Chapter 7: FROM THE RENAISSANCE TO THE DAWN OF SCIENCE Zeitgeist (1350–1700)(1350–1700). IntroductionThis chapter covers the time from the end of the Middle Ages to the dawn of science, a period of over 400 years.Heliocentrism ― the astronomical model in which the planets revolve around the Sun in elliptical orbits. The RenaissanceHumanism helped ignite the historical period known as the Renaissance. The RenaissanceErasmus (1467–1536)Erasmus was one of the first to take full advantage of the power of the printing press and was the first author to enjoy the benefits of a mass market. Figure 7.1 The ReformationsMartin Luther (1483–1546)Luther’s use of the printing press, printing in Latin and German, allowed others to learn of his ideas quickly.The precipitating event for Luther’s revolt was the sale of indulgences, a long-standing practice in the Roman Catholic Church. The ReformationsThe Counter ReformationThe Roman Catholic Church set up a new mechanism, the Index of Prohibited Books. Anyone caught reading or possessing a book on that list could be labeled a heretic.Another mechanism was the establishment of the Roman Inquisition in 1542 by Pope Paul III. The Rise of ScienceNicolaus Copernicus (1473–1543)His only major work, On the Revolutions of the Celestial Spheres, was published in 1543 just before his death.In his book, Copernicus switched the positions of the earth and sun, placing the sun at the center of the universe. Figure 7.2 Figure 7.3 The Rise of ScienceTycho Brahe (1546–1601)His hybrid system was a less radical modification of Ptolemy’s and was, thus, more palatable to astronomers than was copernicus’s. Figure 7.4 Figure 7.5 The Rise of ScienceJohannes Kepler (1571–1630)He disliked Ptolemaic theory because of its complexity, lack of neatness, and dependence on a variety of hypothetical devices (e.g., epicycles, deferents, and equants).He published a book detailing his model the Mysterium Cosmographicum (The Mysteries of the Universe).Kepler took Brahe’s precise observations and interpreted them mathematically. Figure 7.6 The Rise of ScienceGalileo (1564–1642)The book, Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems, was published in 1632. His punishment was house arrest at his home near Florence.While under house arrest, Galileo wrote his last book, Discourses and Mathematical Demonstrations Relating to Two New Sciences. It he covered his life’s work including technologies, the physics of motion, the strength of materials, and acceleration. Photo 7.1 Religious IntoleranceIsaac Newton (1643–1727)His theory of universal gravitation along with his co-discovery of a new kind of mathematics, the calculus, would change physics and science itself forever.De Motu (On Motion), explained the reason why the planets moved as Kepler had described.Within a few years of publishing De Motu, Newton published his greatest scientific work,.

1. Chapter 7:
FROM THE RENAISSANCE TO THE DAWN OF SCIENCE
Zeitgeist (1350–1700)(1350–1700).
IntroductionThis chapter covers the time from the end of the
Middle Ages to the dawn of science, a period of over 400
years.Heliocentrism ― the astronomical model in which the
planets revolve around the Sun in elliptical orbits.
The RenaissanceHumanism helped ignite the historical period
known as the Renaissance.

2. The RenaissanceErasmus (1467–1536)Erasmus was one of the
first to take full advantage of the power of the printing press
and was the first author to enjoy the benefits of a mass market.
Figure 7.1
The ReformationsMartin Luther (1483–1546)Luther’s use of the
printing press, printing in Latin and German, allowed others to
learn of his ideas quickly.The precipitating event for Luther’s
revolt was the sale of indulgences, a long-standing practice in
the Roman Catholic Church.
The ReformationsThe Counter ReformationThe Roman Catholic
Church set up a new mechanism, the Index of Prohibited Books.
Anyone caught reading or possessing a book on that list could
be labeled a heretic.Another mechanism was the establishment
of the Roman Inquisition in 1542 by Pope Paul III.

3. The Rise of ScienceNicolaus Copernicus (1473–1543)His only
major work, On the Revolutions of the Celestial Spheres, was
published in 1543 just before his death.In his book, Copernicus
switched the positions of the earth and sun, placing the sun at
the center of the universe.
Figure 7.2
Figure 7.3
The Rise of ScienceTycho Brahe (1546–1601)His hybrid system
was a less radical modification of Ptolemy’s and was, thus,
more palatable to astronomers than was copernicus’s.

4. Figure 7.4
Figure 7.5
The Rise of ScienceJohannes Kepler (1571–1630)He disliked
Ptolemaic theory because of its complexity, lack of neatness,
and dependence on a variety of hypothetical devices (e.g.,
epicycles, deferents, and equants).He published a book detailing
his model the Mysterium Cosmographicum (The Mysteries of
the Universe).Kepler took Brahe’s precise observations and
interpreted them mathematically.
Figure 7.6
The Rise of ScienceGalileo (1564–1642)The book, Dialogue

5. Concerning the Two Chief World Systems, was published in
1632. His punishment was house arrest at his home near
Florence.While under house arrest, Galileo wrote his last book,
Discourses and Mathematical Demonstrations Relating to Two
New Sciences. It he covered his life’s work including
technologies, the physics of motion, the strength of materials,
and acceleration.
Photo 7.1
Religious IntoleranceIsaac Newton (1643–1727)His theory of
universal gravitation along with his co-discovery of a new kind
of mathematics, the calculus, would change physics and science
itself forever.De Motu (On Motion), explained the reason why
the planets moved as Kepler had described.Within a few years
of publishing De Motu, Newton published his greatest scientific
work, the Principia Mathematica.
While the United States population is moving closer to a
minority majority, statistics show that most areas of the
American news media remain predominantly white and
male. Study the charts that are linked below detailing the
makeup of the news media by race and gender and read the

6. articles about the lack of diversity in the news media. Then
write a critical analysis/response of at least 300 words (you will
probably need to write more) stating how this lack of diversity
could affect:
1. the types of stories that are covered in the news media
(Agenda Setting)
AND2. how news stories are covered by the media (Framing)
Charts to Incorporate in Your Response (You must information
from at least one of these charts, not just the story)
* American Society of Newspaper Editors Diversity
Surveyhttps://www.asne.org/diversity-survey-2018Important:
Click on Detailed Tables on the left side of the page to access
the data charts.
* Radio Television Digital News Association Survey on
Newsroom
DiversityCharts: https://rtdna.org/uploads/files/2018%20RTDN
A%20Newsroom%20Diversity%20Report.pdf
Articles/Audio on Newsroom Diversity to Cite in Your
Response (At least one is required)
https://www.washingtonpost.com/local/an-advocate-for-
diversity-in-the-media-is-still-pressing-for-
representation/2017/11/28/b5af2de0-d456-11e7-b62d-
d9345ced896d_story.html?utm_term=.c8d7c5cece58
https://www.npr.org/sections/codeswitch/2017/05/01/492982066
/the-modern-newsroom-is-stuck-behind-the-gender-and-color-
linehttps://publiceditor.blogs.nytimes.com/2015/06/17/newsroo
m-diversity-why-we-should-care/
Requirements
Focus: You can approach this diversity analysis by
discussing gender, race/ethnicity, or a combination of the two.
Length: 300 words
Sources: At least one example of ACTUAL news coverage
decisions or execution that may have been impacted by a lack of

7. diversity in the news media. You should also use statistics from
the charts that back up your analysis as well as some sort of
relevant information from at least one of the provided articles.
Grading
This assignment is worth 30 points, so make sure to follow the
instructions carefully and include everything requested. Your
grade will be based on:
* your analysis of how diversity impacts what news stories are
told and how they are told
* your ability to read, interpret, and apply the data
* your use of sources -- you must cite information from the
magazine articles provided
* your inclusion of a real-world example to illustrate how
diversity can affect news coverage
I am looking for critical thinking, quantitative/empirical data
that supports your claims, and awareness of journalism's
responsibility to society, in addition to your written
communication skills.
Note: These articles are NOT saying that reporters should
always be the same race or gender as the subject they are
covering, so please don't make that assumption. Also, you are
not addressing WHY there are fewer minorities in journalism.
You are assessing the IMPACT on the coverage and on the
audience.
Submissions will be run through SafeAssign to check for
plagiarism. Plagiarism will result in a zero on the ENTIRE
FINAL EXAM, so make sure you properly attribute all
information.
Unit 4A: Chapter 7 Notes

8. Adapted from History of Psychology: The Making of a Science
(Edward P. Kardas, 2014)
Susanne Nishino, Ph.D. 2013
Chapter 7: From the Renaissance to the Dawn of Science
Zeitgeist 1350 - 1700
• Roman Catholic Church prolonged crisis
• Martin Luther’s defiance of Pope led to Protestant
Reformation, religious wards, later rigorous
Catholic Counter-Reformation
• Resulted in two Europes: Roman Catholic & Protestant
• Ultimately led to increased secularism, decreased role for
papacy in European affairs
• Long-lasting period of colonialism, rise of commerce &
banking, expansion of middle-class,
greater economic & social role for companies & corporations
• By 1700, Enlightenment ideas led to revolutions in United
States & France
• By 17000, Europe & World transformed, philosophy evolved
into modern form and science
emerged as final arbiter of empirical knowledge
• Psychology’s distant origins evident by end of period,
questions raised by philosophers began to
be answered, 1st by physical sciences, later by social scientists

9. Middle Ages to Dawn of Science
• End of Middle Ages to dawn of science 400 years
• Three major historical events
– Renaissance
– Protestant Reformation
– Counter Reformation
• Product of this 400 year period = rise of science
• Astronomers such as Copernicus, Galileo, Tycho Brache, &
Johannes Kepler firmly demolished
ancient geocentric (earth centered) model of universe,
substituted heliocentric model of
universe
• Heliocentrism = astronomical model in which planets revolve
around the Sun in elliptical orbits
• Other sciences & scientists followed
• Isaac Newton studied physics of light, provided theoretical
explanation for gravity the force that
holds planets in orbit
• Rene Descartes resolved own skepticism, Cognito, ergo sum (I
think, therefore I am), went on to
promote thoroughly mechanistic view of animals and dualistic
view of humans

10. • Political writings of John Locke and economic writings of
Adam Smith 1st stirrings of social
sciences
• Philosophy changed
• Questions raised by Descartes & other philosophers remained
questions for 1st psychologists
• Rise of science & philosophy during this period provided
foundation for emergence of scientific
psychology during 19th century.
The Renaissance
• Humanism helped ignite Renaissance
• Growth of cities, commerce, wealthy patrons spread changes
in education, art, & architecture
• Education in classics and gymnastics sought to create
“Renaissance men”
• Artists such as Botticelli, Leonardo, Michelangelo
• Invention of printing press, printed matter cheaply & large
quantities
– Gutenberg movable type printing press 1440
– Humanism’s emphasis on language
– Revolution in communication
– Modern web mostly done on top of template of the printed

11. page
– Printing press more transformative in quantity & type of new
material
Erasmus (1467 – 1536)
• Dutch, Augustinian priest, developed lifelong dislike for
Scholastics & their methods,
contemporary of Martin Luther, refused to leave Catholic
Church
• Influenced by John Colet lecture on Bible as literary text,
realized must learn Greek to
understand original meaning because Greek original language
of New Testament, textual
analysis to understand meaning
• Combined Humanism with theology to publish works on
Christianity
– One of 1st media celebrities, instant success of “The Praise of
Folly” satirizing Roman
Catholic practices & clergy, one of 1st to take advantage of
printing press, 1st author to
enjoy benefits of mass market, rose to prominence because of
literary skills
• Like Augustine believed primary form of religion should be
inward to one’s mind, believed
outward practice of religion series of automatic responses
instead of guide to life
• Produced new translation of Bible, Greek on one side of page,

12. corresponding Latin on the other
side, attempted to create trilingual college (Latin, Greek,
Hebrew), idea to critically examine
older texts to trace historical development of Christian thought
• Life & works representative of Humanism, writings perceived
relationship between god and
humans, sought to understand God through critical analysis of
texts
• Erasmus’s successful application of Humanism’s methods to
biblical scholarship began
revolution in theology, finally put end to methodology of
medieval scholastics
Protestant Reformation & Catholic Counter-Reformation
• Martin Luther ignited, use of printing press, printing in Latin
& German, allowed others to learn
his ideas quickly, Lutheranism only one of several Protestant
denominations that arose during
period, Protestant denominations continue to divide today
• Roman Catholic Counter-Reformation response to Protestant
Reformation, led to armed
conflict, 1000s death, permanent division in Christianity
• Various Protestant Reformations put end to medieval idea of
Western Christiandom
• Led to 1st stirrings of modernism
Martin Luther (1483 – 1546)
• Augustinian monk, precipitating event for Luther’s revolt was
sale of indulgences

13. • October 31, 1517 posted famous 95 Theses on church door
Wittenberg, also printed and widely
distributed in Latin & German, Pope declared him heretic, New
Holy Roman Emperor Charles V
allowed Luther public hearing
• Lutheran Church, most radical change was justification by
faith, preached God’s grace alone
leads to salvation, good works did not ensure salvation, also
allowed clergy to marry
• Power of words spread through medium of printed page
• Reformation inimical to Humanism, many humanists Catholic
clergy, Protestants fell away from
ideals of humanistic free inquiry, early Protestants 1st Christian
fundamentalists, Bible as only
source of knowledge & truth
• Catholic Counter-Reformation through force also rolled back
gains
The Counter Reformation
• Catholic Reformation reacted slowly to disputes between
Roman Catholic Church & new
Protestant denomination
• By 1545 too late to put competing forms of Christianity back
together
• Catholic Church made nominal reforms, created new
mechanism Index of Prohibited Books, list

14. later included scientific works, also establishment of Roman
Inquisition 1542, modeled after
Spanish Inquisition, purpose to root out heretics, soon used
against natural philosopher Galileo
• Bloody religious wars, most famous Thirty Years War
• Eventual religious boundary division of Europe into Protestant
& Roman Catholic, nearly
unchanged until today
The Rise of Science
• In the religious reformations & European religious boundaries
environment, scientists 1st began
to discover & publish facts about the universe
• Importance of Christian setting of Easter date
• By 16th century obvious Julian calendar incorrect, later
Gregorian calendar 1582
Nicolas Copernicus (1473 – 1543)
• Astronomer who refused to work on calendar problem because
believed better knowledge
about actual motions of heavenly bodies needed first
• Spent time working on alternative theory to better explain
positions & motions of sun, moon, six
known planets
• His heliocentric model of universe eventually revolutionary,
sparked beginning of modern
science

15. • Wrote major work 1543, preface explained motive was to
reform liturgical calendar, switched
positions of earth & sun as center of the universe to eliminate
Ptolemy’s need for arbitrary
concepts, substitute system that only required spheres &
spherical motion
• Copernicus’s model implication for other scientists,
astronomer’s eventually realized using
model universe much larger than previously thought, another
implication Aristotle’s physics
wrong because held all matter attracted to center of universe
(earth), if not center of universe
what explained attraction, other empirical issues also led
directly to inquiry into basic nature of
objects, their motion, & their locations
Tycho Brache (1546 – 1601)
• Observed total eclipse of sun, combined with discovery of
tables used to make predictions
• Realized old astronomical tables in error in predicting
planetary conjunction, resolved to
construct new tables bases on careful & precise observation of
the sky, project mapping sky
with new level of precisions
• Confirmed new celestial objects could appear in 8th heaven,
outermost sphere of Ptolemic
universe where Ptolemy theory located fixed stars
• Used astronomical instruments he created to measure locations
of stars & planets with higher

16. level of precision
• Supernova appearance 1572, his measurement revealed in
region of fixed stars, not between
earth and moon, contrary to Ptolemy’s theory, published his
findings
• Fredrick II king of Denmark, 21 years allowed Brahe to make
precise measurement of locations
of stars & planets using quadrants & sextants of his own design
• Also developed procedures for correcting errors due to
atmospheric refraction, conducted
multiple measurements of same star or planet to ensure
reliability of measurement
• Pioneered basic empirical techniques of science
Johannes Kepler (1571 – 1630)
• After advisor and mathematician for Holy Roman Emperor
Rudolf II, Tycho Brache unable to
continue to collect astronomical data
• Employed Kepler as astronomer to help work out mathematical
details of Tychonic model of the
universe that had planets circling the sun, while the sun and
moon circled a still stationary earth
• Early convert to Copernicus’s ideas, mathematics faculty,
duties to prepare astrological
horoscopes & calendars, began to think of how regular shaped
could be nested in a circle with
just points touching circle, possible mathematical model of the
universe

17. • Published book, poor reception, mixing math and physics,
Aristotle long held mathematics as
liberal art and physics as part of natural philosophy, physicists
from Aristotle on had not looked
for underlying evidence to support or explain observations
• One of main changes during era was rise of mathematics as
scientific took, mathematics &
measurement drove early rise of science
• Tycho Brache needed assistant at new observatory in Prague,
hired Kepler, eventually gave
Kepler data he had painstakingly collected about orbit of planet
Mars, eventually all data,
relented & decided to collaborate with Kepler to produce new
set of astronomical tables, died
shortly after
• Kepler realized treasure trove of data, began to analyze
mathematically, breakthrough realized
Earth also planet, that all orbits were elliptical = Kepler’s 1st
Law
• Kepler’s 2nd Law = all planets swept equal areas in equal
times, mathematical relationship
• Kepler’s 3rd Law = square of time required to complete one
orbit proportional to cube of any
planet’s mean distance from sun
• Provided mathematical explanations for physical phenomena
• Took Brache’s precise observations & interpreted them
mathematically

18. • Made his analysis of Copernican model of universe the logical
choice for rational thinkers
• New way of learning about the universe emerging, combined
mathematics & physics
Galileo (1564 – 1642)
• Professor of mathematics, early convert to Copernican model
of universe
• Galileo’s work in mathematics helped elevate as a discipline
• Created improved version of telescope, discovered new
astronomical facts, 1610 using
telescope made scientific discovery of Jupiter four Moons,
discovery of moons on another
planet made Tychonic theory less likely, supported
Copernicus’s theory
• Met with Jesuit astronomers and Lyncean Academy, earliest
scientific learned society
• Book placed on Catholic Index, Church’s attack on
Copernicianism part of larger response to
Reformation, integral part of Counter Reformation
• Improved on sector military instrument, evolved into early
mathematical computing device,
forerunner to slide rule, mechanical calculators, & today’s
electronic devices, science &
measurement linked ever since
• Under house arrest wrote his opus, cemented place in history
as founder of post-Aristotelian

19. physics & new discipline of materials science
• Life’s work included technologies, physics of motion, strength
of materials, acceleration
Borders with Biology: Microbiology
• Technology of telescope when inverted created compound
microscope
• Anthony Leeuwenhoek crafted single lens microscopes, used
to discover bacteria, reported
findings to Royal society
• Robert Hooke replicated & confirmed finding with compound
microscope of his own design
• Hooke’s findings published 1665, 1st publication of Royal
Society
• New instruments had revealed new facts in biology
Religious Intolerance
• 1553 Protestant Inquisition burned Michael Servetus at stake
in Geneva by Calvin
• 1600 Roman Inquisition remanded Giordano Bruno to stake
for heretical views
• Religious intolerance not solely property of one version of
Christianity
• Both Catholics & Protestants highly intolerant of deviations

20. from their versions of orthodoxy
Isaac Newton (1643 – 1727)
• Experiments in calculus, optical theory, gravity, & alchemy
• 1st lectures on optics, admitted into Royal Society
• Attacks by Robert Hooke who did not agree with Newton’s
corpuscular theory of light, Hooke
working on finding mechanism to explain Kepler’s planetary
mechanisms, had idea inverse
square law might be key, wrote Newton, Newton didn’t respond
• Newton’s response to astronomer Edmund Haley on how he
knew orbits elliptical, “I have
calculated it.”
• Study of gravity related to orbital mechanics, gravity never
explained to present day modern
physics
• More fully orbital mechanics with three laws of motion,
Newton’s laws of motion have persisted
until present day, used by scientists and engineers
– Objects at rest stay at rest, objects in motion stay in motion
– Motion & force proportional, force applied will cause motion
in direction of force
– Every action has an equal & opposite reaction
• Newton’s intent to refute Descartes philosophical principles

21. • Attempting to provide mathematical basis for natural
philosophy
• Controversy over claim of priority to discovery of calculus,
Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz also
claimed priority, both invented independently
• Deep interest in religious topics, especially interest in
deciphering secrets in Scripture
• Believed scientific work had helped uncover the presence of
god and his works, never believed
perfect physical scheme as universe could have come to exist
with god
• Bequeathed theories to the world of interest to scientists to
present day, some scientists
attempted to apply Newtonian analyses to human beings
• By 19th century, psychologists inspired by Newton & others
would attempt to search for laws of
behavior
Border With Social Science
• Distant origins of several social sciences, didn’t fully bloom
until 19th century
• Archeology, Anthropology, Political Science, Linguistics
Ideas
• Laws of nature, later psychologists attempt to find laws of
psychophysics & behavior

22. • Mathematics used to express laws
• Measurement, related to mathematics, realized precise
measurements of observations would
provide raw data
• Importance of creating specialized equipment to collect data
beyond power of human senses
• Mechanism = idea that everything has a natural cause
• 17th century innovations would carry forward into psychology
and become part of toolkit
Summary
• Renaissance result of many historical forces
– Humanism
– Growth of cities
– Increases in commerce & population
– Wealthy patrons
– Exploration & colonialism
– Spread of European ideas, technology, & religions
• Erasmus melded Humanism & religion
• Martin Luther gave birth to Protestant Reformation

23. • Periods of war following Reformations permanently divided
into two parts based on religion
• Summary
• 1st stirrings of science during 16th century
– Copernicus new radical view of universe
– Brahe observation equipment and measurement
– Kepler approach to discover rules of intrinsic order God used
to create universe, used
data Brahe had collected , worked out details of geocentric
model
– Galileo use of new instrument telescope to discover new facts
– Royal Society members free discussion of scientific topics,
published results
– Newton, 1st reflecting telescope, publications earth
shattering, 1st time combined data
from observations with mathematical descriptions of the forces
causing them
– Scientific revolution had begun
– In time, psychology, the scientific study of behavior & mental
process would also
become a science

24. Unit 4B: Chapter 8 Notes
Adapted from History of Psychology: The Making of a Science
(Edward P. Kardas, 2014)
Susanne Nishino, Ph.D. 2013
Chapter 8: The Rise of the New Philosophy
Marin Mersenne (1588 – 1648)
• French friar, theologian, & mathematician who played critical
role in development of modern
psychology
• Mersenne’s cell at monastery in Paris played role like the
“invisible college” informal meetings
of early scientists in England before chartering of Royal Society
• Followed Francis Bacon’s recommendations that scientists
should work collaboratively
• Rationalist who helped nurture early days of Enlightenment
Enlightenment
• Enlightenment = the period spanning the midpoints of the 17th
and 18th centuries characterized
by radical changes in thinking about science, politics, and the
arts
• Enlightenment = historical period between Renaissance and
Modernism

25. • Thinkers skeptical about early claims of knowledge from
religion & metaphysics
• Astronomical discoveries that led to heliocentric model of
universe early stimuli for change in
worldview
• Eventually Enlightenment broadened from astronomy to
include all science and gave rise to new
disciplines, including psychology
• Enlightenment thinkers believed human mind capable of
understanding nature in any of its
guises
Rationalism & Empiricism: New Philosophy
• Philosophy’s responses to empirical research of the early
scientists, new intellectual process,
science, inspired by Copernicus and pioneered by Kepler &
Newton soon served as example for
variety of disciplines
• Two new and competing forms of philosophy arose
– Empiricism
– Rationalism
• Both important in issues and creation of the psychology
disciple itself
• Rationalism & Empiricism new philosophy from which
psychology emerged in 19th century

26. • Rationalism = the universe, including physical events, can
only be explained through the action
of human thought
• Empiricism - the view that holds that all knowledge comes
from experience, especially from
sensory experience
• Rene Descartes founder of rationalism, 1st of new
philosophers, writings in mathematics,
physics, & metaphysics influenced generations of philosophers,
led to creation of rationalism,
and later to its oppositional counterpart, empiricism
• Descartes inspired supporters and opposition
• Majority of rationalist philosophers = Continental
philosophers
• Majority of empiricist philosophers = British empiricists
Rene Descartes & Roger Bacon
• Descartes & Francis Bacon in England among first to break
away from Scholasticism & its
methods
• Descartes searched for universal knowledge independent of
sensory observations
• Bacon promoted role of sensory observations in his
philosophy, proposed radical form of
empiricism called induction
• Modern philosophy, and by extension, psychology, is still

27. affected by competing visions
Rene Descartes (1596 – 1650): Rationalism
• Elucidation of basic principles of analytic geometry, showed
problems in geometry could be
solved algebraically, later mathematicians developed x, y, x
coordinate system using his
notation, named Cartesian in his honor
• Sought to explain reflexes by hydraulic model of nerve action,
mechanistic model
• Distinguished between humans and animals by assigning mind
only to humans, animals no
minds behaved only as result of mechanistic principles
• Descartes contribution to mathematics profoundly important to
later development of calculus
by Newton & Leibniz
• Determined to reform natural philosophy or physics
• Explained phenomenon of refraction, would later use
phenomenon to explain his approach to
proper methods of gathering knowledge, Central to later
thinking was that immersed in water
object only looked broken
• Therefore , information presented by the senses was false:
However, mathematically derived
rules explaining phenomena were true
Descartes: New Philosophy

28. • Descartes realized physics needed a firm metaphysical
foundation to explain discordant sensory
& mathematic results
• In Meditations moved into metaphysics and helped found new
philosophy
• Metaphysics = study of first principles and of how knowledge
is acquired
• Breakthrough when realized he was thinking “Cognito, ergo
sum” “I think, therefore I am,”
bedrock foundation of his knowledge
• Proposed radically new classification of knowledge, separate
theology from philosophy and
divided faculties of mind into categories of history,
imagination, & reason
Descartes: Dualism – Mind & Matter
• Then went on to divide world into two parts
– External, physical world = matter
– Internal, immaterial, & independent = human mind
• Matter could be studied mechanistically by measuring size,
shape, position, & motion
• Mind could think, imagine, & sense, operated on ideas and
possessed will that allowed it to seek
pleasure or avoid pain
• Defined one of most persistent modern philosophical questions

29. = the mind-body problem
The Mind-Body Problem & Scientific Progress
• Division of world into mind and body revolutionary
• According to Descartes
– Now physics only concerned with material parts of universe
(e.g. body)
– Mathematics could ultimately explain workings of the
universe beyond all doubt using
minimum of measureable variables
– The mind was where variables such as color, sound, smells, &
tastes originated,
variables highly individualized and could not be explained
• Left with the problem of explaining how body and mind
interacted
• Descartes solution to mind-body problem = interactionism, a
type of dualism
• Believed both mind and body existed and that each affected
the other “. . .body is by nature
always divisible, and the mind is entirely indivisible”
• Descartes interactive dualism claimed pineal gland of brain
locus of where interaction occurred
• His mind-body distinction has lasted until present day

30. • Other philosophers have proposed solutions to mind-body
problem
– Monistic solutions of idealism (either mind or body)
– Materialism
– Dualistic solutions (mind & body) of epiphenomenalism,
occasionalism, parallelism,
double aspectism, and pre-established harmony
Mind-Body Problem: Border with Social Science
• Descartes founder of new philosophy, legacy is vast, inspired
others to complete & refine his
rationalist approach or create new to counter
• Synergy between physics, mathematics, & mind-body problem
advantageous to physical science
• Separation of body from mind meant sciences whose subject
matters could be studied by
measuring primary qualities quickly prospered
• 1st physics, later chemistry developed quickly, could be
profitably studied only by examining
physical universe
• Psychology & social sciences 1st to emerge from moral
philosophy, Descartes saw as concerned
with passions & their control, along with methods of directing
will toward good
• Physics & hard sciences smoother historical past, social
sciences have to cope with both halves
of the problem

31. Francis Bacon (1561 – 1626): Empiricism
• Proposed radically new classification of knowledge, separate
theology from philosophy and
divided faculties of mind into categories of history,
imagination, & reason
• Believed only proper role of theology was to prove existence
of god, philosophies job to
illuminate wonders of god’s creation
• Revived & expanded logical method of induction
• Believed scientists could successfully understand world
through the use of their senses,
however scientific facts could only be obtained if sensory
information was collected properly
• Discounted phenomena that could not be repeated, railed
against imprecise words
• Noted humans inherently biased, proposed methods to control
for biases
• Biases via four idols if not accounted for would lead to
falsehoods derived from observation
– Idols of the Tribe = common human errors in perception,
sensory errors, correctable by
multiple observers or instrumentation, conclusions on small
sample, desire to confirm
preconceived notions

32. – Idols of the Cave = culture & individual differences, families,
schools, religions, gender,
social class, alter perceptions of same observations
– Idols of the Market Place = social interactions &
miscommunications, jargon,
– Idols of the Theatre = competing systems of philosophy,
required viewers to suspend
belief
• Proposed new kind of induction methodology to address
problems of biased observation,
wanted scientists to guarantee accurate results & facts from
observations, facts then would
become reliable databases of science, believed all sciences
could collect reliable data
• Next step to develop tables of how facts were related to each
other, presence, absence, or
degree of common factors, looking for primitive type of
correlation, recognized contradictions in
observations logically important
• Never proposed role of hypothesis, proposed another essential
feature of modern science, the
close collaboration of scientists, idea led to Royal Society
• Divided science into two categories
– Theoretical
– Applied
• Recognized intimate relationship between science &
technology

33. • Ideas contrasted sharply with Descartes, set up long running
conflict between empiricism &
rationalism
English Civil Wars (1642 -1651)
• England, Scotland, Ireland
• Issues of divine right of kinds, religious toleration, civil rights
central
• Greatly affected fortunes of two empiricists
– Thomas Hobbes
– John Locke
The British Empiricists
• Thomas Hobbes
• John Locke
• George Berkley
• David Hume
Thomas Hobbes (1588 – 1679): Materialism
• Disagreed with Descartes on important issue of notion of
separate and incorporeal mind existing
without a physical substrate

34. • Materialist, for everything including god had to possess
physical existence
• Categorically opposed to dualism
• Agree with Descartes that philosophy should proceed from
rationalist precepts
• Believed that motions were the cause of everything including
sensations
• In vision, particles of light hit eye, caused parts of brain to
move, movements of brain not image
constituted perception
• Like Descartes minimized importance of sensory experience
• Greatest contribution analysis of politics, proposed prior to
formation of governments humans
lived in state of nature, hypothetical primordial state, state of
nature relativistic, chaotic, brutish
• Believed in absolute monarchy, only way to escape brutality
was to surrender liberties to
monarch, in turn monarch issue and enforce laws, if monarch
keep governed safe, then social
contract
Hobbes: Relativism & Social Contract
• Relativism = belief that no universal values exist and that
instead values vary by individuals,
groups, or historical era

35. • Social Contract = agreement between the governed and the
government to provide security,
welfare, and laws agreeable to both
• Hobbes 1st instance of social contract, social psychology of
the governed and the government,
John Locke and others would modify & expand
• Hobbes provided mechanism for former royalists to accept
legitimacy of Parliamentary
government
• Social contract theory held that any government in power that
was providing for public’s safety
was legitimate and should be obeyed
• Believed that experimentation useless
• Limited conception of psychology, believed people motivated
more by passion than reason
• Believed thinking was computation, idea prominent today in
artificial intelligence & cognitive
science
John Locke (1632 – 1704)
• Founding members of Royal Society taught Locke to study
nature, exposed to Royal Society
• After read Descartes and met Newton, lifelong friends with
Newton
• Much of American Declaration of Independence words
Lockean

36. • Attempted to bring human understanding into realm of natural
philosophy
• Consciously trying to put together science of psychology,
failed
• Helped transform intellectual landscape of the time
– Argued against Descartes’ notion of innate knowledge,
admitted limited forms of pre-
existing knowledge such as existence of god & geometric
theorems
– Famous metaphor Tabula rasa, the blank slate
– Argued experience would eventually fill and cover slate that
is our mind
– Mind full of ideas, simple ideas from sensation, can be
combined by association into
complex ideas by reflection & memory
Locke: Empiricism & Associationism
• Many philosophers after Locke invoked association-ism as
mechanism for own theories, Ivan
Pavlov early in 20th C. to provide successful mechanistic
account for associationism by work on
conditioned reflex and classical conditioning
• Also discussed differences in primary & secondary qualities
• Primary qualities of objects such as mass, location, movement,
texture, degree of solidity, or

37. qualities of objects themselves
• Secondary properties such as color, taste, smell were acts
perception, could differ from person
to person
• Divided knowledge into three categories
– Intuitive – knowing your own & god’s existence, some
preexistent
– Demonstrative – included theorems of mathematics, still had
to be learned
– Sensitive – largest category, consisted of all ideas that come
to fill the blank slate of
minds
• Unlike Descartes willing to accept less than certain knowledge
and to accept it from the
environment
• Possessed probabilistic view of reality
• Also looked at language, equated words with ideas,
differentiated between particular & abstract
ideas
• Examined how mind classified words and ideas, examined
limits of knowledge, and examined
relationship between reason & faith
• Swept away Scholasticism, countered Descartes rationalism,
prepared ground for empirically
based science of psychology

38. • Since Chomsky-Skinner debate over nature of language,
structure of language, & how learned,
believed best cognitive learning mechanism, most psychologists
today believe language learned
does not follow Locke’s tabula rasa metaphor
• Also published The Second Treatise on Government
• Set forth different understanding from Hobbes on relationship
between people & government
• Locke’s political thinking, people may choose to form
communities and their government, main
difference, Locke believed need not transfer all rights to
government, may transfer some and
keep others to themselves
• Locke’s version of social contract, it is the people who
choose, French & American revolutions
invoked Locke’s political thinking
• Also wrote on religious toleration, also basis of doctrine of
separation of church & state in
American Constitution
• Writings major step forward in soon to emerge science of
psychology
• 1st to clearly link evolving empirical ideas to possibility of
psychological science, rejected
Cartesian model, substituted radical empiricist model
• Later criticism from rationalists & empiricists

39. George Berkeley (1685 – 1753): Idealism
• George Berkley & David Hume early empiricist critics
• Berkley criticized Locke’s division of primary & secondary
quality, provided idealist alternative to
Locke’s ideas
• Idealism = belief that reality lies within an abstract & non-
physical realm accessible only through
introspective analysis
• 1st publication analysis of vision
• Idealist or immaterial philosophy, used idealism to
simultaneously counter Descartes’ dualism,
Hobbes materialism, and Locke’s version of empiricism
Berkeley: Perception
• Wanted to prevent philosophy from degenerating into
skepticism or atheism
• Saw materialist accounts of Descartes, Hobbes, & Locke
inevitably heading in that direction
• Berkeley justified idealism by using god’s mind, required god
as essential component of
philosophy
• Idealism – all that is perceived exists only in mind
• Berkeley attacking dualism & materialistic monism of Hobbes
• Described approach as esse est percipi (to be is to perceive),
only ideas were real, denied

40. existence of anything other than mental constructs
• Primary qualities could not exist, all came through act of
perception
• Through emphasis on perception, moved philosophy closer to
psychology, complete account of
perception still not solved
• Anticipated philosophy of David Hume
David Hume (1711 – 1776)
• Most influential of all British empiricists
• Carried ideas of Locke & Berkeley to logical conclusions,
ended up rejecting metaphysics while
place whole of his philosophy on back of perception
• His philosophy minimized role of rationalism
• Not until Immanuel Kant’s response to Hume that revised &
integrated form of moral
philosophy arose & laid groundwork for creation of early forms
of psychology
• Humes’ system inspired rationalist response, just as
Descartes’ system had inspired earlier
empiricist response
• Two major goals
– Rid philosophy of metaphysics

41. – Improve on empiricism of Locke & Berkeley
– Both goals in service of creating science of human nature, a
science of psychology
• Only partially successful because his radical empiricism left
no room for cognition or innate
behaviors
• Kant’s criticism of Hume led others to more moderate
empiricism & reinstated role of
consciousness & pre-existing mental categories in yet to emerge
science of psychology
• Hume dissatisfied with Locke’s empiricism
• Hume’s philosophy materialistic, no role for god
• Agreed with earlier materialists but added details to
strengthen
• Agreed perception major factor in human understanding,
altered earlier view by adding own
terms & mechanism, such as impression
• Hume’s impressions direct and vivid results of perception,
precursors of ideas
• For Hume, ideas secondary and dimmer residues of
impressions
• Retained Locke’s ideas distinction simple and complex,
complex resulting from combinations of
simpler
• Also retained role of memory, provided three new mechanisms

42. for creation of complex ideas
– Resemblance
– Continuity (resemblance & continuity extension of Locke’s
ideas)
– Cause & effect
• Much like later Gestalt psychologists, held that events similar
to each other would be perceived
as similar, events that followed each other closely in time would
be perceived as belonging
together
• Explanation of cause & effect new and different, gave it most
power, saw it as arising from
perception alone when one idea or event always preceded
another idea or event
• For Hume, every part of human knowledge had to arise from
perception
• Dismissed any idea of ultimate realities not grounded in
perception
• Belief that science of human nature possible, but had limits
• Beliefs might be wrong, while impressions or ideas were never
wrong
• Placed rational though below passions, passions innate, unlike
impressions

43. • Reversal of usual relationship between reason & emotion new
to philosophy
• Believed moral judgments also depended on experience and
had to be learned
• Judgments not product of reason, instead result of pursuit of
pleasure or avoidance of pain
• Argued against Hobbes’s use of self-interest to explain social
behavior, used benevolence
instead, benevolence original part of human nature, led to
justice and social welfare
• Interests more than moral philosophy, also economics, history
of ideas, aesthetics, & religion
• Viewed religion as irrational & pathological, most vehemently
against monotheistic religions
because of intolerance, promotion of irrational beliefs, &
corruption of philosophy
• Hume’s philosophy one of the final wedges that led to
complete separation of science & religion
• Revision of Locke & Berkeley helped lay foundation for
empirical, materialistic, & behavioral
psychology predicated upon primacy of perception
• Foundation seemed faulty & incomplete to rationalists
• Led to Kant’s synthesis of rationalist objections
Immanuel Kant’s Response to Hume
• Foundation seemed faulty & incomplete to rationalists

44. • Led to Kant’s synthesis of rationalist objections, in process
helped add innate & cognitive
principles to still incomplete philosophical foundation of
psychology
• Kant’s response capstone to philosophy of those that followed
& built on Descartes’ rationalistic
philosophy
• Rationalist’s also instrumental in creating science of
psychology
Ideas
• Enlightenment – separation of theology & philosophy finally
parted disciplines, gave birth to
new philosophy
• Descartes’ rationalism sought to explain natural world by
removing doubt of existence, mind-
body plus interactionist solution laid foundation for future
rationalist philosophers, still
unwilling to part with god in philosophy
• Bacon’s empirical methods, Idols among 1st attempts to
ensure reliability & validity for sensory
observations, emphasis on induction, separation of science into
theoretical & applied still
survives
• English Civil Wars showed how state of nature & social
contract could change

45. • British philosophers chose other directions than Descartes to
address same problems
• Hobbes used materialism to dispense of mind-body problem
• Locke posited tabula rasa as powerful empiricist metaphor,
understood did not explain all
behavior, also promoted doctrine of associationism
• Berkeley invoked god in idealism to deal with mind-body
problem
• Hume removed god from philosophy while searching for more
precise understanding of
empiricism, analyses of resemblance, continuity, cause & effect
were seminal, reversed age-old
relationship between emotions & rational thought
Summary
• New Philosophy, earliest Rene Descartes & Francis Bacon
• Descartes interactionist dualist approach, clear statement of
mind-body problem liberated
natural philosophy from classic roots, dualism created
problems, biggest problem who could
non-material entity, the mind, control material body,
explanation reflex action too simplistic &
false
• British empiricists disagreed with Descartes
• Bacon focused on problems surrounding collection of unbiased
data, also 1st to divide science

46. into pure & applied
• Hobbes proposed strictly materialist philosophy, did seminal
work in area of sociology today,
analysis of social contract
• Locke disagreed on origin of knowledge, all knowledge
learned through experience, radical
empiricist, stressed primacy of perception, made allowance for
primary qualities as part of
nature & not learned
• Berkeley proposed completely idealist yet empirical
philosophy, argued everything learned,
primary qualities did not exist, left room for god, mind of god
that created everything humans
perceived
• Hume, most influential empiricist, wanted philosophy free of
metaphysics, no room for god,
wanted to explain everything without resorting to divine
interference, skeptical approach added
mechanisms such as resemblance, contiguity, & cause & effect
that did not require a priori
mental structures, placed emotion above reason, startling
reversal, emotions & passions source
of social behavior