold loops, chromatids, and finally full chromosomes. Nucleosomes allow the long DNA molecules to fit within cell nuclei while also regulating genetic expression.
Presentation on Structure of Chromosomes
Chromosomes are organized structures found in cells that contain DNA and proteins. Each chromosome is made of DNA coiled around histone proteins. Chromosomes are located in the cell nucleus and are passed from parents to offspring. They are named because they can be stained with dyes. In most organisms, chromosomes occur in homologous pairs. The human body contains 23 pairs of chromosomes. Chromosomes condense and can be observed during cell division. They contain duplicated copies called sister chromatids joined at the centromere. Chemically, chromosomes contain DNA, RNA, histone and non-histone proteins, and metal ions. According to the folded fiber model, each chromosome consists of a single DNA molecule wrapped around proteins and folded into a
Somatic cell hybridization
Somatic cell hybridization involves fusing cells from two different species, such as human and mouse cells, to form hybrid cells containing chromosomes from both species. This technique allows genes to be mapped to specific chromosomes. It works by using selective growth conditions that require the hybrid cell to retain certain human chromosomes in order to survive. Over successive cell divisions, human chromosomes are eliminated at random except for those required for survival. This allows the creation of cell lines containing partial sets of human chromosomes that can be analyzed to correlate genes with specific chromosomes. The technique has been important for mapping the human genome.
Chromosomes
It is a powerpoint presentation that discusses about the lesson or topic: Chromosomes. It also talks about the definition, history and the concepts about Chromosomes
Heterochromatin and euchromatin mains
This document discusses the structures and functions of heterochromatin and euchromatin. Heterochromatin is tightly packed and transcriptionally inactive, found near centromeres and telomeres. Euchromatin is loosely packed and contains most actively transcribed genes. The basic unit of DNA packing is the nucleosome, which involves DNA wound around histone proteins. Heterochromatin and euchromatin differ in their genetic activity, location within chromosomes, and condensation levels during interphase.
Cell cell interaction
Cell-cell interaction refers to direct interactions between cell surfaces that allow cells to communicate and respond to changes. These interactions involve stable cell junctions that provide adhesion within tissues and control cell shape and function. The main types of cell junctions are tight junctions, adherens junctions, desmosomes, and gap junctions. Tight junctions prevent movement of molecules between cells and form a selective barrier. Adherens junctions and desmosomes provide strength and signaling between cells. Gap junctions allow small molecules to pass directly between cells, allowing cell-cell communication. The loss of these cell-cell interactions can result in uncontrolled cell growth and cancer.
chromosomal basis of inheritance
in this presentation how chromosomes are basis of inheritance is explained....i have combined 3 or 4 presentations..i hope so it will be helpfull
Cytoplasmic inheritance and extra chromosomal inheritance
the cytoplasmic inheritance is in which cytoplasm contain self replicating hereditary material of cytoplasm formed of DNA and this DNA govern many specific characters in plants and animals.
Human Karyotype ( Chromosomes)
A karyotype is the number and appearance of chromosomes in a cell. It depicts the complete set of chromosomes and can detect abnormalities. The study of whole chromosome sets is called karyology. Chromosomes are arranged in a standard format called a karyogram or idiogram. A karyotype is prepared by culturing cells to induce cell division, arresting mitosis, staining the chromosomes, and analyzing their number, size, shape, and banding pattern under a microscope. This allows detection of chromosomal abnormalities that can indicate genetic disorders.
Dna packaging
DNA is tightly packed in the nucleus of every cell. DNA wraps around special proteins called histones, which form loops of DNA called nucleosomes. These nucleosomes coil and stack together to form fibers called chromatin. Chromatin in turn forms larger loops and coils to form chromosomes.
DNA packaging is crucial because it makes sure that those excessive DNA are able to fit nicely in a cell that is many times smaller.
The DNA in bacterial cells are either circular or linear. To accommodate the size of bacterial cell, supercoiled DNA are folded into loops with each loop resembles shape of bead-like packets containing small basic proteins that is analogous to histone found in Eukaryotes.
Peroxisomes
This presentation summarizes key information about peroxisomes. Peroxisomes are membrane-bound organelles found in the cytoplasm of eukaryotic cells that contain oxidase enzymes and help breakdown hydrogen peroxide. They have a dense matrix and participate in important functions like fatty acid breakdown, alcohol detoxification, and bile acid/cholesterol synthesis. Disorders can arise if single peroxisomal enzymes are abnormal, affecting the nervous system, liver, and other organs. Two examples given are adrenoleukodystrophy, which involves VLCFA metabolism, and Zellweger's syndrome, caused by a lack of functional peroxisomes due to mutations affecting transport of enzymes.
Molecular evolution
This document provides an overview of molecular evolution. It defines molecular evolution as the process of change in DNA, RNA, and protein sequences across generations, as examined using principles of evolutionary biology and population genetics. The history and key developments in the field are discussed, including the neutral theory of molecular evolution. Applications like revealing evolutionary dynamics, indicating chronological change, and identifying phylogenetic relationships are covered. Details are provided about sequence alignments, substitutions, molecular clocks, and variation in evolutionary rates within genes.
Molecular organization of chromosomes
Chromosomes are organized structures that package DNA and proteins in eukaryotic cells. Bacterial genetic material is concentrated in the nucleoid as a single circular DNA chromosome. Eukaryotic cells contain linear chromosomes housed within the nucleus. Chromosomes are made up of DNA, histone proteins, and non-histone proteins. They contain genes and regulatory elements and vary in structure between species.
Chromatin Structure and Function
This document discusses the structure and function of chromatin. It begins with a history of chromatin discovery from 1878-1974. Chromatin is composed of DNA, histones, and non-histone proteins. There are two types of chromatin - heterochromatin, which is condensed and inactive, and euchromatin, which is less condensed and contains actively transcribed genes. Chromatin replicates during interphase and condenses further during mitosis. DNA is packaged into nucleosomes, which involve 147 base pairs of DNA wrapped around an octamer of histone proteins, and these compact to form chromatin fibers and chromosomes. The functions of chromatin include efficient DNA packaging, facilitating cell division, preventing chromosome breakage, and regulating gene expression.
LINKAGE
GENETICS
CYTOGENETICS
Definition of Linkage, Coupling and Repulsion hypothesis, Linkage group- Drosophila, maize and man, Types of linkage-complete linkage and incomplete linkage, Factors affecting linkage- distance between genes, age, temperature, radiation, sex, chemicals and nutrition, Significance of linkage.
The tendency of two or more genes to stay together (i.e., the co-existence of two or more genes) in the same chromosome during inheritance is known as LINKAGE. The linked genes are present on the same chromosome are said to be SYNTENIC. The linked genes do not show independent assortment.
LINKAGE v/s INDEPENDENT ASSORTMENT
The frequency of linkage or the strength recombination is influenced by several factors (agents).
A, b, and z forms of dna
There are three main forms of DNA structure: A-DNA, B-DNA, and Z-DNA. B-DNA is the most common form found under physiological conditions, having a right-handed double helix with 10.5 base pairs per turn. A-DNA forms under dehydrating conditions and has a wider helix with 11 base pairs per turn. Z-DNA is a left-handed helix that forms with alternating purine-pyrimidine sequences, containing 12 base pairs per turn in a narrow, zig-zag structure. While B-DNA is most prevalent, the structure can vary depending on sequence and environmental conditions.
cell adhesion molecules
This document discusses cell adhesion molecules (CAMs), which are glycoproteins located on cell surfaces that help cells stick to each other and their surroundings. CAMs are classified into five major families: cadherins, Ig superfamily CAMs, selectins, integrins, and mucins. Cadherins are calcium-dependent and form connections between cells called desmosomes. Selectins help with inflammation and lymphocyte homing. Integrins facilitate cell-cell and cell-extracellular matrix adhesion and are composed of alpha and beta subunits. Malfunctions in CAMs can lead to conditions like breast cancer and leukocyte adhesion deficiency syndrome.
Cleavage
This document discusses various aspects of cleavage in fertilized eggs. It begins by defining cleavage as the process of segmentation of the zygote into multiple cells or blastomeres following fertilization. The blastomeres initially remain closely associated but later form a hollow sphere called a blastula. Three key points are made: 1) Cleavage prepares the groundwork for embryonic design by producing cells, 2) It establishes conditions for gastrulation, the next developmental stage. 3) Distinct planes of cell division exist during early cleavage. The document then describes different types of cleavage patterns and their relationships to embryonic cell fate determination.
Dna sequencing AND ANALYSIS
Compare and contrast the chemical (Maxam/Gilbert) and chain termination (Sanger) sequencing methods.
List the components and molecular reactions that occur in chain termination sequencing.
Discuss the advantages of dye primer and dye terminator sequencing.
Derive a text DNA sequence from raw sequencing data.
Describe examples of alternative sequencing methods, such as bisulfite sequencing and pyrosequencing.
Maxam/Gilbert chemical sequencing
Sanger chain termination sequencing
Pyrosequencing
Array sequencing
With addition of enzyme (DNA polymerase), the primer is extended until a ddNTP is encountered.
The chain will end with the incorporation of the ddNTP.
With the proper dNTP:ddNTP ratio, the chain will terminate throughout the length of the template.
All terminated chains will end in the ddNTP added to that reaction.
The collection of fragments is a sequencing ladder.
The resulting terminated chains are resolved by electrophoresis.
Fragments from each of the four tubes are placed in four separate gel lanes.
Cycle sequencing is chain termination sequencing performed in a thermal cycler.
Cycle sequencing requires a heat-stable DNA polymerase.
Fluorescent dyes are multicyclic molecules that absorb and emit fluorescent light at specific wavelengths.
Examples are fluorescein and rhodamine derivatives.
For sequencing applications, these molecules can be covalently attached to nucleotides.
In dye primer sequencing, the primer contains fluorescent dye–conjugated nucleotides, labeling the sequencing ladder at the 5′ ends of the chains.
In dye terminator sequencing, the fluorescent dye molecules are covalently attached to the dideoxynucleotides, labeling the sequencing ladder at the 3′ ends of the chains.
Ramsar Wetlands of pakistan
23rd November 1976: The convention on wetlands came into force for Pakistan
1976: Total wetland surface area 7,800 sq km with 9 wetlands of global significance
2001: Number raised to 16
2013:Among 1,888 Ramsar sites, 19 sites of Pakistan bear global importance
Total surface area of Pakistan Ramsar sites is 1,343,627 hectares
Pakistan’s 19 sites Internationally recognized by Ramsar Convention (RC) Bureau
2PK009
Astola (Haft Talar) Island, Balochistan
Russel’s viper (Echis carinatus astolae), is an endemic species and a highly poisonous snake, which is reported only from this Island
Deh Akro-II wetland supports more than 18 species of mammals, 16 species of reptiles, 14 species of fish, and 101 species of birds and regularly supports over 20,000 waterbirds. The fauna includes waterfowl, crocodiles, otters and fish.
The surrounding hills are the home of Urial, Sindh wild goat, Chinkara gazelle, Wolf, Jackal, Common fox, Pangolin and numerous other birds and reptiles.
The Indus river dolphin is one of the world's rarest mammal and most endangered cetaceans. Only about 1,000 of this unique species exist today in the lower reaches of the Indus River in Pakistan. Water pollution, poaching and habitat fragmentation due to dams and irrigation systems are all threatening the dolphin's survival. WWF works to conserve their habitat and has been involved in a number of rescue missions where individual dolphins find themselves trapped in canals
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Chloroplasts
Chloroplasts are organelles found in plants and algae that carry out photosynthesis. They have an inner and outer membrane, with an intermembrane space between them. Inside is the stroma, which contains thylakoids that are arranged in stacks called grana. Chloroplasts contain their own genome and divide independently. According to the endosymbiotic theory, chloroplasts originated from cyanobacteria that were engulfed by other cells but not destroyed. Chloroplasts import most proteins from the cytosol through translocation complexes in the inner and outer membranes. They perform photosynthesis through light and dark reactions, using solar energy to fix carbon dioxide and produce oxygen and carbohydrates.
Mitotic spindle
The spindle apparatus refers to the cytoskeletal structure that forms during cell division to separate sister chromatids between daughter cells. It is composed of microtubules that are nucleated from centrosomes or acentrosomally near chromosomes. There are three main types of microtubules that make up the spindle apparatus: astral microtubules that interact with the cell cortex to orient the spindle, polar microtubules that push the spindle poles apart, and kinetochore microtubules that connect directly to the kinetochores of each chromosome. Precise regulation of microtubule dynamics and interactions by motor proteins and phosphorylation events is required for proper spindle assembly and chromosome segregation during cell division.
Nucleosomes
Nucleosomes are the fundamental repeating subunits of eukaryotic chromatin that package DNA into a compact structure. They are composed of 146 base pairs of DNA wrapped around an octamer of histone proteins, resembling beads on a string. This represents the first order of DNA compaction. Higher orders of compaction involve the nucleosomes winding further to form solenoid fibers, scaffold loops, chromatids, and finally full chromosomes. Nucleosomes allow the long DNA molecules to fit within cell nuclei while also regulating genetic expression.
Presentation on Structure of Chromosomes
Chromosomes are organized structures found in cells that contain DNA and proteins. Each chromosome is made of DNA coiled around histone proteins. Chromosomes are located in the cell nucleus and are passed from parents to offspring. They are named because they can be stained with dyes. In most organisms, chromosomes occur in homologous pairs. The human body contains 23 pairs of chromosomes. Chromosomes condense and can be observed during cell division. They contain duplicated copies called sister chromatids joined at the centromere. Chemically, chromosomes contain DNA, RNA, histone and non-histone proteins, and metal ions. According to the folded fiber model, each chromosome consists of a single DNA molecule wrapped around proteins and folded into a
Somatic cell hybridization
Somatic cell hybridization involves fusing cells from two different species, such as human and mouse cells, to form hybrid cells containing chromosomes from both species. This technique allows genes to be mapped to specific chromosomes. It works by using selective growth conditions that require the hybrid cell to retain certain human chromosomes in order to survive. Over successive cell divisions, human chromosomes are eliminated at random except for those required for survival. This allows the creation of cell lines containing partial sets of human chromosomes that can be analyzed to correlate genes with specific chromosomes. The technique has been important for mapping the human genome.
Chromosomes
It is a powerpoint presentation that discusses about the lesson or topic: Chromosomes. It also talks about the definition, history and the concepts about Chromosomes
Heterochromatin and euchromatin mains
This document discusses the structures and functions of heterochromatin and euchromatin. Heterochromatin is tightly packed and transcriptionally inactive, found near centromeres and telomeres. Euchromatin is loosely packed and contains most actively transcribed genes. The basic unit of DNA packing is the nucleosome, which involves DNA wound around histone proteins. Heterochromatin and euchromatin differ in their genetic activity, location within chromosomes, and condensation levels during interphase.
Cell cell interaction
Cell-cell interaction refers to direct interactions between cell surfaces that allow cells to communicate and respond to changes. These interactions involve stable cell junctions that provide adhesion within tissues and control cell shape and function. The main types of cell junctions are tight junctions, adherens junctions, desmosomes, and gap junctions. Tight junctions prevent movement of molecules between cells and form a selective barrier. Adherens junctions and desmosomes provide strength and signaling between cells. Gap junctions allow small molecules to pass directly between cells, allowing cell-cell communication. The loss of these cell-cell interactions can result in uncontrolled cell growth and cancer.
chromosomal basis of inheritance
in this presentation how chromosomes are basis of inheritance is explained....i have combined 3 or 4 presentations..i hope so it will be helpfull
Cytoplasmic inheritance and extra chromosomal inheritance
the cytoplasmic inheritance is in which cytoplasm contain self replicating hereditary material of cytoplasm formed of DNA and this DNA govern many specific characters in plants and animals.
Human Karyotype ( Chromosomes)
A karyotype is the number and appearance of chromosomes in a cell. It depicts the complete set of chromosomes and can detect abnormalities. The study of whole chromosome sets is called karyology. Chromosomes are arranged in a standard format called a karyogram or idiogram. A karyotype is prepared by culturing cells to induce cell division, arresting mitosis, staining the chromosomes, and analyzing their number, size, shape, and banding pattern under a microscope. This allows detection of chromosomal abnormalities that can indicate genetic disorders.
Dna packaging
DNA is tightly packed in the nucleus of every cell. DNA wraps around special proteins called histones, which form loops of DNA called nucleosomes. These nucleosomes coil and stack together to form fibers called chromatin. Chromatin in turn forms larger loops and coils to form chromosomes.
DNA packaging is crucial because it makes sure that those excessive DNA are able to fit nicely in a cell that is many times smaller.
The DNA in bacterial cells are either circular or linear. To accommodate the size of bacterial cell, supercoiled DNA are folded into loops with each loop resembles shape of bead-like packets containing small basic proteins that is analogous to histone found in Eukaryotes.
Peroxisomes
This presentation summarizes key information about peroxisomes. Peroxisomes are membrane-bound organelles found in the cytoplasm of eukaryotic cells that contain oxidase enzymes and help breakdown hydrogen peroxide. They have a dense matrix and participate in important functions like fatty acid breakdown, alcohol detoxification, and bile acid/cholesterol synthesis. Disorders can arise if single peroxisomal enzymes are abnormal, affecting the nervous system, liver, and other organs. Two examples given are adrenoleukodystrophy, which involves VLCFA metabolism, and Zellweger's syndrome, caused by a lack of functional peroxisomes due to mutations affecting transport of enzymes.
Molecular evolution
This document provides an overview of molecular evolution. It defines molecular evolution as the process of change in DNA, RNA, and protein sequences across generations, as examined using principles of evolutionary biology and population genetics. The history and key developments in the field are discussed, including the neutral theory of molecular evolution. Applications like revealing evolutionary dynamics, indicating chronological change, and identifying phylogenetic relationships are covered. Details are provided about sequence alignments, substitutions, molecular clocks, and variation in evolutionary rates within genes.
Molecular organization of chromosomes
Chromosomes are organized structures that package DNA and proteins in eukaryotic cells. Bacterial genetic material is concentrated in the nucleoid as a single circular DNA chromosome. Eukaryotic cells contain linear chromosomes housed within the nucleus. Chromosomes are made up of DNA, histone proteins, and non-histone proteins. They contain genes and regulatory elements and vary in structure between species.
Chromatin Structure and Function
This document discusses the structure and function of chromatin. It begins with a history of chromatin discovery from 1878-1974. Chromatin is composed of DNA, histones, and non-histone proteins. There are two types of chromatin - heterochromatin, which is condensed and inactive, and euchromatin, which is less condensed and contains actively transcribed genes. Chromatin replicates during interphase and condenses further during mitosis. DNA is packaged into nucleosomes, which involve 147 base pairs of DNA wrapped around an octamer of histone proteins, and these compact to form chromatin fibers and chromosomes. The functions of chromatin include efficient DNA packaging, facilitating cell division, preventing chromosome breakage, and regulating gene expression.
LINKAGE
GENETICS
CYTOGENETICS
Definition of Linkage, Coupling and Repulsion hypothesis, Linkage group- Drosophila, maize and man, Types of linkage-complete linkage and incomplete linkage, Factors affecting linkage- distance between genes, age, temperature, radiation, sex, chemicals and nutrition, Significance of linkage.
The tendency of two or more genes to stay together (i.e., the co-existence of two or more genes) in the same chromosome during inheritance is known as LINKAGE. The linked genes are present on the same chromosome are said to be SYNTENIC. The linked genes do not show independent assortment.
LINKAGE v/s INDEPENDENT ASSORTMENT
The frequency of linkage or the strength recombination is influenced by several factors (agents).
A, b, and z forms of dna
There are three main forms of DNA structure: A-DNA, B-DNA, and Z-DNA. B-DNA is the most common form found under physiological conditions, having a right-handed double helix with 10.5 base pairs per turn. A-DNA forms under dehydrating conditions and has a wider helix with 11 base pairs per turn. Z-DNA is a left-handed helix that forms with alternating purine-pyrimidine sequences, containing 12 base pairs per turn in a narrow, zig-zag structure. While B-DNA is most prevalent, the structure can vary depending on sequence and environmental conditions.
cell adhesion molecules
This document discusses cell adhesion molecules (CAMs), which are glycoproteins located on cell surfaces that help cells stick to each other and their surroundings. CAMs are classified into five major families: cadherins, Ig superfamily CAMs, selectins, integrins, and mucins. Cadherins are calcium-dependent and form connections between cells called desmosomes. Selectins help with inflammation and lymphocyte homing. Integrins facilitate cell-cell and cell-extracellular matrix adhesion and are composed of alpha and beta subunits. Malfunctions in CAMs can lead to conditions like breast cancer and leukocyte adhesion deficiency syndrome.
Cleavage
This document discusses various aspects of cleavage in fertilized eggs. It begins by defining cleavage as the process of segmentation of the zygote into multiple cells or blastomeres following fertilization. The blastomeres initially remain closely associated but later form a hollow sphere called a blastula. Three key points are made: 1) Cleavage prepares the groundwork for embryonic design by producing cells, 2) It establishes conditions for gastrulation, the next developmental stage. 3) Distinct planes of cell division exist during early cleavage. The document then describes different types of cleavage patterns and their relationships to embryonic cell fate determination.
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Dna sequencing AND ANALYSIS
Compare and contrast the chemical (Maxam/Gilbert) and chain termination (Sanger) sequencing methods.
List the components and molecular reactions that occur in chain termination sequencing.
Discuss the advantages of dye primer and dye terminator sequencing.
Derive a text DNA sequence from raw sequencing data.
Describe examples of alternative sequencing methods, such as bisulfite sequencing and pyrosequencing.
Maxam/Gilbert chemical sequencing
Sanger chain termination sequencing
Pyrosequencing
Array sequencing
With addition of enzyme (DNA polymerase), the primer is extended until a ddNTP is encountered.
The chain will end with the incorporation of the ddNTP.
With the proper dNTP:ddNTP ratio, the chain will terminate throughout the length of the template.
All terminated chains will end in the ddNTP added to that reaction.
The collection of fragments is a sequencing ladder.
The resulting terminated chains are resolved by electrophoresis.
Fragments from each of the four tubes are placed in four separate gel lanes.
Cycle sequencing is chain termination sequencing performed in a thermal cycler.
Cycle sequencing requires a heat-stable DNA polymerase.
Fluorescent dyes are multicyclic molecules that absorb and emit fluorescent light at specific wavelengths.
Examples are fluorescein and rhodamine derivatives.
For sequencing applications, these molecules can be covalently attached to nucleotides.
In dye primer sequencing, the primer contains fluorescent dye–conjugated nucleotides, labeling the sequencing ladder at the 5′ ends of the chains.
In dye terminator sequencing, the fluorescent dye molecules are covalently attached to the dideoxynucleotides, labeling the sequencing ladder at the 3′ ends of the chains.
Ramsar Wetlands of pakistan
23rd November 1976: The convention on wetlands came into force for Pakistan
1976: Total wetland surface area 7,800 sq km with 9 wetlands of global significance
2001: Number raised to 16
2013:Among 1,888 Ramsar sites, 19 sites of Pakistan bear global importance
Total surface area of Pakistan Ramsar sites is 1,343,627 hectares
Pakistan’s 19 sites Internationally recognized by Ramsar Convention (RC) Bureau
2PK009
Astola (Haft Talar) Island, Balochistan
Russel’s viper (Echis carinatus astolae), is an endemic species and a highly poisonous snake, which is reported only from this Island
Deh Akro-II wetland supports more than 18 species of mammals, 16 species of reptiles, 14 species of fish, and 101 species of birds and regularly supports over 20,000 waterbirds. The fauna includes waterfowl, crocodiles, otters and fish.
The surrounding hills are the home of Urial, Sindh wild goat, Chinkara gazelle, Wolf, Jackal, Common fox, Pangolin and numerous other birds and reptiles.
The Indus river dolphin is one of the world's rarest mammal and most endangered cetaceans. Only about 1,000 of this unique species exist today in the lower reaches of the Indus River in Pakistan. Water pollution, poaching and habitat fragmentation due to dams and irrigation systems are all threatening the dolphin's survival. WWF works to conserve their habitat and has been involved in a number of rescue missions where individual dolphins find themselves trapped in canals
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Saccadic masking:
Also known as (visual) saccadic suppression, is the phenomenon in visual perception where the brain selectively blocks visual processing during eye movements in such a way that neither the motion of the eye nor the gap in visual perception is noticeable to the viewer.
Saccadic masking” specifically refers to the fact that our visual system is capable of “blanking out” or masking the perception of the saccadic motion of the eyes; in simpler terms, you’re not aware of seeing the motion blur or other clues that your eyes are constantly making very rapid small movements, called saccades.
The term DNA is an abbreviation of the genetic material in living things. The beginning of the science of genetics dates back to genetic laws drawn up by the scientist, the Austrian monk Johann Gregor Mendel in 1865. The date, a turning point in the history of science, is referred to in verse 65 of Surat al-Kahf, or verse 18:65.
In Surat al-Kahf, which refers to DNA and the year 1865 when the science of genetics began, DNA is repeated 7 times, as is RNA (the Arabic letters Ra-Nun-Alif).
The letters D-N-A appear side by side three times in this verse, in a most incomparable manner. In no other verse of the Qur’an do the letters “DNA” appear consecutively so often. The number of this exceptional verse in which the term DNA appears so strikingly is 18:65.
Snapdragons Make Cute Flowers, But When They Die… They Turn Into Creepy Skulls
Snapdragon flowers are beautiful when in bloom, but when the seed pods dry, something more sinister appears.
The dried seed pods clearly resemble tiny skulls
These skulls are oddly human-looking…
Ancient cultures once thought snapdragons held supernatural powers
The tiny skulls were believed to protect against sorcery, witchcraft, and curses
Emotion is typically defined as a response to stimuli that involves physiological changes (increased pulse rate, increased body temperature, activity of certain glands, increased or decreased breathing rate), which motivate a person to act.
Darwins concept
Darwins concept
He was born February 12th 1809
Darwin developed the biological theory of evolution that explains how modern organisms evolved over long periods of time through descent from common ancestors.
In 1831, he began a 5 year voyage on the HMS Beagle that would change his life.
Darwin thought about the patterns he’d seen on his voyage
He realized that there were many similarities between the animals he’d seen
There was evidence that suggested that species were not fixed and that they could change by some natural process
Proposed that the use or disuse of organs caused organisms to gain or lose traits over time.
These new characteristics could be passed on to the next generation.
Lamarck’s hypotheses were incorrect in many ways
However, Lamarck was one of the first to:
Suggest that species are not fixed
Explain that evolution uses natural processes
Recognize that there is a link between an organism’s environment and its body structures
Lamarck’s work paved the way for later biologists, including Darwin
In 1798, Thomas Malthus noticed that people were being born faster than people were dying.
How this helped Darwin
He reasoned that what Malthus proposed for human populations also applied to all living things.
Struggle for Existence
From Malthus’ theory of supply and demand, Darwin reasoned that if more individuals are produced than can survive, they will have to compete for food, living space and other necessities of life
Darwin described this as the struggle for existence
Individuals have natural variations among their inheritable traits
Fast predators capture prey more efficiently
Prey that are faster, better camouflaged or better protected avoid being caught.
Any heritable characteristic that increases an organisms ability to survive and reproduce in its environment is called an adaptation’’
Ability to survive and reproduce in a specific environment is called FITNESS
Fitness is a result of adaptation
Good adaptations allow organisms to survive and are passed on to their offspring.
Good fitness: reproduce
Low fitness: few offspring/extinction
Chromosomal basis of inheritance
Chromosomal Basis of Inheritance
Be familiar with patterns of inheritance for autosomal and sex linked genes
Understand the concept of “Linked Genes”
Understand how traits affected by incomplete dominance and codominance differ from autosomal dominant and autosomal recessive traits
Understand how nondisjunction of chromosomes can lead to disorders.
Linked genes: are those that reside on the same chromosome and tend to be inherited together
Humans have 23 pairs of chromosomes
Autosomal genes reside on the autosomal chromosomes (pairs 1-22)
Sex-linked genes are found on the sex chromosomes
(pair 23, usually on the X)
Autosomal genes are usually represented by a pair of alleles
The phenotype of the gene reflects the dominant or recessive relationship of the alleles.
Most autosomal genetic diseases are autosomal recessive meaning the individual need to be homozygous recessive to exhibit the condition
(example: cystic fibrosis) Production of abnormmaly thick mucus. Leading to the blockage of panreatic duct, intestines and respiratory infection.
Huntington’s disease is an autosomal dominant disorder meaning that is a single Huntingtons allele is inherited, the individual will have the disease.
Some alleles do not show a dominance hierarchy
Incomplete dominance: the phenotype of a heterozygous genotype is intermediate in appearance
Codominance: each allele in the genotype for a particular gene will be expressed in the phenotype
Males and females differ in their sex chromosome combination
(females XX; males XY)
Because the X contains genes and the Y “does not”, inheritance patterns of sex-linked genes vary between the sexes
recessive traits more prevalent in males
Genetic disorders can also occur due to errors in the number of inherited chromosomes
This condition arises through a problem that occurs during meiosis
Although female mammals, including humans, inherit two X chromosomes, one X chromosome in each cell becomes almost completely inactivated during embryonic development.
Barr body
Nondisjunction:
Leads to aneuploidy:
Aneuploidy: is the condition of having less than or more than the normal diploid number of chromosomes, and is the most frequently observed type of cytogenetic abnormality.
Mendelian inheritance has its physical basis in the behavior of chromosomes during sexual life cycles.
Morgan traced a gene to a specific chromosome.
Sex-linked genes have unique patterns of inheritance.
Alterations of chromosome numbers or structure cause some genetic disorders.
Linked genes tend to be inherited together because they are located on the same chromosome.
Independent assortment of chromosomes and crossing over produce genetic variation (recombinants)
Geneticists can use recombination data to map a chromosomes genetic loci.
Chromosomal basis for sex is dependent upon the organism.
Beta oxidation
Beta-oxidation is the catabolic process by which fatty acid molecules are broken down in the cytosol in prokaryotes and in the mitochondria in eukaryotes to generate acetyl-coa, which enters the citric acid cycle, and NADH and FADH2, which are co-enzymes used in the electron transport .
Tryglycerides having one glycerol and three fatty acids .
Glycerol and fatty acids are separated with the help of enzyme lipase .
Free fatty acids can enter into the blood stream for metabolism .
There are two tissues in the body which can not metabolise it are RBCs and Brain(nervous tissue) which do not contain mitochondria.
Step 1:
Once the triglycerides are broken down into glycerol and fatty acids they must be activated before they can enter into the mitochondria and proceed on with beta-oxidation. This is done by Acyl-CoA synthetase to yield fatty acyl-CoA.
After the fatty acid has been acylated it is now ready to enter into the mitochondria.
Step 3:
There are two carrier proteins (Carnitine acyltransferase I and II),
Step 4:
Once inside the mitochondria the fatty acyl-CoA can enter into beta-oxidation
Oxidation: A fatty acyl-CoA is oxidized by Acyl-CoA dehydrogenase to yield a trans alkene. This is done with the aid of an [FAD] prosthetic group.
Hydration:
The trans alkene is then hydrated with the help of Enoyl-CoA hydratase.
The alcohol of the hydroxyacly-CoA is then oxidized by NAD+ to a carbonyl with the help of Hydroxyacyl-CoA dehydrogenase.
Finally acetyl-CoA is cleaved off with the help of Thiolase to yield an Acyl-CoA that is two carbons shorter than before. The cleaved acetyl-CoA can then enter into the TCA and ETC because it is already within the mitochondria.
Conclusions :
Fatty acid β-oxidation is major metabolic pathway that is responsible for the mitochondrial breakdown of long-chain acyl-CoA to acetyl-CoA. This process involves many steps that are regulated at the transcriptional and post-transcriptional level
Structure of muscle contraction
Muscle contraction is the activation of tension-generating sites within muscle fibers.
Muscles are composed of two major protein filaments: a thick filament composed of the protein myosin and a thin filament composed of the protein actin. Muscle contraction occurs when these filaments slide over one another in a series of repetitive events.
Components of muscle contraction:
Sarcomere
Actin
Myosin
Z-bands
I-bands
A-band
H-zone
The thick filaments and the thin filaments within myofibrils overlap in a structured way, forming units called sarcomeres
The 'H zone' is at the centre of the A band of each sarcomere. As shown below, this is the region in which there are only thick filaments, and no thin filaments
Sarcomere Bands :
A-band
A band' is a relatively darker area within the sarcomere that extends along the total length of the thick filaments
The 'I band' is the region between adjacent A bands, in which there are only thin filaments, and no thick filaments.
From all the above disscussion we can say that muscle contraction have some major components like mayosin and actin. Which form the bands on the sarcomere by interdigitating..
Parental care in amphibians and reptiles
Any form of parental behavior that appears likely to increase the fitness of the parent’s offspring.
Parents of some animals go to great lengths to increase their offspring’s survival prospects by protecting them from predators, food shortages, desiccation, and a range of other environmental hazards.
First off all they decide the oviposition site.
Any place where small puddles of still water form can provide a suitable nesting site. Sites range from potholes, tapir tracks, and large leaves to human made ditches, road ruts, and even plastic bowls
Rheobatrachus females brooded tadpoles in their stomachs, and the young emerged from the females
In case of moor frogs, males stay to guard the clutch. They attack anyone who
approaches it! They do not leave the post until tadpoles hatch. Only then, starving fathers
go to land and may eat well.
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