The document outlines various addition reactions to alkenes and alkynes, including addition of HX, H2O, SO4, halogens, and oxidation reactions. It discusses important concepts like Markovnikov's rule, regioselectivity, stereochemistry including anti-Markovnikov additions from hydroboration-oxidation. A variety of methods are covered for converting alkenes and alkynes to alcohols, diols, dihalides, and cleaving carbon-carbon double or triple bonds.

1. Addition Reactions
• Addition Reactions to Alkenes (Section 8.1)
• Markovnikov’s Rule (Section 8.2)
• Stereochemistry of Ionic Addition to Alkenes (Section 8.3)
• H2SO4 Additions to Alkenes (Section 8.4)
• H2O Additions to Alkenes (Section 8.5)
• Oxymercuration/Demurcuration (Section 8.6)
• Hydroboration/Oxidation (Section 8.7)
• Addition of Br2 and Cl2 to Alkenes (Section 8.12)
• Stereochemistry of Dihalide Additions (Section 8.13)
• Halohydrin Formation [Net Addition of X-OH] (Section 8.14)
• Divalent Carbon Compounds: Carbenes (Section 8.15)
• Oxidations of Alkenes (Sections 8.16-8.17)
• Additions to Alkynes (Sections 8.18-8.19)
• Oxidative Cleavage of Alkynes (Section 8.20)
• Applications in Synthesis (Section 8.21)

2. Addition Reactions: Addition to Alkenes
Addition
C C A B A C C B
• Have Already Looked at Addition of H2 (Hydrogenation)
• Will Now Add Additional Reagents to Our Arsenal
 HX (I, Br, Cl)  Br2
 H2SO4  Cl2
 H2O  I2

3. Why Do Additions to Alkenes Work?
• Conversion of π Bond to 2 σ Bonds Typically Energy Favored
• Two σ Bonds Higher Energy than One π + One σ
• Overall Process is thus Typically Exothermic
• π Electrons are Exposed (ABOVE and BELOW sp2 Plane)
• π Bonds Good at Capturing Electrophiles (H+, Lewis Acids, X2)
• Metal Ions With Vacant Orbitals Also Good Electrophiles
• Let’s Look at the Addition Reaction of a Hydrogen Halide

4. Addition Reactions: HX to Alkenes
H Br
C C H Br H Br
• General Order of HX Reactivity:
HI > HBr > HCl > HF
• Usually Dissolved in Solvent (CH3CO2H, CH2Cl2)
• Can be Bubbled Through Solution as a Gas
• Addition of HCl not Generally Useful (Works w/ Silica Gel)

5. Addition Reactions: HBr to Alkenes
H Br
C C H Br H Br
• π Bond (Nucleophile) Protonate  Carbocation Intermediate
• Carbocation Captured by Br¯ (Nucleophile)  HBr Added
• HBr (or other HX) Addition in Two Overall Steps
• H+ and Carbocation are the Respective Electrophiles
• This is a SYMMETRIC Alkene  ASYMMETRIC ALKENES?

6. Markovnikov’s Rule: HBr to Alkenes
Br
HBr
Br
o
CH2Cl2, 0 C
MAJOR MINOR (TRACE)
• 2-Bromopropane is Major Product
• Only Very Small Amount of 1-Bromopropane Observed
• True With Other Alkenes
Br
HBr
Br
o
CH2Cl2, 0 C
MAJOR MINOR (TRACE)

7. Markovnikov’s Rule: Why?
Br
HBr
Br
o
CH2Cl2, 0 C
MAJOR MINOR (TRACE)
• Product Distribution Explained When Looking at Intermediates
• Recall Discussion of Carbocation Stability (2° > 1°)
• Major Product Formed From More Stable C+ Intermediate
H
H
H Br
Less Stable More Stable
Carbocation Carbocation

8. Markovnikov’s Rule: C+ Stability
H
H
H Br
Less Stable More Stable
Carbocation Carbocation
• We Know 2° Carbocations More Stable Than 1°
• Major Product Formed From More Stable C+ Intermediate
• Means TS in 2° Carbocation Pathway Lower in Energy
• Lower Energy of Activation
• Activation Energies in 1° Carbocation Pathways Much Larger

9. Markovnikov’s Rule: Summary
MARKOVNIKOV’S RULE:
In the ionic additions of an unsymmetrical
reagent to a double bond, the positive portion
of the adding reagent attaches itself to a
carbon atom of the double bond so as to yield
the MORE STABLE CARBOCATION as an
INTERMEDIATE Cl
Cl
I I
I Cl
δ δ
Recall Bond Polarization: I Cl
This Addition “Preference” is Called REGIOSELECTIVITY

10. Stereochemistry in Ionic Additions
Br Br
Top Capture
H
H
CH3
H Br
+
CH3 CH3
Bottom Capture H
Br
Br
• Just as We Saw in SN1: C+ Has TWO FACES
• Top and Bottom Attack Give Two Stereochemical Products
• R and S Enantiomers Formed as a Racemic Mixture (50:50)

11. H2SO4 Addition to Alkenes
O
O H O S O
H O S O H O
H H OSO3H
O
C C C C
• Must Add COLD Sulfuric Acid; Form Alkyl Hydrogen Sulfates
• Regioselective Reaction: Obeys Markovnikov’s Rule
• Note Mechanistic Similarities w/ HX Addition to Alkenes

12. Alcohols From Alkyl Hydrogen Sulfates
H OSO3H H OH
H2 O
∆
• HYDROLYSIS Reaction of Alkyl Hydrogen Sulfate
• Simply Heat the Sulfate in Water
• Net Reaction is Markovnikov Addition of H2O to Alkene
• Used in One Industrial Ethanol Making Process

13. Addition of H2O to Alkenes: Hydration
H3 O
C C + HOH
H OH
• HYDRATION Reaction of an Alkene
• Acid Catalyzed Addition of H2O Across Double Bond
• Net Reaction is Markovnikov Addition of H2O to Alkene
• We’ve Seen a Similar Reaction: Acid Catalyzed Dehydration
• Carbocation Rearrangements Possible w/ Dehydration Reactions
What is the MECHANISM for this reaction? Know this!

14. Oxymercuration-Demercuration
OXYMERCURATION:
THF
C C + H2O + Hg(OAc)2
OH HgOAc
DEMERCURATION:
NaOH, NaBH4
OH HgOAc OH H
• Net Reaction: Markovnikov Addition of H2O to Alkene
• Both Reactions Quite Rapid; Alcohol Yields Usually > 90%
• NaBH4: Sodium Borohydride  “H¯” Delivering Agent

15. Oxymercuration-Demercuration (2)
H H H H
H H
Hg(OAc)2 NaOH, NaBH4
C C Pr H Pr H
THF/H2O
Pr H OH HgOAc OH H
Me OH Me OH
HgOAc H
Hg(OAc)2 NaOH, NaBH4
THF/H2O
H H
• Added Benefit of Oxymercuration/Demercuration:
 C+ REARRANGEMENTS Seldomly Observed
 Consider Example Seen on Next Slide

16. Oxymercuration-Demercuration (3)
1. Hg(OAc)2,
THF/H2O
2. NaOH, NaBH4
OH
HgOAc HgOAc
Hg Stabilization
• Would Expect 2° Carbocation to Rearrange to 3°
• Added C+ Stabilization from Hg Atom Prevents Rearrangment
• Useful Hydration Process for Avoiding Skeletal Migrations

17. Hydroboration—Oxidation Reactions
BH3 : THF H2O2, NaOH
(CH3CH2CH2)3B OH
Hydroboration Oxidation
• Hydroboration: Addition of H and B to Alkene
• Neutral Boron has 3 Coordination Sites
 Get Trialkyl Boranes as an Intermediate (Tripropylborane)
• Oxidation: H2O2, NaOH Oxidize to Trialkylborate Ester
• Oxidation Followed by a Hydrolysis, Cleaves Borate Ester
• ANTI-MARKOVNIKOV Product (Good for 1° Alcohols!)

18. Hydroboration—Oxidation Reactions (2)
 We Mentioned anti-Markovnikov Regiochemistry
 Reaction also Proceeds with SYN Stereochemistry
Me
Me
1. BH3 : THF H
2. H2O2, NaOH H
OH
H
H and OH Delivered anti-Markovnikov to the
SAME FACE of the π Bond
Sections 8.8 and 8.9 Deal w/ Mechanistic Aspects. This is
Interesting, but is NOT Testable Material (You May Omit)

19. Addition of Cl2 and Br2 to Alkenes
Cl2 H3CHC CHCH3
H3CHC CHCH3
-9 oC
Cl Cl
Cl2 H3CH2CHC CH2
H3CH2CHC CH2
-9 oC
Cl Cl
Br
Br2 H + Enantiomer
-5 oC H
Br
• Obtain Vicinal Dihalides as Reaction Products
• Want to use a Non-Nucleophilic Solvent (Due to Intermediate)
 Important to Run Reactions in Dark (Avoid Radicals)

20. General Mechanism of Dihalide Addition
Br
Br
Br
-Br- Br
C C
Br
Br
• Intermediate is a BROMONIUM ION (in Br2 Case)
• Nucleophilic Solvents Can Capture (Open) Bromonium Ion
 Bromonium Ion Opening is SN2  Anti Addition of Br2

21. Stereochemistry of Dihalide Additions
• Can Open Symmetric Bromonium Ions at Either Carbon
• Always (for now) Anti (Trans) Addition of X2
• Reaction Products Are Enantiomers
• Racemic Mixtures (50:50) in Symmetric Bromonium Ions
• Will Get Excess of One Enantiomer in Asymmetric Cases
• Stereospecific Reactions: One Stereoiomeric Form of the
Starting Material Reacts in Such a Way to Form a
Specific Stereoisomeric Form of the Product

22. Halohydrin Formation
Br
Br
Br
-Br- -H+ Br
C C
HO
H2O
• Intermediate is Still a BROMONIUM ION (in Br2 Case)
• Nucleophilic Solvents Can Capture (Open) Bromonium Ion
 H2O Opens the Bromonium Ion; Another H2O Deprotonates
 Product is Halohydrin  Net X-OH Addition to Alkene
 Still Can Get Stereoisomeric Products (Open Either End)

23. Divalent Carbon Compounds: Carbenes
Heat or Light
CH2 N N CH2 + N N
Diazomethane Methylene
(A Carbene)
• Common Way of Generating Carbenes (Divalent Carbon)
• Diazomethane: 3 Resonance Structures (Draw Others??)
• Carbenes are Highly Reactive Species; Short-Lived
• Excellent Utility is in the Synthesis of Cyclopropanes
• Let’s Look at Some Reactions Making Use of Carbenes

24. Divalent Carbon Compounds: Carbenes
C C + CH2 C C
C
H2
Cl
KOC(CH3)3
CHCl3 Cl
CH2I2, Zn(Cu)
• Halogen Substituted Carbenes from Haloforms (CHCl3, etc.)
• Last Reaction is Called the “Simmons-Smith” Reaction

25. Oxidation: Syn Dihydroxylation
OH
1. OsO4, pyridine
OH
2. Na2SO3/H2O
Propene 1,2-propanediol
(propylene glycol)
• C=C is Oxidized by OsO4
• Addition of Hydroxyl Groups Proceeds w/ SYN Stereochemistry
• Can Also use KMNO4 (More Powerful, May Cleave Diol)
• If Using KMNO4, Want COLD Reaction Temperatures
• OsO4 is Expensive; Can Use Catalytically if NMO is Added

26. Oxidation: Syn Dihydroxylation (2)
OsO4, 25 oC
Pyridine O O
Os
O O
Osmate Ester
• Syn Addition Due to 5-Centered Transition State
• Transition State Same for KMNO4 Oxidations
• Cleavage of Osmate Ester Does Not Change C-O Stereochem

27. Oxidative Cleavage of Alkenes
O
KMnO4, NaOH
2
H2O, ∆ O
1. KMnO4, NaOH O
+ O C O
∆
2. H3O+
• Diol Believed to be Intermediate in Cleavage Reaction
• Unsubstituted Alkene Carbons Oxidized to Carbon Dioxide
• Monosubstituted Alkene Carbons Oxidized to Carboxylates
• Disubstituted Alkene Carbons Oxidized to Ketones

28. How You May See Oxidative Cleavage
An Unknown Alkene (C8H16) Gives Two
Products When Treated w/ Hot KMnO4:
1. KMnO4, H2O OH
C8H16 NaOH, ∆ +
2. H3O+
O O
The Products are a Carboxylic Acid and a Ketone, So Our Alkene Must Be
Trisubstituted. We Don't Know if it is CIS or TRANS, but we Can Put the
Rest of the Structure Together:
or

29. Ozonolysis of Alkenes
Me Me Me O
1. O3, CH2Cl2, -78 oC O +
2. Zn/HOAc Me H
Et Et
O
Me
1. O3, CH2Cl2, -78 oC H
Me
2. Zn/HOAc
O
• Milder Conditions than Treating w/ KMnO4
• “Workup” w/ Zn/HOAc  Oxidative Cleavage (Ald and Ket)
• Go Through Exceptionally Unstable Intermediate (Ozonide)

30. Dihalide Addition To Alkynes
Me Br Br Br
Br2 Br2
Me Me Me Me
CCl4 CCl4
Br Me Br Br
Me Cl Cl Cl
Cl2 Cl2
Me Me Me Me
CCl4 CCl4
Cl Me Cl Cl
• Addition Reactions, Just as in Alkenes (adds Once or Twice)
• Anti Additions, First Product Usually a Trans Dihaloalkene
• Can Get Relatively Good Trans Dihaloalkene Yields (1 eq X2)

31. Addition of HX to Alkynes
Me Br H Br
HBr HBr Me Me
Me Me
H Me H Br
geminal dihaloalkane
• Addition Reactions, Just as in Alkenes (adds Once or Twice)
• Final Product Typically Geminal Dihaloalkene
• Both Additions Follow Markovnikov’s Rule (explains gem.)
• Alumina Accelerates Reaction Rate (as seen w/ Alkenes)

32. Oxidative Cleavage of Alkynes
O O
1. O3, CH2Cl2,
Me Et +
2. Zn/HOAc
Me OH Et OH
O O
1. O3, CH2Cl2,
i
Pr Ph +
2. Zn/HOAc
i
Pr OH Ph OH
O O
1. KMnO4, NaOH
Me Et +
2. HOAc
Me OH Et OH
• Can Use Either Ozonolysis or KMnO4 as with Alkenes
• Products of the Oxidative Cleavage are Carboxylic Acids

33. Anti-Markovnikov HBr Addition
HBr Br
peroxides
Me Br
HBr
Me H
peroxides
H H
• Addition of Peroxides (ROOR)  ANTI-MARKOVNIKOV
• Goes Through a Radical Mechanism (Chapter 10)
• Right Now Focus on Regiochemistry (Know the Reaction)